Back to Chapter2 On to Chapter 4

I am dividing these into two groups; although any division is rather arbitrary, for all were closely interlinked as the Quaker movement developed. I have been selective

rather than inclusive; there are plenty of others whom I might have added.

George Fox .

John Camm, John Audland and their wives .

Francis Howgill and Edward Burrough .

James Nayler .

Margaret Fell (Fox) .

The main reason I have grouped these together is that they all stemmed from or were closely connected with the movement in 1651/2 at Swarthmoor. Their main contribution was the establishment and development of Quakerism through their preaching. ("Preaching" in those days did not just refer to preaching in churches, but also to speaking in informal meetings)

Isaac Penington .

William Penn .

Robert Barclay .

These three were all highly educated and came from aristocratic backgrounds. They exemplify the wide variety of people who were attracted to Quakerism and were its strength in the l7th century. There may have been differences of educational and social upbringing, but all brought to Quakerism thoughtful and independent minds, coupled with a deep sense of religious conviction.

What the three in this second group share in particular is their scholarly and literary ability; each left works which can be described as "Quaker Classics":

William Penn " No Cross no Crown"

Robert Barclay " The Apology"

Isaac Penington " The Inward Journey".

These works are not easy to read and only a very small minority of modern Friends will have fully read them (I am one of the large majority who hasn't!). So a useful contribution to their understanding has been made by the publication of extracts of these three works in one paperback entitled "Quaker Classics in Brief"; this also has useful introductions.

GEORGE FOX

I have to begin with Fox, because he was without doubt the dominant figure among l7th century Quakers. There has been a great deal written about him, so much so that I have met many Quakers, especially the young, who feel they have heard quite enough about him. If you do not know much about him and wish to know more, I suggest beginning with one of the shorter accounts of his life and message (e.g. one by Philip Wragge) to add to what may be found in the various histories of Quakerism.

He was undoubtedly a remarkable and complete person. In spite of the ruggedness of his personality, he was someone with considerable charm and with a capacity for attracting the most unlikely people (including such as some of his jailers, who were notably pretty tough men!). In modern terms we should say that he had a very pronounced charisma.

He was a visionary with well developed psychic powers and there is good evidence that he had the capability of a healer. Still, on top of all this, he was a very human person, very much "of this world". He was of considerable physical stature, powerful and possessing great endurance and courage; he suffered imprisonment eight times, some in very bad conditions, which he survived. He was an excellent organiser, the best example of which is the way in which, after his imprisonment in Scarborough in 1666, he established the various types of Meeting in the Society, putting it on a sound and lasting basis.

His life, 1624 to 1691, spanned the whole of the Civil War. In common with some other leading Quakers he met Oliver Cromwell and impressed him considerably. He resolutely refused to get involved with military activities, although the Parliament Army would gladly have had him as an officer. So, when after the Restoration he was arraigned for refusing to take the Oath of Allegiance, he was able to maintain that he had never taken up arms against the King.

Like so many religious leaders of his time, he wrote much. Among his best known writings are his "Epistles" (an excellent introduction to these is the modern selection by Cecil Sharndan, entitled "No More but my Love") and the famous Journal. This is not journal in the sense of a contemporary record of day-to-day events, but an autobiography which was written and edited in later life. Fox spent part of his time during his final imprisonment in Worcester (1673-5) dictating his Journal

George Fox was no "Saint" (in the ecclesiastical sense); to suggest that he was does him a disservice, for it encourages his detractors to point out his human failings. He was a man of his time and some of his utterances and his threats against ill-doers strike harshly on modern ears. But he was a very interesting and influential person; he was indeed the Founder of Quakerism and played an important role in the l7th century history of religious thought and action.

JOHN CAMM, JOHN AUDLAND and their wives MARY and ANN.

I doubt whether these names are known outside Quakers (and at the present time very little among them). I have included them as a reminder that so much of the early work of Quakerism was done by ordinary men and women - if indeed "ordinary" is an appropriate word to use!

These two families provide a good instance of the indefatigable missionary work which was done by "non-professional" people. Camm and Audland were both of the original "Westmorland Seekers" both of the farming community. They were among those who went south after 1652. In 1655-56 Camm and Audland were conducting a very successful campaign in Bristol, at the same time that their wives were spreading Quakerism in Banbury. Both Mary Camm and Ann Audland were arrested there. Mary was released and rejoined her husband; Ann, however, was arraigned on a blasphemy charge. Though acquitted of this, she refused to give a bond of good behaviour and suffered imprisonment in very squalid conditions.

It is clear that Quaker steadfastness (or obstinacy, as some might say!) was not confined to men.

FRANCIS HOWGILL and EDWARD BURROUGH.

I am treating these two together, because so much of their work was done in close companionship and because they provide a striking example of the travelling Quaker preachers who originally came from the North West, notably Westmorland.

Francis Howgill was born in 1618 (six years before Fox) in a farming community and also took on the trade of a tailor; probably he was more or less financially independent before he became actively involved in Quaker work.

He was a serious minded boy; critics would say "puritanical". He was subject to religious depression and, as a teenager, was already trying to find out which. if any, of the established or dissenting denominations would satisfy his condition. None of them did and his religious experience was very similar to that of George Fox. Consequently, it was only to be expected that, when he heard Fox preach at Firbank Fell (near Sedbergh) in 1652, he found that the Quaker message was exactly what he had been waiting for.

He was soon in conflict with the authorities and was imprisoned in Appleby for five or six months. After his release he joined with Edward Burrough, then only 19 years old, with whom he formed a close and life-long friendship. Their first work was in London, where they were responsible for establishing Quakerism. During this period, Howgill, as well as other Friends, made a direct approach to Cromwell, both by visit and by letter, appealing to him to consider the injustices which were being inflicted on so many men and women. He and Burrough worked also in Bristol and in Ireland.

Finally, he was arrested in Appleby and was imprisoned there for some years. His stay in prison was not unproductive; many people visited him there, family, friends, and some who, though not in sympathy with Quakers, valued his friendship and sought his advice. He died in prison in 1668.

Edward Burrough's life was closely parallel to Howgill's. Born in 1634, he came from Underbarrow (near Kendal) and as a teenager he also began to think seriously about religion. At the age of 19 he associated himself completely with Quakerism. largely influenced by Fox, and was consequently rejected by his family. He formed his close friendship with Howgill who was l6 years older.

In spite of his comparative youth, he took a leading part in the establishment and spread of Quakerism, especially in London, but also in Bristol and in Ireland. Some have considered him to have been a sort of second in command to Fox. In 1661, he had an interview with Charles II whom he persuaded to intervene on behalf of the Quakers in Boston (U.S.A.) and to stay the persecution there. He was one of the leading Quakers imprisoned in the l660's and finally died in Newgate prison in l663.

JAMES NAYLER.

James Nayler was already one of the group at Swarthmoor Hall when Fox first visited there and he helped to persuade Judge Fell to welcome Fox. He was a deeply religious man, who had been a soldier in Cromwell's army but after joining Fox he turned to full time preaching. He was a man of considerable presence and in 1656, when Fox was imprisoned in Launceston, he assumed the leadership of Friends in London. Unfortunately, at this time he suffered from a psychological state, which could be termed a form of religious mania, and he allowed himself to be unwisely influenced by adulatory admirers.

The culmination of his aberration was a "Triumphal Entry" into Bristol, modelled on Jesus' entry into Jerusalem. Inevitably this caused Nayler to be arraigned on a Blasphemy charge. In fact, Nayler made no claim to be Christ. The action was rather a dramatic representation of the Quaker message that "Christ had come to teach his people himself"; it was a "prophetic" assertion, rather in line with the acted preaching of the Old Testament prophets. Nayler suffered brutal physical punishment, followed by imprisonment. He became alienated from Fox and many other Friends, because his action did damage to the Quaker movement which might have been irreparable. After his release from prison, he became reconciled to Friends. Today, he is best remembered for a personal statement, made shortly before his death in 1660, which remains one of the most beautiful and moving passages in Quaker literature. It says in part:

"There is a spirit which I feel that delights to do no evil, nor to revenge any wrong, but delights to endure all things..... Its hope is to outlive all wrath and contention, and to weary out all exaltation and cruelty, or whatever is of a nature contrary to itself...... As it bears no evil in itself, so it conceives none in thoughts to any other....."

MARGARET FELL later MARGARET FOX

Margaret Fell played an indispensable part in the growth and survival of Quakerism. Her influence and activity centred on her home at Swarthmoor Hall. Supported during the early days of Quakerism by her husband, Judge Fell, she provided free use of the Hall for meetings and as a base over many years for those who were involved in travelling preaching.

After Judge Fell's death in 1658, she continued to give unabated help to Friends, as well as bringing up her family. As soon as Charles II came to the throne, she took the opportunity to visit him. She reminded him of the promise of religious toleration which he had made at Breda, and she aimed to clarify the position of Friends with regard to the taking of oaths and their rejection of violence. However, now that she no longer had the support of her husband as an influential person, she was much more vulnerable to the opponents of Quakerism.

In 1664 both she and George Fox were brought to trial. Margaret was imprisoned, but was told she could be released if she promised to hold no more meetings at Swarthmoor. This she refused to do and her imprisonment at Lancaster was continued. There was a threat of sequestration of property hanging over her, which would have meant the disastrous loss of Swarthmoor to Friends. Fortunately, Margaret Fell was stoutly supported by her daughters, two of whom had an interview with Charles II to plead for their mother. Finally. Charles promised that Swarthmoor should never be taken from Margaret and her children. It is interesting how it was possible that such personal appeals to be made to the monarchy and to be listened to with sympathy.

She was one of the very few of the early Quakers who survived into the l8th century; she died in 1702, aged 87.

Already the Society was drifting into formalism and was paying undue attention to the plainness and details of dress. She warned Friends against this and she is especially remembered for her protest:-

"....(s) we must look at no colours, nor make anything that is changeable colours as the hills are, nor sell them, or wear them. This is a silly poor Gospel...."

ISAAC PENINGTON and THOMAS ELLWOOD.

I have added the name of Thomas Ellwood to that of Isaac Penington because they form a pair which may well be considered together. There was a close family friendship between them; also, their way of life and their Quaker work were very similar.

Thomas Ellwood (b. 1639) joined Friends in 1659, shortly after his meeting with the Peningtons; later he came to live with them as a member of the family. It was a peaceful, scholarly household, but this did not protect them from the persecution of Quakers in the 1660's. Both Penington and Ellwood suffered terms of imprisonment.

What Ellwood is best known for outside Quaker circles is his connection with John Milton. He wished to improve his classical knowledge, so Penington arranged that he should become Milton's reader in exchange for tuition in Latin. This connection developed into a friendship and, when in 1665 the Plague was rampant in London, Milton asked Ellwood to find him a house in Buckinghamshire; this is how Milton came to live in Chalfont St.Giles.

Isaac Penington was almost a generation older, being born in 1617. He was a Southerner, living on his own estate in Buckinghamshire and joined Friends in 1658, shortly before he and Ellwood first met. Thomas Ellwood's father was a friend of Mary Springett, whom Isaac Penington had married; she had a daughter by a former marriage (Gulie), who later became the wife of William Penn. I mention these family details, because they show how interlinked the Quaker network at this time could be.

Penington came from a distinguished Puritan family, has father having been at one time Lord Mayor of London. He was a well educated scholarly person, having as his friends distinguished men of letters, such as John Milton and John Locke. He was thus well established in Buckinghamshire society, an unusual and difficult position for a convinced Quaker. However, once he and his wife Mary had joined Friends, they gave themselves wholeheartedly to Quakerism, finding it a great joy, but also sharing in the sufferings. Penington was in prison for about half of his Quaker life. He died in 1679.

He left behind him a number of writings, from which was published what might be called a devotional autobiography. It has been considered one of the outstanding pieces of Quaker literature. It is very long and not readily available, so that the condensation, published as "The Inward Journey of Isaac Penington" (in Quaker Classics in Brief) is very welcome.

The Penington home at Chalfont St.Peter became an important meeting place for Friends, particularly for the leaders of the movement, such as Fox, Nayler, Burrough, Penn among others. It has been called "The Swarthmoor of the South", an apt comparison, because it played a significant part in supporting Friends in a period of considerable difficulty.

ROBERT BARCLAY.

Robert Barclay (1648 to 1690) was foremost among Quakers as scholar and theologian.

He was born at Ury in Scotland, his father being David Barclay, who became a Colonel in the Commonwealth Army. In 1665, after the restoration, David Barclay was imprisoned at Edinburgh because of his association with Parliament forces. He was influenced by a Quaker who was a fellow prisoner, as was also his son Robert when he visited him. They both joined Quakers in 1666.

Robert returned to Scotland to continue his studies both at home and abroad. He had been brought up a Calvinist and among his early studies was a period at Scots College in Paris.

His family were "well-connected", his mother being distantly related to the Royal Family. These connections were of support to Robert Barclay during the restoration period, though he was not immune from sharing in the sufferings of Friends in Scotland, where he spent a term in prison. In later years, through his connection with James II, he was appointed Governor of New Jersey, a position he held by deputy from 1682 to 1688.

So Robert Barclay was one of the small number of aristocratic-scholar Quakers, who were able in the l7th century to exert considerable worldly influence.

Most of his Quaker work was done in Scotland, but he did meet and travel some of the leading Quakers, including Fox and Penn.

He is best known for his writings and, in particular, for his "Apology for the True Christian Divinity" always known as "Barclay's Apology". This was written in 1676, the first edition being in Latin, which was followed two years later by an English edition. It is a very long work and the best introduction for us is the abbreviation in "Quaker Classics in Brief". This as a series of extracts, in Barclay's own words, comprising those parts which are most likely to be of interest to Quakers of the modern day.

These extracts are well worth some study, though the reader has to accept some difficulties in interpreting the l7th century language. (Thus, for example, Barclay frequently uses the phrase "natural man". By this he means sinful, unredeemed man; not, as we might think, man with his natural goodness).

There are three sections - Belief, Worship, and Testimonies - and together they give a thoughtful and unemotional account of the ideas and practices of Quakers of his time. He gives a particularly clear explanation of the reasons behind the distinguishing Quaker practices, such as the method of address (Thou instead of You), simplicity of clothing, refusal of oaths, the renunciation of violence. It gives us food for thought to consider to what extent this was only relevant for his time and how much is of universal importance.

There is little theology in these published sections, but there is a great deal in the portion omitted. Barclay's theology has had considerable influence, but it does not readily speak to modern Quakers (at least in Britain).

Still, Barclay's "Apology" was a work of great importance and was translated into many languages. It is remarkable when one realises that Barclay was only 28 when he wrote it.

WILLIAM PENN 1644-1718.

William Penn has been described as being a "Public Friend" in two ways: first, he was much in touch with public affairs, usually at a high social and political level; secondly, he became very much a person who represented Friends to the public mind. His life-story is very different both from that of the early Northern Friends and also from that of a quiet scholar such as Isaac Penington.

His father was an eminent Admiral who, however, got into trouble with Cromwell and was imprisoned for some months when Penn was 12 years old; the joy of his unexpected release appears to have triggered a religious experience for Penn - a conviction of the availability of God. This fundamentally Quaker concept made him ready to receive the message of Thomas Loe in Ireland two years later.

After two years in Oxford (he was expelled for anti-clerical opinions), 3 years in France at a Protestant College (absorbing ideas of religious liberty), he had about 3 years in London, studying Law; this he put to good use later on, as in "Bushel's Case" and in the numerous occasions when he helped Friends legally.

His father was now in Royal favour and away on Navy business; William was essentially head of the family and was sent to Ireland to look after family estates. Here, in 1667, he again heard Thomas Loe preach; he became a Quaker and his life as an active Friend began.

For two years after his convincement he was estranged from his father and worked very closely with Friends in London and began the writing of his many books and pamphlets. He was imprisoned in the Tower, where he wrote the first edition of "No Cross, no Crown". After his release in 1669 (by the King's express command!) he was again in Ireland where he succeeded in obtaining the release from prison of all Quakers in Ireland.

In England, with other Quakers, he frequented the Penington home; here he met Isaac Penington's step-daughter, Guli Springett, whom he married in 1672. It was through another Buckinghamshire Friend that, in 1676, he first became involved in America. This Friend had acquired a part of New Jersey and Penn became his trustee concerning this. During the next few years many Friends emigrated there and Penn worked hard to establish a well governed colony.

Then, in 1681, he petitioned the King for the grant of a tract of land to the West of New Jersey, in lieu of a debt still owing to his late father. This was the beginning of PENNSYLVANIA, the name given by the King himself to Penn's new domain.

The land, in fact, belonged to the "Indians" and the remarkable story of the friendly relations which Penn established with them has been much written up. Penn visited the colony in 1682, but only for a couple of years; still, the new colony had become well established.

Back in England, he became embroiled in business and also in Court affairs. When James II came to the throne in 1685, Penn was a close friend and adviser; but he failed to moderate James' religious and political unwisdom which caused his downfall. Penn, himself, was in deep disfavour for some five years after the accession of William-and-Mary. It was during this period of comparative withdrawal from public life that he wrote two of his most notable works: the "Essay towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe" (relevant today) and "Some Fruits of Solitude", a devotional work.

The closing years of his life are unfortunately a story of troubles, disappointments and, finally, mental disability.

Penn's great concerns were for religious liberty and for Peace. His was a towering personality among Quakers; not a great theologian (like Barclay) or social reformer (like Woolman), but perhaps the greatest "all-rounder".

Back to Chapter2 On to Chapter 4

© David M Murray-Rust, 1995. This document may be freely copied and distributed so long as it is kept in its entirety, including this notice, and that no fee is charged.