A Surprising Case for the Longer Ending of Mark's Gospel - Page 1

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Warren Gage, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
of Old Testament
 


Rhetorical Criticism v. Textual Criticism

The wealth of manuscriptural witnesses to the New Testament canon and the abundance of secondary textual witnesses in other ancient sources have, nonetheless, failed to permit a confident reconstruction of the complete, original autographa of the New Testament documents. This failure stems from the presence of numerous variant readings within the manuscript traditions.

To arbitrate among the varying manuscript witnesses, we are offered two alternative theories of textual criticism, both problematic. On the one hand, we are presented with a conjectural, albeit scholarly, textual reconstruction, dependent upon a few manuscripts believed to exhibit greater reliability based upon presupposed critical criteria.1 On the other hand, we are proffered a facile compilation of the text based upon a numerical calculation of majority readings, a democratic method that almost uncritically affords equal weight to all manuscripts. Literary attempts to justify majority readings are often anecdotal and unpersuasive. Certainly no comprehensive literary theory has yet been offered to rationalize the majority reading as the preferred textual tradition.

Both theories of textual reconstruction place virtually exclusive reliance upon the evidence of the manuscripts. Clearly, so long as we depend upon the varying manuscript evidence alone, it is unlikely that we will be able to confidently select from among diverse textual traditions.

In this book, we consider one of the more significant textual critical issues, the authenticity of the longer ending of Mark's Gospel. But we depart from the standard method of the textual critic. This work presents the surprising discovery (to these authors, at least) of two lines of literary analysis that offer the promise of a textual reconstruction largely freed from the textual critic's heavy dependence on the manuscript evidence. The two methods of analysis operate respectively upon micro and macro levels within the text.

The first method that we apply to the question of the Markan ending rests upon identification of literary patterns within the text. These literary structures, which we have called "deltaform" patterns, represent a subcategory of the chiasmus figure. We present evidence of a complex series of detailed deltaform patterns throughout the Gospel. Many of these deltaform patterns extend into the disputed text at the end of the book, providing evidence for its authenticity.

Our second method of literary analysis is an argument from the Gospel theme, viewed as an Elijah midrash. The Elijah cycle in I & II Kings consists of six distinct narratives. Within the body of Mark's Gospel, we find allusions to the first five of these six narratives—all except the account of Elijah's translation into heaven. The disputed passage at the end of Mark 16 consummates the Gospel's Elijah theme, describing Christ's ascension into heaven using language drawn from the Septuagint account of Elijah's translation.

Use of literary analysis permits us to address the longstanding textual critical issue of the authenticity of Mark 16:9-20 based on internal evidence grounded in portions of the Gospel that are uniformly regarded as original. We are consequently liberated from dependence on incomplete or inconsistent external evidence of the manuscripts. Surprisingly, our two methods of literary analysis both suggest the authenticity of the longer ending of Mark's Gospel.

I. The Argument >From Literary Structure
Textual Positioning Within Mark's Gospel

A number of striking correspondences connect the beginning and the ending of Mark's Gospel. One of the most telling is the description of Christ's baptism when juxtaposed to the account of His crucifixion. The pattern of verbal links between Mark 1:10-11 and 15:37-39 is truly remarkable. Consider the following chart of verbal correspondences. Words derived from the same Greek root are underlined, and terms that appear thematically related have been italicized:

(1:10-11) "And immediately as He came up out of the water, the heavens were rent, and the Spirit descended upon Him like a dove. And there was a voice from heaven, 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased'"

(15:37-39) "And Jesus cried out with a loud voice, and gave up the spirit. And the veil of the temple was rent in two from top to bottom. And the centurion . . . said, 'Truly this Man was the Son of God'"

While it is conceivable that such a verbal cluster could be coincidental, the random concurrence of words such as "rent," "spirit," voice," and "son" would appear unlikely. On the other hand, the likelihood that these verses represent deliberate patterning is supported by the underlying thematic parallel, since both clusters affirm that Jesus is the divine Son. Moreover, when we consider these verses in light of Christ's teaching in Mark 10:38, wherein the Lord compares His impending crucifixion to a "baptism," the thesis that the evangelist has deliberately juxtaposed these passages becomes conclusive.

But we should also ask whether the verbal and thematic correspondences we have identified support a larger pattern of correspondence. For example, Mark 9:7 contains a similar averment that Jesus is the heavenly Son of God: "and a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is My beloved Son.'" Upon examination we discover that Mark 9:7 is virtually equidistant from Mark 1:10-11 and 15:37-39. Once again the question is posed, is this arrangement of verses the result of deliberate positioning by the evangelist? Consider the same chart with Mark 9:7 as the pivot verse. The numbers in parentheses within each cell represent the number of verses on either side of the pivot verse.2


MARK 9:7 "And there was a cloud that overshadowed them: and a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is My beloved Son. Hear Him!'"

(1:10-11) "And immediately as He came up out of the water, the heavens were rent, and the Spirit descended upon Him like a dove. And there was a voice from heaven, 'You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased" (320-321)

(15:37-39) "And Jesus cried out with a loud voice, and gave up the spirit. And the veil of the temple was rent in two from top to bottom. And the centurion . . . said, 'Truly this Man was the Son of God'" (318-320)

It is noteworthy that each of these passages, occurring at triangular points of the Gospel, contains an affirmation of the heavenly identity of the Son of God. Should we conclude, then, that the Gospel is written in such a fashion that it is aware, so to speak, of its own "geography"? In other words, are verses deliberately positioned so that they reflect meaningfully upon corresponding verses in remote contexts within the pattern? Consider the following example from another crucial verse, this time pivoting upon the question Christ posed to the disciples concerning the popular opinion about His identity.

MARK 8:27 "He asked His disciples, 'Who do men say that I am?'"

(1:24) "I (the demon) know who You are, the Holy One of God!" (288)

(14:61) "Again the high priest asked Him, 'Are You the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?'" (288)

In this instance the immediate context of the pivot verse is the confession of Peter that Jesus is the Messiah of God. But are Mark 1:24 and 14:61 deliberately positioned around the central confession of Peter? Each of the statements concerns the revelation of the identity of Jesus. Flanking the disciple's confession are the affirmation of the demon, namely that Jesus is the Holy One of God, and the query of the high priest, which raises the same question.

Now these thematic correspondences are not exclusive to the beginning and ending of the Gospel. We have noted the presence of several correspondences throughout the Gospel that appear to bear a relation to a central pivot verse. One of the most striking is centered upon Jesus' proclamation of the Great Shema in the temple, recorded in Mark 12:29.

MARK 12:29 "And Jesus answered. . .'Hear O Israel; The Lord our God is One Lord'"

(10:26-27) "'Who (the disciples ask) is able to be saved?' And Jesus . . . said . . . 'With God all things are possible.'" (87‑88)

(14:36) "And He said, 'Abba, Father, all things are possible with You. . . nevertheless not what I will, but what You will." (88)

In both of the corresponded passages, Mark 10:26-27 and 14:36, Jesus asserts the truth that all things are possible with Father God. The second corresponded verse (Mark 14:36) is made to conform to the pivot declaration, which affirms the great unity of the Godhead. The subject of Mark 14:36 is the submission of the will of the Son to the Father. The correspondence affirms the unity of will and purpose between the Father and the Son, despite the struggle of Gethsemane. The Lord God is One Lord.

Deltaform Patterning in Mark's Gospel

We have thus far been examining triangular patterns within the Gospel—instances where Mark has arrayed a pair of corresponding passages at roughly equal distances in either direction from a central pivot verse. Consider now three pairs of corresponding passages, all centered around Mark 11:15. The resulting literary pattern is no longer a simple triangle, but begins to take on the structure of a pyramid, with the pivot verse as the apex. Again, underlining indicates words derived from the same Greek root, italics show words that are thematically related, and the numerals in parentheses in each box show the number of verses removed from Mark 11:15.


MARK 11:15 "And they came to Jerusalem. And he entered the temple and began to cast out those who were buying and selling in the temple, and overturned the tables of the moneychangers and seats of those who were selling doves"

(11:11) "He departed for Bethany with the twelve, since it was already late." (4)

(11:19) "And whenever it became late, they would go out of the city." (4)

(11:3) "'Why are you doing this?'" (12)

(11:28) "'By what authority are You doing these things'" (13)

(6:13-14) "And they were casting out many demons and were anointing with oil many sick and healing them. And King Herod heard of it, for His name had become well known" (236-37)

(16:17-18) "[I]n My name they will cast out demons . . . they will lay hands on the sick, and they will recover" (235-36)

As in the examples in the previous section, the pivot verse (Mark 11:15) sustains a discernible verbal or thematic relationship with each of these supporting pairs of correspondences. The pivot verse opens with Jesus coming into Jerusalem. Conversely, the first pair of corresponding verses (Mark 11:11, 19) each concerns His departure from the city. The pivot verse recounts Jesus' extraordinary conduct in driving merchants from the temple. The temple leaders question Jesus' authority to do these things in Mark 11:28. This parallels Mark 11:3, where Jesus anticipates a similar question about His authority to commandeer a colt for the triumphal entry. Finally, in the pivot verse, Jesus "casts out" the merchants, while the third set of corresponding passages (Mark 6:13-14 & 16:17-18) use the same term in reference to those who "cast out" demons.3 Note that this third set of correspondences reaches into the disputed text at the end of Mark's Gospel. Assuming we have identified a literary structure intended by the evangelist, the extension of the correspondences into the material in Mark 16:9‑20 provides structural evidence for the authenticity of the Gospel's longer ending.

The identification of three sets of correspondences centered around the same pivot verse raises the question of whether more corresponding passages support the pyramidal structure that has begun to emerge. In the chart that follows, we add to the three parallels already identified a number of striking correspondences, both verbal and thematic, which fan out in either direction from Mark 11:15. Several of the parallels are discussed in the text following the chart. Footnotes have been included in other cases where helpful to elaborate on the correspondences.

MARK 11:15 "And they came to Jerusalem. And he entered the temple and began to cast out those who were buying and selling in the temple, and overturned the tables of the moneychangers and seats of those who were selling doves"

(11:11) "He departed for Bethany with the twelve, since it was already late." (4)

(11:19) "And whenever it became late, they would go out of the city." (4)

(11:3) "'Why are you doing this?'" (12)

(11:28) "'By what authority are You doing these things'" (13)

(10:35) "And James and John . . . came up to Him, saying to Him, 'Teacher, we want You to do for us whatever we ask of You.'" (32)

(12:14) "And they came and said to Him, 'Teacher, we know that You are truthful, and defer to no one; for You are not partial to any.'" (32)4

(10:32) "and Jesus was walking on ahead of them; and they were amazed" (35)

(12:17) "And they were amazed at Him." (35)

(10:29-31) "no one . . . has left . . . brothers or . . . children . . . for My sake . . . but that he shall receive a hundred times as much . . . brothers and . . . children . . . . But many who are first, will be last; and the last, first." (36-38)

(12:19-22) "if a man's brother dies . . . and leaves no child, his brother should take the wife, and raise up offspring to his brother. There were seven brothers; and the first took a wife, and died. . . . Last of all the woman died also.'" (37‑40)

(10:19-21) "'You know the commandments,' . . . . And looking at him, Jesus felt a love for him" (46-48)

(12:28-30) "'What commandment is the foremost of all?' . . . 'Hear, O Israel! The Lord our God is one Lord; and you shall love the Lord your God'" (46‑48)

(10:17-18) "'Good Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?' And Jesus said to him, 'Why do you call Me good? No one is good except One, God.'" (49‑50)

(12:32) "'Good, Teacher, You have truly stated that He is One; and there is no one else besides Him'" (50)5

(10:14-15) "But when Jesus saw this, He was indignant and said to them, '. . . Truly I say to you, whoever does not receive the kingdom of God like a child shall not enter it at all." (52‑53)

(12:34) "And when Jesus saw that he had answered intelligently, He said to him, 'You are not far from the kingdom of God.'" (52)

(9:1) "Truly I say to you, there are some of those who are standing here who shall not taste death" (118)

(14:18) "And as they were reclining at the table and eating, Jesus said, 'Truly I say to you that one of you will betray Me" (117)

(8:29) "Peter answered and said to Him, 'Thou art the Christ.'" (128)

(14:29) "But Peter said to Him, 'Even though all may fall away, yet I will not.'" (128)6

(8:18) "Having eyes, do you not see?" (139)

(14:40) "And again He came and found them sleeping, for their eyes were very heavy" (139)7

(7:23) "All these evil things proceed from within and defile the man." (171)

(14:71) "But he (Peter) began to curse and swear, 'I do not know this man you are talking about!'" (170)

(7:9-10) "He was also saying to them, 'You nicely set aside the commandment of God in order to keep your tradition. For Moses said, 'Honor your father and mother'; and, 'He who speaks evil of father or mother, let him be put to death'" (184‑85)

(15:13-14) "And they shouted back, 'Crucify Him!' But Pilate was saying to them, 'Why, what evil has He done?' But they shouted all the more, 'Crucify Him!'" (184-85)

(7:6) "This people honors Me with their lips, but their heart is far away from Me." (188)

(15:17-18) "And they dressed Him up in purple, and after weaving a crown of thorns, they put it on Him; and they began to acclaim Him, 'Hail, King of the Jews!'" (188-89)

(6:29) "And when his (John's) disciples heard about this, they came and took away his body and laid it in a tomb." (221)

(16:3) "And they were saying to one another, 'Who will roll away the stone for us from the entrance of the tomb?'" (221)

(6:16) "But when Herod heard of it, he kept saying, 'John, whom I beheaded, has risen!'" (234)

(16:14) "they (the eleven) had not believed those who had seen Him after He had risen" (232)8

(6:13-14) "And they were casting out many demons and were anointing with oil many sick and healing them. And King Herod heard of it, for His name had become well known" (236-37)

(16:17-18) "[I]n My name they will cast out demons . . . they will lay hands on the sick, and they will recover" (235-36)

(6:12) "And they went out and preached that men should repent." (238)

(16:20) "And they went out and preached everywhere, while the Lord worked with them, and confirmed the word by the signs that followed." (238)

The relationship, if any, between these new parallels and the pivot verse is not as apparent as in the earlier examples. Nevertheless, close examination demonstrates that the evangelist has purposely corresponded the verses in the left hand column with those on the right. In some cases, the intention to juxtapose the corresponding passages is indicated by the concurrence of words that are not natural textual companions. For instance, the connection between Mark 10:29-31 and 12:19‑22 is supported by the appearance in each passage of the words "brother," "child," "first" and "last." One can see why "brother" and "child" would appear in the same passage, since both are terms of family relationship. Similarly, "first" and "last" are natural companions because they are opposites. However, one would not normally expect all four words to be found together. The fact that all four appear in each of these passages supports an inference that the passages have been intentionally linked by the author.

In other cases, the corresponding passages share no key words, but nevertheless exhibit a powerful thematic relationship that evidences intentional parallelism. For instance, in Mark 7:6, Jesus indicts the scribes and the Pharisees with the words of Isaiah: "This people honors Me with their lips, but their heart is far away from Me." The corresponding passage is Mark 15:17-18, where Roman soldiers dress Jesus in purple, crown Him with thorns and acclaim Him, "Hail, King of the Jews!" Their actions conform to the pattern described by Isaiah in the passage quoted in Mark 7:6. They honor Jesus with their lips, but their hearts are far from Him. By juxtaposing these passages, Mark implies a moral equivalence between the scribes and Pharisees on the one hand and the Roman soldiers on the other.

In many cases, the linkage between the corresponding passages is both verbal and thematic. For example, Jesus quotes the law of Moses in Mark 7:9-10, which commands: "He who speaks evil of father or mother, let him be put to death." In Mark 15:13-14, Pilate asks what "evil" Jesus has done, establishing a verbal link to the Mark 7 passage. However, this verbal connection is accompanied by an even stronger thematic connection. The crowd responds to Pilate's question about what evil Jesus has done by shouting, "Crucify Him!"—i.e., "let Him be put to death!"—the same sentiment expressed in the quoted passage from the law of Moses. The point of the correspondence, perhaps, is that the crowd violates the spirit of the Mosaic law when it calls for the death of One who has done no evil.

Similarly, Jesus affirms in Mark 7:23 that evil things proceed from within a "man" and defile him, in contrast to the prevailing view that a man could be defiled by the food he consumed. The corresponding verse is Mark 14:71, which is verbally linked by the key word "man." More compelling than this verbal connection, however, is the thematic parallel between the passages. Peter illustrates Christ's teaching, defiling himself by what proceeds from within, as he curses and swears and falsely denies any knowledge of Jesus.

Of course, some of the correspondences identified in the chart could be the inevitable result of the repetition of language. Given that the Gospel records the burial of both John the Baptist and Jesus, it is not surprising to see the word "tomb" appear in both Mark 6:29 and 16:3. If one looked at these passages in isolation, there would be no necessary implication that the author intended to connect them. However, we may reasonably infer that the evangelist is purposefully connecting the burial of John and that of Jesus where this verbal connection fits perfectly within a larger pattern of correspondences, many of which give strong evidence of intentionality.

As indicated by the numerals at the end of each box, the identified textual parallels appear within the Gospel at roughly equal distances from the pivot verse, Mark 11:15. The resulting pattern is properly part of the chiastic family. However, we have chosen to refer to literary structures of this type as "deltaform patterns" rather than "chiastic patterns" for two reasons. First, we think that the Greek letter "delta," or D, is more representative than "chi" of the pyramidal form of the resulting literary structure. Second, we have observed the same literary phenomenon used extensively in John/Revelation, Luke/Acts and Matthew's Gospel.9 Because we have observed extensive use of this figure in the New Testament, particularly the Gospels, we believe it helpful to begin specifying this particular kind of literary structure rather than appealing to the catch-all term "chiasm." Consequently, we will apply the term "deltaform" to the complex network of pyramidal correspondences that appears to constitute the fabric of the Gospel genre.

Significantly for our purposes, a number of correspondences in this particular deltaform pattern cluster at the end of Mark's Gospel. There are several verbal parallels between Mark 6:12-16 and Mark 16:14-20, and these parallels are arranged so as to constitute part of the supporting structure for the deltaform centered on Mark 11:15. The appearance of this cluster of correspondences within a deltaform pattern provides additional structural support for the authenticity of the longer Markan ending.

Let us now apply this form of analysis to a passage near the end of Mark's Gospel to see if we can locate another deltaform pattern extending into the disputed portion of the text. The following chart sets forth a deltaform pattern that appears to be centered on Mark 15:28. 10

MARK 15:28 "And the scripture was fulfilled which says, 'He was numbered with the transgressors.'"

(15:26) "the superscription of His accusation was "The King of the Jews" (2)

(15:32) "Let Christ the King of Israel descend now from the cross" (4)

(15:22) "Golgotha, which is interpreted, the place of the skull" (6)

(15:34) "'Eli, Eli, lama sabachthani?' which is interpreted, 'My God, My God, why have you forsaken Me?'" (6)

*(15:19) "And they struck Him on the head with a reed" (9)

*(15:36) "And a certain one ran and filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it on a reed" (8)

(15:11) The people ask Pilate to release Barabbas (17)

(15:45) Pilate releases the body of Jesus to Joseph of Arimathea (17)

(15:1) "Now early in the morning the chief priests held a consultation with the elders and scribes" (27)

(16:9) "Now rising early in the morning on the first day of the week" (28)

(14:72) Peter "wept" (28)

(16:10) Jesus' disciples "mourned and wept" (29)

(14:68) Peter denies the testimony of the maiden of the High Priest (32)

(16:11, 14) The disciples reject the testimony of the women (30, 33)

(14:64) "and they (the Chief Priest and the elders) all condemned Him to death" (36)

(16:16) "he that does not believe shall be condemned" (35)

*(14:62) "Jesus said, 'I am. And you shall see the Son of Man sitting on the right hand of Power, and coming in the clouds of heaven'" (38)

*(16:19) "So after the Lord had spoken to them, He was received up into heaven, and sat on the right hand of God" (38)

This deltaform contains some particularly strong verbal correspondences, which we have designated with the use of asterisks. First, the word translated "reed" appears only two times in Mark's Gospel, in Mark 15:19 and 15:36. The fact that these two occurrences appear to line up with other correspondences to support a deltaform pattern provides additional evidence that the correspondences result from deliberate positioning by the evangelist, and are not mere accidental by-products of the repetition of language. A similar phenomenon occurs in Mark 14:62 and 16:19, the first a prophecy that Christ would be seated at the right hand of God and the second showing the fulfillment of that prophecy. Again, these are the only occurrences of this language in the Gospel, and it is telling that they line up with the two occurrences of the word "reed." Significantly, as with the deltaform centered on Mark 11:15, this deltaform pattern extends into the disputed text at the end of Mark's Gospel.

Two questions come to mind at this point. First, how extensive is the pattern of correspondences within the deltaformic structure; that is, why are there apparent intervals between the juxtaposed verses rather than a pattern of continual correspondence throughout? Second, how pervasive is the occurrence of the deltaform structure within the Gospel itself? We are prepared just now to offer only tentative answers to these questions. With respect to the extensiveness of the patterns of correspondence within the deltaformic structures themselves, anyone who wishes to corroborate our work will find that we have presented in this paper only the most apparent verbal and thematic parallels. We suspect that the deltaform parallels will prove quite extensive, particularly once the categories of correspondence are better identified.

Second, the pervasiveness of the deltaform phenomenon is likewise a question we have only begun to address. In an attempt to ascertain a partial answer, we examined chapter nine of the Gospel, which is the central chapter of the book. It appears thus far that the deltaform occurs at regular intervals of two or three verses. We surmise that the deltaform pattern will be found throughout the Gospel, and that its study will contribute much to understanding the apostolic teaching contained within the book.

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© 2002 Warren Austin Gage, J. Randy Beck


1 This method does not solve the problem of variant uncertainty, but instead acknowledges it. For example, the UBS critical edition offers a schedule of "certainty" for variant readings in the textual apparatus. Numerous variant readings are arranged according to four levels of skepticism designated by the letters A through D (i.e., four categories ranging from the most certain to the least certain). This frank presentation of manuscript variance underscores the scientific scholarship of the editors, but it likewise suggests that the critical enterprise is far from reaching a point of conclusive finality. No student of New Testament criticism would seriously entertain the expectation that newly discovered early manuscripts will conform to the critical text.

2 We recognize that verse division is an arbitrary means of measuring the text, but it is at present the means most readily at hand. Clearly, a better means of calibrating the text is desirable, but for now we must use the traditional versification and appeal to the law of averages to even out individual verse disparity. The error margin for measurements from the beginning to the ending of the Gospel, however, when compared to the actual text, has proven to be significantly less than one percent.

3 Thematically, then, Jesus can be viewed as having performed a sort of exorcism on the temple by driving out the moneychangers.

4 James and John in Mark 10:35 request special treatment by Jesus, the privilege of sitting on His right hand and His left in glory, a request that Jesus does not grant. Correspondingly, the Pharisees and the Herodians recognize Jesus' impartiality in Mark 12:14.

5 These verses contain parallel affirmations that God is "One," and that He has no peers. In Mark 10, the rich young man recognizes the goodness of Jesus Himself. The scribe in Mark 12 recognizes the goodness of Jesus' teaching.

6 Peter's penchant for strong affirmations is both a strength and a weakness. He recognizes and proclaims that Jesus is the Christ in Mark 8:29, before any of the other disciples. However, he overestimates his own loyalty in Mark 14:29.

7 In Mark 8:18, Jesus asks the disciples, "Having eyes, do you not see?" In Mark 14:40, the disciples have "eyes," but they do not see because they are asleep.

8 Superstitious Herod is quicker to believe in resurrection than the disciples. He hears of Jesus and thinks that John the Baptist has risen from the dead. The disciples hear that Jesus has been raised from the dead but refuse to believe.

9 In Appendix 2, we include a deltaform pattern from John's Gospel. The pivot verse is John 8:7, part of the adultery pericope, another significant subject of textual critical dispute. The deltaform centered on John 8:7 extends outward from the disputed passage into the surrounding text. The fact that this passage fits neatly into a deltaform pattern grounded in the undisputed portions of the text strongly implies that this account occupies its original position within the text of John's Gospel. Thus, Appendix 2 provides another illustration of the utility of deltaform analysis in addressing textual critical issues.

Employing techniques like those applied in this paper, we have uncovered evidence that John's Gospel and the Revelation are literary companions, written to interact with one another. A similar literary relationship appears to exist between Luke and Acts. We hope to present this evidence in one or more future works.

10 We have tentatively identified the pivot of this deltaform as Mark 15:28. This verse does not appear in many manuscripts and is not included in the critical text. Precise identification of the pivot is not necessarily crucial in order to conclude that a deltaform pattern has been discovered. In any event, there is deltaformic evidence supporting the authenticity of Mark 15:28, which appears to parallel Mark 2:16 as part of a deltaform centered on Mark 9:26-27. See Appendix 1.

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