Introduction
When
the language teaching literature is read at a glance,
in last decades, it can be observed that the field
has focused its attention on some studies in Humanistic/Analytic
Psychology, and has been searching for the ways of
effective language teaching models in view of universals
of human cognition and psyche. Also many of the innovative
language teaching methods and approaches have been
benefiting from humanistic psychology. These teaching
methods express the interest in the total person and
not simply the intellect and offer to provide a blend
of the cognitive and affective way of teaching in
EFL/ESL classes.
Many
of the studies on language learning underline the
importance of raising self-esteem and awareness in
our classes, which means that we can not talk about
a successful language class in which the students
feel insecure and discouraged. Haycraft notes (1999)
that teaching English successfully is not just a question
of method. I have observed many classes where teacher's
techniques were superb, but where the students were
reluctant to learn because the teacher was not interested
in them as people, and the lesson developed like the
workings of a machine, functioning in isolation.(P.6)As
Haycraft emphasizes, the best lesson may fail due
to the fact that the personal diversity and needs
are underestimated. Moreover, when we think of a class
in which the audience is willing to participate in,
speak and produce yet they can not break their walls,
Haycraft's picture can be seen so optimistic.
There
are many similarities and differences between adult
and younger learners. Perhaps the greatest difference
is that the former come to class with a long history
of learning experience.(Harmer 1999) Learning experiences
of adults maybe both full of glories and failures
which possibly leads them to anticipate how teaching
and learning should be carried out. It can be said
that most adult learners have a definition of learning.
Also we should recall adults are more nervous of learning
than younger learners are.
When we reorganize the picture of adult classes that
we have reviewed up to now, a need for CTT can be
emphasized : Let's imagine a class where most of the
students have an idea of learning, and bring a great
record of learning experience which is full of success
and failure and where they are nervous of making mistakes
just in front of the beautiful ladies and handsome
gentlemen. One of the most appropriate solution is
that we must lead them to learn about learning itself
so that they can monitor their learning process consciously
and of course, can make some changes in their definition
of learning. This awareness merely itself is a cognitive
therapy since if one can observe her/his own learning
process, s/he also consciously or unconsciously knows
that s/he can learn a language successfully. An awareness
about learning process will both assist learners to
build up their learning strategies effectively and
redefine their values and beliefs on language learning.
ADULT EDUCATION
"If the education is life, then the life
is also education."
Linderman
In the 1950s,the attention on adult education had
researchers to identify the differences between young
and adult learners. In the following decade, educators
reached a consensus on the concept "Andragogy"
(Knowles) referring to adult education. The studies
on adult education can be classified in two main streams
: the scientific stream and the other the artistic
or intuitive/reflective stream ( Knowles 1998:36).
In his book, Throndike notes that the scientific stream
seeks to discover new knowledge through rigorous (and
often not experimental) investigation. On the other
hand, the artistic stream seeks to discover new knowledge
through intuition and the analysis of the experience.
Very similarly to this study, another educational
pioneer, Carl Rogers (1969) distinguished two types
of learning : Cognitive (Meaningless) and Experiential
( Significant). Cognitive learning refers to academic
knowledge while the experiential equates to personal
change and growth. Also Rogers states that all human
beings have a natural ability to learn. The nature
of experiential learning is :
*
Setting a positive climate for learning
* Clarifying the purposes of the learners
* Balancing intellectual and emotional components
of leaning
* Sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but
not dominating
* Organizing and making available learning results
As
the experiential learning suggest a personal change
and development process, it is clearly a mere fact
that learners should feel safe in the classroom. Also
clarifying the purposes of the learners and organizing
and making available learning results can be fulfilled
effectively if this process is linked to learn about
the learning. We will discuss this issue in detail
in CTT class techniques.
In
order to take a closer look at adult education, the
brief summary of Linderman should be underlined, as
follows :
1.
adults are motivated to learn as they experience the
needs and interests that learning will be safe.
2. Adults' orientation to learning is Life-Centered
.
3. Experience is the richest source for adults' learning.
4. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing.
5. Individual differences among people increase with
age.
One
important issue is that most of the studies on pedagogy
and andragogy dichotomize adult versus youth education.
However, Linderman draws a line between adult versus
conventional education.
In a recent theory, Cross (1981) developed the Characteristics
of Adults as Learners
( CAL model). The CAL model integrates the previous
studies on adult learning such as andragogy, experiential
learning and lifespan psychology. The CAL model consists
of two variables, personal and situational. The former
include aging, life phrases, many sort of stages such
as marriage, job changes and retirement. Situational
characteristics include part-time versus full-time
learning, and voluntary versus compulsory learning.
The CAL model of adult learning aims to provide guidelines
for adult instruction programs. The principles are
as follows :
*
Adult learning programs should adapt to the aging
limitations of the participants.
* Adults should be challenged to move to increasingly
advanced stages of personal development.
* Adults should have as much choice as possible in
the availability and organization of learning programs.
Among
all these theories, one can easily anticipate that
one of the major role of an adult education policy
and program is to build up an experience process that
they can reflect upon their own development, and go
through this program by cooperating with other adult
learners.
ADULT
LEARNERS
" The experience
is the adult learners' living textbook."
Linderman
There
are many factors that must be taken into account to
establish a productive learning and teaching situation
in adult classes. However, we should first recall
who an adult learner is. According to Knowles(1976),a
prime characteristics of adultness is the need and
capacity to self-directing (P.182). Also adult learners
have some characteristics which can sometimes make
learning and teaching problematic. In some cases,
unfamiliar teaching patterns and innovative activities
may make them feel uncomfortable since their previous
learning experiences get them to be critical of these
teaching methods. Moreover, many other adult learners
worry that their intellectual powers may be diminishing
with age-they are concerned about keeping their creative
powers alive, maintaining a "sense of generativity"(Williams
and Burden 1997:32). Needless to say, this generativity
is directly related to how much learning has been
going on in adult life before they come to a new learning
experience.(Rogers 1996:54)
As
we have mentioned the problem of self-esteem and inhibition
in adult learners, it will be beneficial to recall
a study to see the other side of the coin: A survey
by Child-Line shows that a sample of 1000 secondary
school pupils were worried more about doing well at
school than anything else in their lives. Children
as young as twelve were worried about university entrance(Fletcher
2000:63) The report concludes:
Examinations
involve a judgement delivered publicly, by others,
of someone's performance. The fear of being judged
is anathema to the sensitive or those with a fragile
self-esteem. Parents and tutors should watch out for
symptoms which suggest possible psychiatric storms
ahead and make every effort to ease the ordeal for
the child or undergraduate.
Whereas the main concern of this article is not the
young learners, it should be considered that adultness
is not a promotion or a medal of maturity. Naturally,
adult learners also go through such educational jungles,
processes, given above and the ones who are more sensitive
or having a fragile self-esteem fulfill their beliefs
and values on learning through those experiences.
This survey is a notable evidence to convince us of
importance of strengthening the self-esteem and encouraging
the personal relations in our classes, whether our
students are very young learners or socially accepted
mature adults.
HOW
ADULTS LEARN
"Self-esteem is
the jet fuel of motivation"
Murray White
A
study by psychologist David Kolb on the question "How
adults learn? " shows that when the adults undertake
to learn something through their own initiative, they
start with a concrete experience. Then they make observations
about the experience, reflect on it and diagnose what
new knowledge or skill they need to acquire in order
to perform more effectively. Then, with the help of
material and human resources, they formulate abstract
concepts and generalizations which they deduce what
to do next. Finally, they test their concepts and
generalizations in new situations, which refers to
the new experiences.
Figure 1 shows the cyclical process of experiential
learning theory :
KOLB'S
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY
