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Name: Jehovah's Witnesses
Founder: Charles
Taze Russell
Date
of Birth: February 16, 1852
Birth
Place: Allegheny, Pennsylvania
Year
Founded: The history of Jehovah's Witnesses begins in 1869, in Allegheny,
Pennsylvania, when Charles Taze Russell began a Bible study which led to this
separate movement. The name "Jehovah's Witnesses" (based on Isaiah 43:10-12)
was not adopted until 1931.
Brief History:
Although Charles Taze Russell was born
to Presbyterian parents, he joined a Congregational Church at the age of
fifteen. Soon, however, he became troubled by certain doctrines such as
predestination and eternal punishment. At the age of seventeen he was a
skeptic and disbelieved the Bible (Hoekema, p.223-24).
"Brought up a Presbyterian, indoctrinated from the Catechism, and being naturally of an inquiring mind, I fell a ready prey to the logic of infidelity, as soon as I began to think for myself. But that which at first threatened to be the utter shipwreck of faith in God and the Bible was, under God's providence, over-ruled for good, and merely wrecked my confidence in human creed and systems of Bible misinterpretations." -Charles Taze Russell (Watchtower magazine, 1916)
His wavering faith was re-established in 1870 after dropping in on a Second Adventist Bible study conducted by Jonas Wendell. Soon after this meeting, Russell organized his own Bible study with a circle of friends who came to regard him as their pastor.
Although Russell believed that
the Second Adventists were "called of God" and he never renounced them (Russell still
maintained his association with the Adventists and credits some preachers with teaching him
much), a miscalculation concerning the Second-Coming of Christ caused
him to re-evaluate
In response, Russell, together with his organized Bible study group, determined that Christ's return would be an invisible or spiritual one. He later wrote a booklet entitled "The Object and Manner of the Lord's Return" to describe his new ideas and views on the issue. When he read similar ideas in N.H. Barbour's The Herald of the Morning, Russell joined him in editing the periodical. Both agreed that the Adventists had been mistaken in awaiting Christ in the flesh. In 1877, Russell and Barbour wrote and published Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World (Hoekema, p.224-25; Penton, p.18-19).
"This book set forth their belief that Christ's second presence began invisibly in the fall of 1874 and thereby commenced a forty-year harvest period. Then, remarkably accurately, they set forth the year 1914 as the end of the Gentile times..." (found in Qualified to Be Ministers, published in 1955 by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society).Charles Taze Russell disassociated himself with Barbour, however, a couple of years later over disagreements of theology. He withdrew from the Herald of the Morning magazine and began publishing his own - Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence - in 1879 (Penton, p.23). This periodical proved influential as around thirty congregations were born in seven states after only one year. In 1881, Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was established as an unincorporated body. Three years later, it was organized as a corporation (Hoekema, p.225). Some consider the birth of the corporation to be the beginning of the Jehovah's Witness movement, which would set the date at December 13, 1884. The purpose of the society as a corporation was as follows:
"the dissemination of Bible truths in various languages by means of the publication of tracts, pamphlets, papers and other religious documents, and by the use of all other lawful means..." (found in Article II of the charter)In 1886 Russell began writing what is now known as the Studies in the Scriptures, a sacred text (Hoekema, p. 225; Penton, p.27). Charles Taze Russell died in October of 1916, leaving Joseph Franklin Rutherford with a solid foundation for the group we now call the Jehovah's Witnesses. It was under Rutherford, in 1931, that the name "Jehovah's Witnesses" was adopted. Russell did not choose a successor, instead Rutherford was elected in spite of opposition (Beckford, p.23). His general acceptance from the group was rocky (many schisms arose), as Rutherford disassociated himself from some of Russell's original ideas and practices (Ibid, p.46). After Rutherford's death in 1942, the previous vice president, Nathan Homer Knorr, rose to the position of president. One of his major accomplishments includes the founding of the Watch Tower Bible School of Gilead in the state of New York. This school is dedicated to equipping missionaries through intense scriptural study and learning evangelistic techniques (Ibid, p.49). Presently, Frederick Franz, who was elected after Knorr's death in 1977, is president of the group. Franz has enjoyed a rather conflict-free tenure in office since his election (Kephart and Zellner, p.285).
Sacred or Revered Texts: The Bible (New World Translation) and the Scripture Studies.
...(N)ot only do we find that people cannot see the divine plan in studying the Bible by itself, but we see, also, that if anyone lays the Scripture Studies aside, even after he has used them, after he has became familiar with them, after he has read them for ten years - if he then lays them aside and ignores them and goes to the Bible alone, though he has understood his Bible for ten years, our experience shows that within two years he goes into darkness. On the other hand, if he had merely read the Scripture Studies with their references and had not read a page of the Bible as such, he would be in the light at the end of two years, because he would have the light of Scriptures. -Charles Taze Russell (The Watchtower, September 15, 1910)
Cult or Sect:
Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts "cult"
and "sect" are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious
Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and
appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious
diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative
concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a
more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the
concepts "cult" and "sect," please visit our
Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will find
additional links to related issues.
Size of Group: The Yearbook of American
& Canadian Churches 1997 marks Jehovah's Witnesses membership at
5.1 million across 232 countries.
The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society also keeps reliable records of their own membership numbers (Stark and Iannaccone, p. 138-9). Their 1997 statistics state that their peak membership count tallied in at 5,599,931. It is important to note that Jehovah's Witnesses count only active publishers in their statistics. Therefore, besides excluding those who are not fervently committed to the group, counting only publishers also usually excludes people under the age of 16. It is, therefore, safe to say that their own statistics are rather conservative (Ibid, p.140).
In addition to boasting a large number of committed members, Jehovah's Witnesses also have an impressive growth rate of currently over 5% per year (Ibid, p.133). Between 1990 and 1994, the total percentage increase in the United States was 64%. This figure pales in comparison to the rate Latin America boasts: 239% (Ibid, p.140).
Jehovah's Witnesses are successful all over the world. They can be found in 232 countries ranging from Albania to Zimbabwe. Interestingly, only 19% of all Jehovah's Witnesses live in the U.S. compared to 20% in Western Europe and 25% in Latin America. In fact, 18 countries exceed U.S. membership rates, including Canada, Mexico, Finland, and New Zealand, to name a few. (Ibid, p. 140).
This globalization leads to a very
racially mixed group. To take the U.S. as an indicator, National Survey of
Religions Identification surveys of 1990 showed the following
results:
Of Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States:
44% White, Non-Hispanic
40% African-American
12% Hispanic-American
4% Asian-American (Ibid, p. 150)
Organization
The headquarters of the Jehovah's Witnesses is located in Brooklyn, New York and is called Bethel, meaning "House of God" (Kephart and Zellner, p. 286). A governing body consisting of 18 men meet there weekly to discuss many sorts of issues. There are also 5 committees - the Service Committee, Writing Committee, Publishing Committee, Teaching Committee, and the Chairman's Committee - which aid the governing body in decision making. Below the committees are the district and circuit overseers who accompany Witnesses to home meetings and visit congregations twice a year (Kephart and Zellner, p.286). Congregations meet five times a week in what they call Kingdom Halls. Elders, or overseers, lead the congregations voluntarily. Members of Jehovah's Witnesses are considered to be either Publishers or Pioneers (see Glossary below).
Across the globe, 100 branch offices participate in printing and mailing literature for the Jehovah's Witnesses. This includes Bibles, many different pamphlets, and two magazines which are published semi-monthly entitled Watchtower and Awake! (Kephart and Zellner, p.287).
Aside from the money earned from selling publications, the Watch Tower and Bible Tract Society finances itself through self-imposed tithes. Charles Russell explained it in 1914:
"We have no church organization in the ordinary sense of the word, no bondage of any kind, no obligation to pay, either to the parent society or anybody else, either ten percent or any other sum...No solicitations for money in any way are authorized by the society...Every amount therefore, that has come into our hands, and been used, has been a voluntary donation from a willing heart..." (from Kephart and Zellner, p.290).
The principal self-defining characteristics of Jehovah's Witnesses, according to Beckford, are: learning the official doctrines, showing willingness to proselytize actively, participating in all congregational meetings, and being baptized into the Watch Tower faith (Beckford, p.70).
The 5 meetings they should attend each week are as follows:
Other practices particular to Jehovah's Witnesses are the refusal to: salute a nation's flag, serve in a nation's military, vote, receive a blood transfusion, and the prohibition of smoking (Stark and Iannaccone).
Although Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs come from the Protestant and Adventist tradition, they do hold many beliefs that set themselves apart. The following are some key beliefs that make them different:
(Beckford, p. 4-6, 113; Botting, p. 5-32, 187-194; Kephart and Zellner, p.291-98; Stark and Iannaccone, p.135-6; Watchtower: Official Web Site of Jehovah's Witnesses; Religious Tolerance Page)
Jehovah's Witnesses are the most fervently attacked new religious group today. They are heavily criticized on the Internet. Counter-cultists, have taken the lead on this attack. In addition, many former group members have published books or created web sites that share a negative perspective on the Jehovah's Witnesses. Because this group does have such a large following, it is not surprising that they would be heavily attacked. Studies show that the larger and more controversial the group, the greater the tension between them and society. Also, the more people who belong to a group, the more people there will be who may denounce the faith and become active apostates - apostates who crowd the web proclaiming the evils of the group to which they once adhered to. In this sense, it seems natural that the Jehovah's Witnesses would be so heavily criticized. At the same time, however, the intensity of attack is still alarming. Main issues which cause criticism include failed prophecies, blood transfusions, and nationalism.
Effects of Failed Prophecies from a Sociological Perspective.
"God told Noah that every living creature should be meat unto him; but that he must not eat the blood, because the life is in the blood."Jehovah's Witnesses consider blood transfusions to be "eating blood." Because of this interpretation, many people have chosen to die rather than recieve one. Also, criticism has risen against parents who refuse transfusions for their children.
Jehovah's Witnesses have had more cases go to the Supreme Court than any other group, making them lead challengers of the interpretation of the First Amendment religion clause. Between the years of 1938 and 1955, forty-five U.S. Supreme Court cases were held involving the group. Interestingly enough, the Jehovah's Witnesses won thirty-six of those.Two particular issues that have generated much criticism are blood transfusions and pledging allegiance to something other than Jehovah. As noted above, Jehovah's Witnesses refuse to do both. Courts have dealt with both of these issues, among others.
In 1940, the Minersville School District v. Gobitis case upheld the school's decision to expel two elementary school students because they didn't salute the flag. The basis of the decision lay in the desire to create national unity.
In 1943, however, this decision was reversed in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette case. The court ruled that forcing students to salute the flag was a violation of their rights.
Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940)
Jones v. Opelika I (1942)
Jones v. Opelika II (1943)
Murdock v. Pennsylvania (1943)
Cox v. New Hampshire (1941)
Prince v. Massachusetts (1944)
People v. Labrenz (Illinois, 1952)
A case in which the Superior Court of Illinois ruled that the parents of seven-day old Cheryl Labrenz could not jeopardize their child's life because of their religious beliefs.Powell v. Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center (Sup. Ct. 1965)"Parents may be free to become martyrs themselves. It does not follow, however, that they are free in identical circumstances to make martyrs of their children before they have reached an age of full and legal discretion, when they can make that choice for themselves. Laws, while they cannot interfere with religious belief and opinion, may be constitutionally appropriate for interferring with religious practices." (Cumberland in Caring and Curing, p.475).
United States v. George (1965)
Jehovah's Witnesses v. Kings County Hospital (1967)
John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital v. Heston (1972)
Jehovah's Witnesses have a redistributable book entitled Glossary of American English Hacker Theocratese, which is dedicated to the language that Jehovah's Witnesses use in their daily lives within the United States of America.
Search the Internet for information on Jehovah's Witnesses and you will come up with over twelve thousand sites. Indeed, the amount of information is overwhelming. Here are just a few sites to get you started.
Jehovah's Witnesses United
This is a very valuable page for many reasons, including gaining an understanding about the distinctive theological beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses. When the World Wide Web exploded in the mid-1990s, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses discouraged members from creating pages. This didn't keep members from doing so. This is an information packed page and a good example of why the leadership should not have discouraged the development of pages by members.
http://jehovah.to/
Jehovah's Witnesses
The is the authorized site of the Public Affairs Office of Jehovah's Witnesses. It provides media information.
http://www.jw-media.org/
About.com on Jehovah's Witnesses
About.com is a vast commercial site with information on thousands of topics. This Jehovah's Witnesses page offers significant resources that are not available on most other sites including links to the text of Supreme Court cases involving JWs.
http://witnesses.about.com/culture/witnesses/
Witnesses.net: Jehovah's Witnesses On Line
This page is a large niche site geared to Jehovah's Witnesses. They carry a world-wide daily news summary of JWs as well as headline stories of secular news. There are many types of discussion forums.
http://witnesses.net/
Watchtower Observer
This page is self-described as the "Official
Ex-Jehovah's Witness Page." Maintained by Kent Steinhaughs, a former
Jehovah's Witness from Norway, it uses
Jehovah's Witness literature to invalidate the legitimacy of the group's
beliefs. Information on medical issues, doctrine, history, and
Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich can be accessed from this site.
In addition, hundreds of links are found on this site, including some
in foreign languages.
http://watchtower.observer.org
Religious Tolerance
Page
Officially, this page is entitled "Ontario Consultants on
Religious Tolerance".The religious tolerance page neither promotes a
specific
viewpoint nor attacks religious beliefs. Information
on many religious groups is given, but this link will get you
straight to the section allotted to Jehovah's Witnesses. They
provide information on Jehovah's Witnesses' history, beliefs,
texts, practices, organization, and opposition. In addition, links
to other web-sites are given.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/witness.htm
Watchman Fellowship,
Inc.
Watchman Fellowship, Inc. provides a site dedicated to presenting
Christian responses to cults, sects, and new religious movements. The
organization also publishes a journal entitled The Watchman
Expositor, which is available on-line and contains articles concerning
non-traditional religious groups, including Jehovah's Witnesses.
Rick Branch offers a profile of Jehovah's Witnesses about their beliefs,
history, publications, and so forth. He also adds Biblical references
meant to discredit much of Jehovah's Witnesses theology.
It is also has links telling you what hard-copy resources, in their
opinion, are valuable to get your hands on.
http://www.watchman.org/jwpro.htm
"Facts About the Jehovah's Witnesses"
This is a page of the Institute for Religious Research, a major counter-cult organization.
The content of this page is devoted to refuting the theological teachings of Jehovah's
Witness. It also challenges the integrity of the leadership.
http://www.irr.org/jwfacten.html
All Along the
Watchtower
A counter cult site full of links to articles, books, JW home pages, and
more. Topics include Blood, Watch Tower and Hitler, Prophetic Dates, and
Frequently Asked Questions, to name a few. It is maintained by Jan
Haugland who lives in Norway and is studying Religion at the University
of Bergen.
http://home.sol.no/~jansh/wteng/jwindex.html
Watchers of the Watch Tower
World
Free Minds, Inc. (a non-profit, educational organization) maintains this
web site. The founder of Free Minds, Inc., Randall Watters, was a
Jehovah's Witness for eight years before leaving the group and becoming a
Christian. He served as a pastor for some time, but now focuses on
exit counseling and educating people about cults. He outlines
characteristics of cult recruitment, programming, and retention and then
lays out some general topics, such as doctrine and history, and
provides links to specific articles concerning those ideas.
Watters has written most, if not all, of these articles. He
also offers many links to similar types of sites.
http://www.freeminds.org/index.htm
Rick Ross on Jehovah's
Witnesses
Rick Ross, "Cult Expert and Intervention Specialist", is owner of this
page. Ross plays an active role in "deprogramming"
individuals involved in, what he would call, destructive and unsafe cults or groups.
His web-page includes many articles from different publications from
around the world. These articles, dealing with numerous groups and
issues, make up the majority of the page. Some of these article are
written by Ross, but most are not. Ross is not shy in sharing
his credentials and accomplishments - i.e. what television programs he has
been on and which publications have quoted him. Other information is
given about him, in the form of a biography and newspaper articles, as
well. His Frequently Asked Questions section covers the definition of a cult, which
will lead you into his pages on over 100 groups.
http://www.rickross.com/groups/witness.htm
indicates a counter-cult or anti-cult
site
Counter-Cult References
Created by Julia Neubauer
For Soc 257: New Religious Movements
Spring Term, 1998
Last modified: 10/13/01