1810-1824
The Spanish-American independence wars were fought for almost fifteen years in one of the most extensive theaters of operations in modern history. The nature of the revolution, taking place simultaneously in many centers, demanded high mobility and resilience for movements over great distances and across rough terrain, often in appalling weather.
Fearful of social and economic upheaval in the wake of the French occupation of Spain, most independence revolutions began in 1810 in an effort to maintain the colonial status quo. Although at first the issues at stake were unclear because of political uncertainty in Spain, by 1814—with a reactionary king back on the throne in Madrid—it became apparent that full independence of the Spanish colonies would be the only outcome.
Most serious fighting took place after 1815, when the insurgents had learned from earlier setbacks and put their political and military organization on a sounder footing, defining their goals and pursuing them with vigor. Important insurgent victories were won by José de San Martín at Chacabuco (1817) and Maipú (1818) in Chile, and by
Simon Bolívar at Boyacá (1819) in Colombia, Carabobo (1821) in Venezuela, and Junín (1824) in Peru. The decisive victory over the royalists (with nine thousand men) was fought by Bolívar's lieutenant Antonio José de Sucre with six thousand men at Ayacucho in Peru, on December 9, 1824.
Independence fighters often specialized in hit-and-run and guerrilla tactics. High mobility and low population densities imposed severe limits on army size; they usually did not exceed five thousand men. In pitched battles, well-trained infantry tended to be decisive, but the scarcity of good foot soldiers gave cavalry a key role in most engagements.
Lack of provisions and equipment demanded considerable improvisational skills. Mules often replaced horses for cavalry, and knives and lances replaced guns. Compared to battles in contemporary Europe, artillery played a subordinate role. Insurgent officers were as good at improvising as their men since most lacked formal military training, with many rising through the ranks by merit and courage, whereas Spanish royalist officers were often trained according to European military practice and therefore found it hard to succeed in South America.
Armies were important social organizations at the local level. For many fighters, the army guaranteed survival and a livelihood for the female companions and children who often traveled with them. Successful, charismatic commanders often attracted many followers, regardless of the cause for which they fought. Many soldiers and officers switched sides frequently.
The independence wars can also be seen as a series of civil wars, in which each side had representatives from all social levels and national backgrounds. Thousands of foreign adventurers (English, Irish, German, French, and American) joined the insurgents. However, the majority fighting for each side was Spanish-American. From 1811 to 1820, some 43,000 fresh Spanish troops were sent to the colonies, and by 1820, regular Spanish troops in the colonies numbered more than 100,000 men, though most of them were by now Spanish-American natives.
Social and political consequences were far reaching. The wars ended the old colonial social system. The armies boasted a relatively democratic and open regime. In the weak successor states, control over important army units ensured political power and so contributed to frequent military coups and rebellions.
Hans Vogel
