DURING the civil war the Federal forces used captive balloons for the purpose of discovering the positions of the enemy. They were of great service at that time, although they were stationed far within the lines to prevent hostile guns from reaching them.
BALLOON OBSERVATIONS. -- Necessarily, observations from balloons were and are imperfect. It was found to be very unsatisfactory during the Russian-Japanese war, because the angle of vision is very low, and, furthermore, at such distances the movements, or even the location of troops is not observable, except under the most favorable conditions.
Balloon observation during the progress of a battle is absolutely useless, because the smoke from the firing line is, necessarily, between the balloon and the enemy, so that the aerial scout has no opportunity to make any observations, even in detached portions of the fighting zone, which are of any value to the commanders.
CHANGED CONDITIONS OF WARFARE. -- Since our great war, conditions pertaining to guns have been revolutionized. Now the ranges are so great that captive balloons would have to be located far in the rear, and at such a great distance from the firing line that even the best field glasses would be useless.
The science of war has also evolved another condition. Soldiers are no longer exposed during artillery attacks. Uniforms are made to imitate natural objects. The khaki suits were designed to imitate the yellow veldts of South Africa; the gray-green garments of the German forces are designed to simulate the green fields of the north.
THE EFFORT TO CONCEAL COMBATANTS. -- The French have discarded the historic red trousers, and the elimination of lace, white gloves, and other telltale insignias of the officers, have been dispensed with by special orders.
In the great European war armies have burrowed in the earth along battle lines hundreds of miles in length; made covered trenches; prepared artificial groves to conceal batteries, and in many ingenious ways endeavored to make the battlefield an imitation field of nature.
SMOKELESS POWDER. -- While smokeless powder has been utilized to still further hide a fighting
Nevertheless, over every battlefield there is a haze which can be penetrated only from above, hence the possibilities of utilizing the aeroplane in war became the most important study with all nations, as soon as flying became an accomplished fact.
INVENTIONS TO ATTACK AERIAL CRAFT. -- Before any nation had the opportunity to make an actual test on the battlefield, inventors were at work to devise a means whereby an aerial foe could be met. In a measure the aerial gun has been successful, but months of war has shown that the aeroplane is one of the strongest arms of the service in actual warfare.
It was assumed prior to the European war that the chief function of the aeroplane would be the dropping of bombs, -- that is for service in attacking a foe. Actual practice has not justified this theory. In some places the appearance of the aeroplane has caused terror, but it has been found the great value is its scouting advantages.
FUNCTION OF THE AEROPLANE IN WAR. -- While bomb throwing may in the future be perfected, it is not at all an easy problem for an aviator to do work which is commensurate with the risk involved.
BOMB-THROWING TESTS. -- It is interesting, however, to understand how an aviator knows where or when to drop the bomb from a swiftly-moving machine. Several things must be taken into consideration, such as the height of the machine from the earth; its speed, and the parabolic curve that the bomb will take on its flight to the earth.
When an object is released from a moving machine it will follow the machine from which it is dropped, gradually receding from it, as it descends, so that the machine is actually beyond the place where the bomb strikes the earth, due to the retarding motion of the atmosphere against the missile.
The diagram Fig. 90 will aid the boy in grasping the situation. A is the airship; B the path of its flight; a the course of the bomb after it leaves the airship; and D the earth. The question is how to determine the proper movement when to release the bomb.
METHOD FOR DETERMINING MOVEMENT OF A
Instead, therefore, of relying on the barometer, the ship is equipped with a telescope which may be instantly set at an angle of 45 degrees, or vertically.
Thus, Fig 91 shows a ship A, on which is mounted a telescope B, at an angle of 45 degrees.
The telescope is then turned so it is vertical, as at C, and the observer watches through the telescope until the machine passes directly over
The height of the machine along the line D is thus equal to the line E from B to C, and the time of the flight from B to a being thus known, as well as the height of the machine, the observer consults specially-prepared tables which show
All that is necessary now is to set the sighter of the telescope at the angle given in the tables, and when the object to be hit appears at the sight, the bomb is dropped.
THE GREAT EXTENT OF MODERN BATTLE LINES. -- The great war brought into the field such stupendous masses of men that the battle lines have extended over an unbroken front of over 200 miles.
In the battle of Waterloo, about 140,000 men were engaged on both sides, and the battle front was less than six miles. There were, thus massed, along the front, over 20,000 men every mile of the way, or 10,000 on each side.
In the conflict between the Allies and the Germans it is estimated that there were less than 7500 along each mile. It was predicted in the earlier stages of the war that it would be an easy matter for either side to suddenly mass such an overwhelming force at one point as to enable the attacking party to go through the opposing force like a wedge.
Such tactics were often employed by Napoleon and other great masters of war; but in every effort where it has been attempted in the present conflict, it was foiled.
The opposing force was ready to meet the attack with equal or superior numbers. The eye of the army, the aeroplane, detected the movements in every instance.
THE AEROPLANE DETECTING THE MOVEMENTS OF ARMIES. -- In the early stages of the war, when the Germans drove the left of the French army towards Paris, the world expected an investment of that city. Suddenly, and for no apparent reason, the German right was forced back and commenced to retreat.
It was not known until weeks afterwards that the French had assembled a large army to the west and northwest of Paris, ready to take the Germans in flank the moment an attempt should be made to encircle the Paris forts.
The German aviators, flying over Paris, discovered the hidden army, and it is well they did so, for it is certain if they had surrounded the outlying forts, it would have been an easy matter for the concealed forces to destroy their communications, and probably have forced the surrender of a large part of the besiegers.
The aeroplane in warfare, therefore, has constantly noted every disposition of troops, located the positions and judged the destination of convoys; the battery emplacements; and the direction in which large forces have been moved from
THE EFFECTIVE HEIGHT FOR SCOUTING. -- It has been shown that aeroplane scouting is not effective at high altitudes. It is not difficult for aviators to reach and maintain altitudes of five thousand feet and over, but at that elevation it is impossible to distinguish anything but the movement of large forces.
SIZES OF OBJECTS AT GREAT DISTANCES. -- At a distance of one mile an automobile, twenty feet in length, is about as large as a piece of pencil one inch long, viewed at a distance of thirty-five feet. A company of one hundred men, which in marching order, say four abreast, occupies a space of eight by one hundred feet, looks to the aviator about as large as an object one inch in length, four and a half feet from the eye.
The march of such a body of men, viewed at that distance, is so small as almost to be imperceptible to the eye of an observer at rest. How much more difficult it is to distinguish a movement if the observer is in a rapidly-moving machine.
For these reasons observations must be made at altitudes of less than a mile, and the hazard of these enterprises is, therefore, very great,
SOME DARING FEATS IN WAR. -- It would be impossible to recount the many remarkable aerial fights which have taken place in the great war. Some of them seem to be unreal, so startling are the tales that have been told. We may well imagine the bravery that will nerve men to fight thousands of feet above the earth.
One of the most thrilling combats took place between a Russian aeroplane and a Zeppelin, over Russian Poland, at the time of the first German invasion. The Zeppelin was soaring over the Russian position, at an altitude of about a mile. A Russian aviator ascended and after circling about, so as to gain a position higher than the airship, darted down, and crashed into the great gas field.
The aviator knew that it meant death to him, but his devotion led him to make the sacrifice. The Zeppelin, broken in two, and robbed of its gas, slowly moved toward the earth, then gradually increased the speed of its descent, as the aeroplane clung to its shattered hulk, and by the
One of the most spectacular fights of the war occurred outside Paris, when one of the German Taubes attempted to make its periodical tour of observation. One of the French aeroplanes, which had the advantage of greater speed, mounted to a greater altitude, and circled about the Taube.
The latter with its machine gun made a furious attack, during these maneuvers, but the French ship did not reply until it was at such an elevation that it could deliver the attack from above. Then its machine gun was brought into play. As was afterwards discovered, the wings and body of the Taube were completely riddled, and it was a marvel how it was possible for the German aviator to remain afloat as long as he did.
Soon the Taube was noticed to lurch from side to side, and then dart downwardly. The monoplane, in the pursuit, gradually descended, but it was not able to follow the destroyed Taube to the earth, as the latter finally turned over, and went swirling to destruction.
The observer, as well as the aviator, had both been killed by the fire from the monoplane.
In the trenches on the Marne, to the northeast
THE GERMAN TAUBE. -- The German Taube is a monoplane, its main supporting surfaces, as well as the tail planes, are so constructed that they represent a bird. Taube means dove. It would have been more appropriate to call it a hawk.
On the other hand, the French monoplane, of which the Bleriot is the best known example, has wings with well rounded extremities, and flaring tail, so that the two can be readily distinguished.
On one occasion, during the lull in the battle, two of the Taubes approached the area above the French lines, and after ascending to a great height, began the volplane toward their own lines. Such a maneuver was found to be the most advantageous, as it gave the scouting aeroplane the advantage of being able to discover the positions and movements with greater ease, and at the same time, in case of accident to the machine, the impetus of the flight would be to their own lines.
Three of the French aeroplanes at once began their circling flight, mounting higher and higher, but without attempting to go near the Taubes. When the French ships had gained the proper altitude,
This meant that they must retreat or fight, and the crack of the guns showed that it meant a struggle. The monoplanes circled about with incredible skill, pouring forth shot after shot. Soon one of the Taubes was seen to flutter. This was the signal for a more concentrated attack on her.
The army in the trenches, and on the fields below, witnessed the novel combat. The flying ships were now approaching the earth, but the gunners below dared not use their guns, because in the maneuvers they would be as likely to strike friend as foe.
The wounded Taube was now shooting to the earth, and the two monoplanes began to give their attention to the other ship, which was attempting to escape to the north. The flash of the guns of all the fliers could be plainly seen, but the sounds were drowned by the roar of the great conflict all about them.
The Taube could not escape the net around her. She, too, was doomed. A shot seemed to strike the gasoline tank, and the framework was soon enveloped in flames. Then she turned sidewise, as the material on one side burned away, and skidding
It was found that the aviator was not hurt by the shot, but was, undoubtedly, killed by the impact with the earth. The observer was riddled with bullets, and was likely dead before the ship reached the earth.
In the western confines of Belgium, near Ypres, the British employed numerous aircraft, many of them biplanes, and at all times they were in the air, reporting observations. Many of the flying fights have been recorded, and the reports when published will be most thrilling reading.
HOW AEROPLANES REPORT OBSERVATIONS. -- It may be of some interest to know how aeroplanes are able to report observations to the commanders in the field, from the airship itself. Many ingenious devices have been devised for this purpose.
SIGNAL FLAGS. -- The best known and most universally used method is by the use of signaling flags. Suppose the commander of a force is desirous of getting the range of a hidden battery, or a massed force in his front. The observer in the aeroplane will sail over the area at an understood altitude, say one mile in height.
The officer in charge of the battery, knowing the height of the airship, is able, by means of
The guns of the battery are then directed and fired so as to reach the concealed point. It is now important to be able to send intelligible signals to the officer in charge of the battery. If the shot goes beyond the mark, the observer in the airship raises the flag above his head, which indicates that it was too high.
HOW USED. -- If the shot fell short he would lower the flag. If the shot landed too far to the right, this would be indicated by the flag, and if too far to the left, the signal would, in like manner, be sufficient to enable the gunners to correct the guns.
When the exact range is obtained the observer in the ship waves the flag about his head, in token of approval. All this work of noting the effect of the shots must be taken while the airship is under fire, and while circling about within visual range of the concealed object below.
The officer in charge of the battery, as well as the observer on the flying craft, must be equipped with powerful glasses, so the effect of the shots
It may be said, however, that air battles have not been frequent and that they have been merely incidents of the conditions under which they were operated. The mission of the aeroplane is now conceded to be purely one of observation, such as we have described.
Both French and German reports are full of incidents showing the value of observations, and also concerning the effects of bombs. Extracts from the diaries of prisoners gave many interesting features of the results of aeroplane work.
CASUALTIES DUE TO AEROPLANES. -- In the diary of one was found the remark: "I was lucky to escape the bomb thrown by a French aviator at Conrobet, which killed eight of my companions."
Another says: "The Seventh Company of the Third Regiment of the Guard had eight killed and twenty-two wounded by bomb from a French aeroplane."
Another: "An officer showed us a torn coat taken from one of sixty soldiers wounded by a bomb from an aeroplane."
A prisoner says: "Near Neuville an aeroplane bomb dropped on a supply train, killed four men, wounded six, and killed a considerable number of horses."
The Belgians, after their defeat and the capture of Antwerp, were forced to the west along the coast. In some way they learned that the Kaiser was about to occupy a château near Dixmunde. Several aviators flew above the position and dropped a number of bombs on the building, completely wrecking it, and it was fortunate that the Emperor left the building only twenty minutes before, as several of his aides and soldiers on duty were killed.
On numerous occasions the headquarters of the different commanders have been discovered and had to be moved to safer places.
During all these wonderful exploits which will live in history because men had the opportunity during the war to use them for the first time in actual conflict, the official reports have not mentioned the aviators by name. The deaths of the brave men have brought forth the acknowledgments of their services. During the first three months of the war it is estimated that over sixty aviators and aides had lost their lives in the conflict on the two great battle lines. This does not take into account those who met death on the Zeppelins, of which five had been destroyed during that time.