Table
of Contents
1.0
How Vocabulary is Learned Page 3
1.1
What is different about an EFL Learner? Page 4
2.0
What is so special about COBUILD? Page 4
2.1
Other Dictionaries Page 5
3.0
Learning to walk before you Crawl Page 6
3.1
Is COBUILD so Different? Page 6
4.0
Learning is Life Long Page 8
4.1
Learning Word Meanings Page 8
5.0
Corpus Linguistics Page 9
5.1
Concordance Page 9
6.0
Four Strands of a Language Course Page 10
6.1
The Relationship of Vocabulary and Thinking Page 11
6.2
There is more than one way to skin a cat Page 12
Conclusion
Page 13
Bibliography Page 15
Introduction
Sinclair's
new style of presenting lexicographical information is by
offering examples from actual texts as well as omitting
rules or ideas about words that are shown to be in error.
A simple exercise using the COBUILD dictionary in class,
as described by Boyce (in Nation 1994: 191) is only one
step in familiarizing learners with the new format since
they can look up words in their own time. Nation (1994:
v) sees the components of a language-learning course as:
Meeting new Vocabulary, Establishing Vocabulary, Enriching
Vocabulary, Developing Strategies, and Developing Fluency.
The meaningful use of language should be the purpose for
learning vocabulary, not just as an end in itself.
Corpora
are collections of texts that can be analyzed to give teachers
better insight into language use in general or even in specific
fields. As an example, economic organization is described
by animate metaphors reflecting control whereas the market
is often described with inanimate metaphors showing that
it is beyond the expert's grasp (Charteris-Black 2000: 149).
When examined with an expert's eye, the lexical approach
still requires intuition to balance useful and presentable
material with a learner's need. Corpora use is a no 'quick-fix'
(Harwood 2002: 143) solution but does add to a teacher's
arsenal.
1.0
How Vocabulary is learned
Vocabulary
has to be attained and built upon, as a learner needs it
to understand a new language and to communicate thoughts
and ideas to others. Perhaps one does not begin a journey
of learning to increase vocabulary but it soon becomes evident
a language learner requires more and more vocabulary. Cultural
and intellectual development results in knowing a vast amount
of words (Steadman 1937) and lacking them makes a person
look ignorant. The appropriate English has to be learned
to appear knowledgeable or cultured and cultivated. Standard
English is an ideal form used by the best writers and speakers
(Steadman 1937:139) and demands that words easily understood
by the educated are used. The early meaning of a new word
is more general and fits into the mental lexicon over time
by taking its place alongside other words and developing
more restricted meaning (Charteris-Black: personal communication).
1.1
What is different about an EFL Learner?
The
goals of a vocabulary component of a language course are
to increase useable vocabulary size, and for learners to
gain control of a range of vocabulary coping and learning
strategies (Nation 2001: 380). It is an insurmountable task
to learn all the words of English and probably a waste of
time since there are many that may not be needed. Many only
need to be understood and even fewer end-up being used.
Besides the meaning of a word, learners are recommended
by McCarthy & O'Dell (1994:2) to find out what words
are associated, its grammatical characteristics, and how
to pronounce it. Often it is possible to paraphrase when
speaking and make do without the exact word.
The
context of where a word is used helps the reader to guess
what it means and only in certain circumstances is dictionary
consultation required. Associating words together by class,
meaning, or drawing tree diagrams are all ways of aiding
vocabulary development. Dictionaries give more information
about a word than meaning. Synonyms, antonyms, collocation,
pronunciation, stress, usage, and even translation can be
found in certain dictionaries. Dictionaries can be used
for comprehension, production, and learning; different types
excel in different areas, (Nation 2001: 242) and are far
from being all the same.
2.0
What is so special about COBUILD?
One
example of a specialized dictionary is the Collins COBUILD
Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs. Although phrasal verbs are
common in spoken English, foreign language learners may
be more familiar with more formal written words. Phrasal
verbs are comprised of smaller words joined together to
make a new meaning that is not easily known from simply
looking at the words themselves. Over three thousand are
listed in the dictionary, (Sinclair 1989: v) and more than
five and a half thousand meanings are given. A computational
study of the Bank of English adds credibility to the observations
and examples. Although, a computational study of the Bank
of English adds credibility to the observations and examples,
the difference between spoken and written language and other
corpus issues cast doubts on COBUILD'S perfection. Their
Particles Index, at the back of the book, guides learners
in how to deal with given components giving the number of
occurrences for each.
The
COBUILD series flouts its authenticity and makes statements
confidently reminding readers that real English as it is
actually used is quoted from their text collection (Sinclair
1991: vii). It is all very reassuring but just how scientific
is their claim to "pick the most important points"
and "give explanations of the most important, frequent,
and typical points of English" in actuality? By claiming
to have chosen the most important points, it begs the question,
by whose standards, and in fact they admit to "continuing
full scale research" to be "more accurate and
relevant to the needs of teacher and student" (Sinclair
Ibid.). The confession of imperfection may lead one to consider
how different the COBUILD approach is from other designs.
2.1
Other Dictionaries
The
first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary, completed
in 1928, and since revised continuously, is regarded as
the most definitive of all guides to the language, (Winchester
1998: 25). Over half a million words are defined and illustrated
with selected quotations that demonstrate their characteristics
with precision. A word's past nuances are explored through
attention to quotations and its earliest discovered appearance.
Although imperfect, has Collins improved upon this method
or are they merely riding on Oxford's coat tails?
The
concept of "English Dictionary" is relatively
new and traces its origins to 1604 when A Table Alphabetical
…of hard unusual English words of about 2500 entries
was published for "Ladies, gentlewomen or any other
unskillful persons" (Cawdrey quoted in Winchester 1998:84)
to better understand challenging words. Other tombs of the
era concentrated on specialized "choice" words
compiled to impress an audience. A dictionary was needed
that included every English word.
The
OED took seventy years to create and relied on recording
words found in existing dictionaries, read in books, sorted,
and listed. Every word should be there along with sentences
that show how the meanings have changed. The definition
is crucial - defined according to class, differentiated
from other members with uncomplicated words saying what
something is concisely and with elegance (Winchester 1998:151).
Foreign language learners should require no less. The full
extent of the English language needs to be utilized.
3.0
Learning to walk before you crawl
A foreign
language learner cannot be expected to know where to start
if confronted with a massive collection of words. Should
the twelve-volume dictionary be consulted every time an
unknown word is encountered? And is an abundance of information
no better than a lack of it? A learner needs to know the
meaning of a word by developing his/her own mental lexicon
gradually. Perhaps half a million words is too many and
a more concise dictionary will suffice in most cases. The
Concise Oxford Dictionary might be a better comparison to
illuminate Collins' uniqueness.
The
first edition in 1911 gave a large amount of space to common
words and was concerned with the correct use of the word
in terms of the concept or idea for which it stands. Quotations
were meant to establish the definition by appeal to the
reader's own consciousness (found in Sykes 1982: vii). The
sixth edition was modified to allow greater ease of use
and published in 1975. Although extensive changes were made
in the sixth edition, several thousand points were considered
for the seventh. Compactness has been a primary aim while
still giving current meanings of present day words and phrases.
The dictionary sought to describe "educated use of
modern English" but also admits many vulgar or slang
expressions marked as such.
3.1
Is COBUILD so Different?
The
COBUILD English Language Dictionary is not so different
from the OED and actually mentions in its introduction that
it is attempting to be associated with it. Sinclair (1987:
xv) admires the tradition Oxford has in supplying actual
examples from real language use. His main complaint is with
dictionaries for language learners that have devised examples
from thin air to assist with understanding. These made-up
uses have no authority and the well-established practice
of selecting actual instances as examples is therefore returned
to. Computer technology has been used to compile a corpus
by examination of millions of words in texts both spoken
and written. The number of times a usage occurs is counted
and misleading information is contended.
The
computer does not take credit for creating the dictionary
alone. Lexicographers, editors, computer experts, compilers,
and other colleagues contributed to the making of the Collins
dictionary (Sinclair 1987: v). The editing was complex and
involved co-ordination and teamwork. Selections had to be
made and, while not infallible, the Collins breakthrough
is an alternative that has affected vocabulary learning.
It is admitted, though, that the text is sensitive to public
opinion and readers are invited to send in their comments.
Compilers wanted to explain in simple and direct ways and
had many new things to say due to the novel way they were
working (Sinclair 1987: xxi).
It is
all well and good that computers can be used to compile
actual examples of use but is the bad usage mixed in with
the good? How do definitions measure up? Taking a definition
at Random, 'life', is found on page 836 and gives pronunciation
followed by a grammatical explanation of 'lives' before
the definition of "quality which people animals, and
plants have when they are not dead and which objects and
substances do not have" commences. The examples are
authentic, but Webster's "the quality that distinguishes
a vital and functional being from a dead body" (Mish
1994: 672) tells what it is without stating twice what life
is not. Perhaps a learner should consult many sources and
choosing which one is superior is not much different from
answering the question "What is the best way to learn
English?"
4.0
Learning is Life Long
Computers
may not replace teachers but how they teach and what they
teach can be changed by using technology (Egbert & Hanson-Smith
1999: ix). An additional tool to examine language produces
materials that can have an effect on theories, methods,
and influence the syllabus of a class. Besides being able
to compile vast amounts of data, computers used to create
e-mail or text messages have blurred the barriers between
spoken and written English (Johnson in Egbert & Hanson-Smith
1999: 62). Being able to translate one word in a language
to a word in another is mere substitution and does not mean
a new language is learned. Words go together differently
in all languages and their meaning is not taken from a dictionary
in real speech but is negotiated through interaction (Garfinkle
1967 in Holliday 1999: 183).
Another
factor to consider is learning style. Effective learning
can be said to include thinking, doing, watching and feeling
(Soo 1999: 289). Style can be divided into such components
as cultural or individual, cognitive and perceptual and
so on. The teacher is advised to "identify and cater"
to two or three common styles (Soo 1999: 297). Learner Autonomy,
for example, seems to mesh with Western Culture, but may
not suit many learners. Educators may be able to encourage
learners to seek out data for themselves by guiding them
to resources but cannot expect this to work in all cases
(Healey 1999: 392).
4.1
Learning Word Meanings
Brent
(1997:9), by drawing from a paper by Siskind, details many
challenges children face when learning vocabulary. The challenges
involve: Bootstrapping- the inability to use the meaning
in an utterance, Multiple interpretations- non-linguistic
context, Multiword utterances- detection of meaning from
an utterance, Noise- contextual interpretations, and Homonymyn-
words with multiple meanings. Siskind's algorithm is a computer
simulation of learning word meaning and is based on gradual
development suggesting that children may learn more efficiently
with tolerance for ambiguity.
Partial
knowledge of a word gives needed flexibility allowing filtering
of impossible meanings but retention of previous knowledge
and an avenue for expansion of a word's possible use (Siskind
1997: 40). Meaning can be derived from observing common
uses of the word or potential components could be ruled
out as necessary fragments. In addition to these conjectures,
Siskind (1997: 43) believes children apply "principles
of exclusivity" to constrain possible meanings of some
words. Siskind's Figs. 2-6 show the corpus size necessary
for 95% convergence as a function of vocabulary size, referential
uncertainty, Noise rate, Symbol size, and Homonymy rate.
5.0
Corpus linguistics
Corpora
are collections of computer-readable texts that in fact
have become a central part of learner dictionaries published
by Longman, Collins-COBUILD, Oxford University Press, and
Cambridge University Press (Tribble 1997a: 253). Corpus
linguists focus on the results of observations made based
on large data banks of texts. The corpora are used to describe
varieties of language. These linguistic examples and generalizations
can be used to make dictionaries, syllabuses and teaching
material or even by learners themselves to investigate relevant
facts about native speakers' language use (Chapelle 2001:
37).
Corpus
research has other applications in class or for teachers
to see which words go together. Large general corpora are
only available to researchers who have access to powerful
workstation computers but a smaller one, such as COBUILD
on CD-ROM (1995) can be searched using its own software.
Concordances can sort the contexts from the right or left
of a word to help learners develop vocabulary as well as
raise their awareness of grammar. Students can see actual
examples of language used and sorted into manageable chunks.
5.1
Collocation
Word
families may be a better concept to consider rather than
simple memorization of isolated words. The meaning and relation
to other words can be learnt in certain lists, examples
taken from texts, or by playing word games (Decarrico 2001:
288). The type of activity will depend on the stage learners
have reached. Collocations, for example, represent an advanced
type of knowledge and might be better left for higher-level
students.Concordances, for example, represent an advanced
type of knowledge and might be better left for higher-level
students. There are a large number of collocations but a
principled way of managing them has only recently been proposed.
Overused
words in a language class are great targets for corpus activities.
Tribble (1997b: 267) uses the example of 'big' in concordance
with 'problem'. He found that student writing showed 35
instances of 'big' in 494 instances of 'problem' but that
in the MicroConcord corpus it occurs only 3 times in 279
instances of 'problem'. Learners could increase vocabulary
by seeing other words that are possible fits and enrich
a text.
Corpus
studies are incorporated in the Collins COBUILD English
Dictionary (1995) but also in the Dictionary of Selected
Collocations (Hill and Lewis 1997) so that learners or teachers
can find collocations for particular words (Dicarrico 2001:295).
Examination is not at all as simple as it sounds but encourages
close attention to the way words are put together. Simple
translation word for word from a learner's first language
is obviously not possible, but realizing there is a common
expression in English that conveys the same information
may open a new route for learners. Reviewing and reusing
new vocabulary is necessary for all levels of learners (Nation
1990: 45).
6.0
Four Strands of a Language Course
Nation
(2001:2) sees a balanced language course, which consists
of four strands. First, learners should have the opportunity
to learn from comprehensible meaning-focused input since
too many unknown words disrupt learning. Second, Language-focused
learning which means that direct teaching of vocabulary
and direct learning should be involved. Third, meaning focused
output strengthens vocabulary encountered by using it to
convey information. Finally, the fourth strand is fluency
development entailing reuse of known items to increase recognition
in other settings and more natural usage.
Each
word has its own "Learning Burden" (Nation 1990)
level different for each student depending on their compatibility
with the knowledge and patterns already known: The more
difficult a word is to learn, the higher its learning burden.
Three general processes (Nation 2001: 67) may lead to a
word being remembered, including: noticing (through instruction
that there is a need to comprehend or produce), retrieval,
and creative use. Elaborate definitions are more confusing
than helpful since there needs to be decontextualisation
occurring for vocabulary growth. Items need to be retrieved
to strengthen the memory either verbally or in print. Saying
the word in a way different from its use in input also helps
retention if used in a meaningful way.
Zimmerman
(1997:17) hopes vocabulary is given more of a central role
in language learning classrooms since its importance is
apparent but nevertheless neglected by many teachers. She
mentions that Sinclair along with Nattinger, DeCarrico and
Lewis have revived an interest in language description,
emphasized the need for learners to perceive and use patterns
of lexis and collocation, and that larger phrasal units
retrieved from memory facilitates language production. Direct
vocabulary instruction, though, does not account for a significant
amount of words learners acquire since the major proportion
is through learning through context (Paribakht & Wesche
1997: 175). Learners do not expect to learn every word at
once and a gradual increase can be guided with a teacher's
assistance.
6.1
The Relationship of Vocabulary and Thinking
Dictionaries
are linear in that words are organized alphabetically from
'a' to 'z', with similar meanings referenced and connected.
However, the mental lexicon is organized in a much more
complex (Aitchison 1987:11) and perhaps intentionally incomplete
manner. Just as dictionaries are constantly revised and
updated, the contents of person's mind are not constant.
Unknown words and concepts can be added and integrated with
past knowledge. How can more be squeezed in without interfering
with already established connections?
Word
association experiments have shown that clusters of words
relating to the same topic are stored in much the same way.
Pairs and opposites seem matched together and parts of speech
often elicit a word of the same category (nouns conjure
up nouns, verbs; verbs, etc.). Although experiments may
not be a natural test, some types of links between stimulus
and response have been indicated. Four types of links from
most common downwards listed by Jenkins (1970 in Aichison
1987: 74) are Co-ordination, Collocation, Superordination,
and Synonymy. There seems to be plenty of variation among
individuals and re-arrangement, especially at times of change
when learning to read for instance or encountering a new
situation such as becoming an adult.
Alphabetical
organization of dictionaries appears natural but other options
such as in a thesaurus or the arrangement of verbs (Austin
1962:151): verdictives, exercitives, commissives, behabitives,
and expositives, occur. A dictionary need not be from 'a'
to 'z' but could be ordered by classes such as a museum.
No one would suggest putting animals or relics starting
with the same first letter together just for the sake of
it. Seeing words in the mental lexicon in light of the arbitrary
nature of 'b' following 'a' may allow investigation without
applying bias from letter order standards or other conventions
outside of our mind.
6.2
Real-World Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies
There
is a gap between what is taught and what is learned and
not just in language classes. Just as lessons have to be
adapted for different classes, what has worked in the past
has to be flexible enough to cope with the ambiguities to
come. Language learners are identifying how to encode meaning
and accomplish something by following examples and apply
it within a continuum of knowledge (Hatch & Brown 1995:
370). It is all too easy for native speakers to see themselves
as perfect speakers but everyone encounters unknown words
and is in the process of a development.
A model
of essential steps of vocabulary is presented in Hatch &
Brown (1995:373) taken from an analysis done by Brown &
Payne (1994). The strategies include: having sources for
new words, getting a clear image, learning meaning, making
a memory connection, and using the words. Vocabulary building
strategies have been investigated by allowing learners access
to an online dictionary to consult, and recording how they
use it (Chapelle 2001: 145). Computers can be utilized in
the classroom in many ways in addition to merely the building
of a dictionary. Interaction with multimedia helps with
vocabulary retention and reading comprehension (Chapelle
2001: 71).
Conclusion
Sinclair's
claim of developing a new style of presenting lexicographical
information is apparently valid, however many other dictionaries
and researchers are also contributing to the advancement
of word analysis. Many teachers do not allow their learners
to refer to a dictionary in class so the change in learner
dictionaries seems to be only slowly seeping into ESL courses.
Balanced approaches to facilitating vocabulary acquisition
include explicit teaching combined with "appropriate
contexts for incidental learning" (Decarrico 2001:
286). Learners need to be taught a basic vocabulary of two
thousand words plus another thousand as well as strategies.
There is no set number of words learners need to know to
make use of a monolingual dictionary; however Nation (2001:292)
suggests a basic vocabulary of two thousand words or more
is required to understand definitions in a second language.
The
patterns emerging from concordances help organize huge amounts
of language but there is still plenty for the learner to
misunderstand (Sokolik 2001: 482). Learning English is not
an easy task and will not happen overnight no matter how
well organized a dictionary may be. As long as learners
expect immediate success they will meet failure with disappointment.
Learners interested in the opportunity to learn , though,
can be taught vocabulary at any time as long as the "methods
are appropriate to the learner's age, interests, and learning
styles" (Lightbown & Spada 1999: 169). In Korea,
Vocabulary was emphasized for many years but a change towards
being able to speak has lead to a decrease in recognition
and word translation with students now able to verbally
communicate (Hartman 2000). The needs and desires of learners
should be used to shape a course of study but the development
of dictionaries is always a welcome addition.
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