History of Israel
The History of Israel refers to the history of Israeli statehood since the country's declaration of independence on May 14, 1948. The State of Israel was established after nearly two thousand years of Jewish dispersal and years of Zionist endeavors in the sphere of agriculture, economic development and educational activity with the goal of creating a homeland for the Jewish people. The 63 years since Israeli independence have been marked by conflict with the Palestinian people and with neighbouring Arab states. Since 1979, peace has been maintained with Egypt and Jordan. About 40% of the world's Jews live in Israel today.[2]
Introduction: Early Jewish history
The earliest record of the name "Israel" is an Egyptian inscription dated c.1207 BCE, where it apparently refers to a population located in the north-central Palestinian highlands. At that time the highlands were sparsely populated, but over the next two hundred years they rapidly filled with hundreds of villages. After the decline of the Egyptian and Hittite empires, a number of small, constantly warring states emerged in Palestine. Prominent among these was the Jewish nation, consisting of a number of small, independent tribes. They were briefly united by Gideon around 1100 BCE, when he repulsed the Midianites, an Arabic people from east of the River Jordan. In the 11th century BCE the Israelites fell under the domination of the Philistines. Saul (c.1028-c.1007 BCE) led an uprising against them, but he was hindered by internal quarrels and was killed at the Battle of Mount Gilboa (c.1007 BCE). King David (c.1010-c.970 BCE) defeated the Philistines by uniting the Jews and recruiting Philistine soldiers who became an important element of his army. He controlled all of Palestine and much of Syria. Toward the end of his reign, he suppressed a number of uprisings against him, including one led by his son, Absalom. A period of peace and prosperity followed, under Solomon (c.970-c.931 BCE).
The Kingdom of Israel and the emerged as an important local power in northern Palestine in the 9th and 8th centuries BCE. Here, the god, YHWH, was worshipped by many, as he was to the south, in the Kingdom of Judah - although he appears to have been worshipped in different ways in the two places. A conflict emerged in Israel in the 8th century BCE between the adherents of the god Baal, who was the god of at least some of the kings, and the followers of Yahweh (the scholarly spelling of YHWH). With the destruction of the kingdom of Israel by Assyria in 722/721 BCE, a number of 'Deuteronomistic reformers' (as the Yahweh group are known to scholars) took refuge in Judah, where their views were adopted by circles in the royal court under the young king Josiah. The Deuteronomistic reform movement thus became the dominant state ideology of Judah. Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 BCE whilst its southern neighbour, the Kingdom of Judah, enjoyed a period of prosperity as a client state of the greater empires of the region. A revolt against Babylon led to Judah's destruction in 586 BCE.
The exile of the Deuteronomistic elite by the Babylonians led to a radical re-evaluation: the people of 'Israel' were now defined as the small and exclusive elite who should hold themselves apart from other peoples in order to follow Yahweh and the Law. In the last decades of the 6th century the overthrow of Babylon by the Persians allowed this group to return to Palestine - now the Persian province of 'Yehud' - where they imposed their views on those who had remained in the land. This formative period —the Second Temple— saw the origins of many, perhaps most, of the features now associated with Judaism, including the written Torah; a collection of writings (scriptures) regarded as holding particular religious authority, cultural markers separating Jews from non-Jews (observance of the Sabbath, prohibition of inter-marriage, circumcision, the forbidding of eating pork), and the concept of the "land of Israel" promised to them by their god.
Palestine was absorbed into the Hellenistic kingdoms that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. In the 2nd century BCE the Judeans revolted against the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire and created the independent 'Hasmonean Kingdom'. The Jewish element came to dominate Palestine with the forcible conversion of many of its previously non-Jewish inhabitants. The Hasmonean Kingdom, however, was short-lived, and was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BCE. A series of revolts against Rome, the last in 135 CE, resulted in the forced dispersal of the Jewish population. By the 3rd century CE the population of Palestine was predominantly non-Jewish.
Zionist Movement
For a full account of the emergence of the Zionist movement see the History of Zionism.
The Age of Enlightenment in Europe led to an 18th and 19th century Jewish enlightenment movement in Europe, called the Haskalah. In 1791, the French Revolution led France to become the first country in Europe to grant Jews legal equality. Britain gave Jews equal rights in 1856, Germany in 1871. The spread of Western liberal ideas among newly emancipated Jews created for the first time a class of secular Jews who absorbed the prevailing ideas of enlightenment, including rationalism, romanticism, and nationalism. However, the formation of modern nations in Europe was accompanied by changes in the prejudice against Jews. What had previously been mainly religious persecution now became mainly racial hatred, and acquired a new name: 'antisemitism'. Antisemites saw Jews as an alien religious, national and racial group and actively tried to prevent Jews from acquiring equal rights and citizenship. In late 19th century Russia, the government actively encouraged pogroms in an effort to divert popular resentment away from the Tsarist regime and towards Jews. Claims were made that Jews were trying to stir up revolution and that there was a Jewish-Zionist conspiracy to achieve world domination.
Of the millions of Jews who left eastern Europe in the late 19th century, only a small percentage of them actually headed for Palestine. But Jews were beginning to consider the possibility of re-establishing themselves as an independent nation. This was accompanied by a revival of the Hebrew language. 'Zionism' attracted Jews of all kinds; religious, secular, nationalists and left-wing socialists. Socialists aimed to reclaim the land by working on it and forming collectives. In 1870, an agricultural school, the Mikveh Israel was founded near modern Tel Aviv by the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The first modern Jewish settlement in Palestine, Petah Tikva, was founded in 1878, followed by Rishon LeZion (1882). Other settlements were soon established by the members of the Bilu and Hovevei Zion ('Love of Zion') movements. They were greatly helped by Jewish philanthropists such as the Montefiores and Rothschilds. In Zionist history, the different waves of Jewish settlement in Palestine are known as 'aliyah'. During the First Aliyah, between 1882 and 1903, approximately 35,000 Jews moved to Palestine. "Der Judenstaat" ('The Jewish State') by Theodor Herzl was published in 1896. Herzl asserted that the only answer to growing antisemitism in Europe and the so-called "Jewish Question" was to establish a Jewish state. In 1897, Zionist Organisation was founded and at the First Zionist Congress it proclaimed the decision "to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law."[3] However, the Zionist movement made little political progress before the First World War and was regarded with suspicion by the Ottoman rulers of Palestine.
Between 1904 and 1914, around 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine. This has been called the 'Second Aliyah'. In 1908 the Zionist Organisation set up the Palestine Bureau (also known as the 'Eretz Israel Office') in Jaffa and began to adopt a systematic settlement policy in Palestine. At this time, migrants came mainly from Russia, following the pogroms in that country. Some were greatly influenced by socialist ideals and established the first kibbutz, Degania, in 1909. Friction with Palestinian Arabs resulted in the formation of organizations, such as Hashomer, to protect Jewish communities. A suburb of Jaffa, Ahuzat Bayit, settled at this time, grew into the city of Tel Aviv. During this period, some of the foundations of an independent nation-state arose: Hebrew was revived; Jewish newspapers were published; political parties and workers organizations were established.
During World War I, the British sought Jewish support in the fight against Germany. There was some sympathy for the aims of Zionism in the British government, including the Prime-Minister Lloyd-George.[4] In late 1917, the British Army (including the Jewish Legion)[5] was advancing against Turkish and German forces in Palestine. The British foreign minister, Lord Balfour sent a letter to Lord Rothschild which subsequently became known as the Balfour Declaration of 1917. It stated that the British Government "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people"..."it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine".
In 1918 Chaim Weizmann, President of the British Zionist Federation, formed the Zionist Commission which went to Palestine to promote Zionist objectives with the British authorities there. Weizmann was also instrumental in re-structuring the Palestine Bureau into departments for immigration, settlement, land, agriculture, finance and statistics.
British Mandate of Palestine (1917–48)
At the end of the First World War, the British remained in occupation of Palestine. The British Mandate of Palestine was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1922 and came into effect in 1923. Britain signed an additional treaty with the USA (which did not join the League of Nations) in which the USA endorsed the terms of the mandate.[6] Article 4 of the Palestine Mandate provided for "the recognition of an appropriate Jewish Agency as a public body for the purpose of advising and co-operating with the Administration of Palestine in such economic, social and other matters as may affect the establishment of the Jewish National Home and the interests of the Jewish population of Palestine."[7] In 1921, the Zionist Commission became the Palestine Zionist Executive and this was designated as the Jewish Agency for Palestine for the purposes of Article 4 of the Mandate. The British authorities offered to create a similar Arab Agency but this offer was rejected by Arab leaders.
The Palestine Zionist Executive was charged with facilitating Jewish immigration into Palestine, land purchase and implementing the general policies of the Zionist leadership. It ran schools and hospitals, and formed a militia, the Haganah. Chaim Weizmann was the leader of both the Zionist Organisation and the Palestine Zionist Executive until 1929. The Zionist Organisation allocated entry permits to new immigrants (the number was fixed by the British) and distributed funds donated by Jews abroad. [8] From 1920, the Va'ad Leumi (or Jewish National Council, or JNC) was the main institution of the Jewish community ('Yishuv') within the British Mandate of Palestine. This body functioned as a virtual government for the Jews in Palestine. The Political Department of the JNC was responsible for relations with the Arabs, ties with the Jewish Agency and negotiations with the British government. As the Yishuv grew, the JNC adopted more functions, such as education, health care and welfare services, internal defence and security matters. Most of the revenue raised by the Mandate came from the Jewish minority but was spent on funding the British administration. Therefore, with British permission, the Va'ad raised their own taxes[9] and ran independent services for the Jewish population.[10] Education and health care for Jews in Palestine were in the hands of the major Zionist parties: the General Zionists, the Mizrahi and the Socialist Zionists. They all operated their own education, health and (except for Mizrahi) sports organizations funded by local taxes, donations and fees. Following a campaign by Chaim Weizmann, the Zionist movement also established the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Technion in Haifa (both 1925).
During the whole interwar period, the British, appealing to the terms of the mandate which they had designed themselves, rejected the principle of majority rule or any other measure that would give the Arab majority control over the government of Palestine.
Jewish immigration and Arab opposition
Between 1919 and 1923, 40,000 Jews arrived in Palestine, mainly from Russia (3rd Aliyah). Many of these settlers were known as 'pioneers' (halutzim), trained in agriculture and capable of establishing self sustaining economies. The Jezreel Valley and the Hefer Plain marshes were drained and converted to agricultural use by them. Increasing Jewish immigration led to growing tensions with the Arab populace. There was Arab rioting in Jerusalem in April 1920. In May 1921 there was further Arab rioting in Jaffa and other cities. As a result, the British mandatory authorities enacted a system of immigration quotas. An exception was made for Jews with over 1000 Pounds in cash (a large sum in those days), or Jewish professionals with over 500 Pounds, who would be allowed in despite the quotas. Arab attacks on isolated Jewish settlements and British failure to protect the Jews led to the creation of Haganah ("Defense"), a mainly socialist Jewish militia dedicated to defending Jewish settlements.
In spite of the immigration quotas, the number of Jews in Palestine had reached 90,000 by 1923. Between 1924 and 1929, 82,000 more Jews arrived (4th Aliyah). Many came as a result of anti-semitism in Poland and Hungary and because at that time the immigration policy of the United States kept Jews out. Among the latest arrivals there were many middle class families who moved to the Palestinian towns and established small businesses and light industry - although approximately a quarter of them later left Palestine.
Arab opposition to Jewish immigration led to more violence in August 1929 (the Palestine Riots or 'Western Wall Uprising'). After the Hebron Massacre and Safed Massacre, the Revisionist Zionist leader, Ze'ev Jabotinsky, created a right-wing militia called the Irgun Tzvai Leumi (National Military Organization, known in Hebrew by its acronym "Etzel").
Despite Arab opposition, the increased persecution of European Jews by the European Fascist powers (such as the Third Reich's Nuremberg Laws) resulted in a marked increase in Jewish immigration. Across Europe Jews became non-citizens, deprived of all civil and economic rights and subject to arbitrary persecution as more countries came under Nazi rule or became Nazi allies (Austria and Czechoslovakia were annexed, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania were Nazi allies). Between 1929 and 1939, 250,000 Jews arrived in Palestine (5th Aliyah). The majority of these, 174,000, arrived between 1933 and 1936, after which there were increasing restrictions placed on immigration by the British. The migration was again driven mostly from Eastern Europe as well as professionals, doctors, lawyers and professors from Germany. Shortly after coming to power in 1933, the Nazis negotiated the Ha'avara Agreement or "Transfer" with German Jews, under which 50,000 Jews and $100 million of their assets would be moved to Palestine. Refugee artists introduced Bauhaus (the White City of Tel Aviv has the highest concentration of Bauhaus architecture in the world) and founded the Palestine Philharmonic Orchestra. With the completion of the port at Haifa and its oil refineries, significant industry was added to the predominantly agricultural Palestinian economy. As the situation for Jews in Europe worsened, and with the British trying to enforce quotas, the only option was illegal immigration into Palestine, (Aliyah Bet or 'Ha'apalah'). Organized by the Mossad Le'aliyah Bet, and by the Irgun, Jewish refugees arrived in secret by sea, or, to a lesser extent, overland through Syria and Iraq.
The level of Jewish immigration contributed, at least in part, to the large-scale Arab Revolt in Palestine (1936-1939), which was largely a nationalist uprising directed at British colonial rule. The British set up the Peel Commission (1936-37), which recommended that eventually Palestine be partitioned, with a Jewish state in the north and along much of the western coastal strip, and with an area around Jerusalem remaining Mandate territory. Jewish opinion was heatedly divided as to the merits of the scheme, but as the plan would have involved the forcible removal of 225,000 Arab people and just 1,250 Jewish people from their homes, it was rejected outright by the Palestinian Arabs. The Woodhead Commission (1938) reported that the Peel Commission was unworkable and recommended setting up much smaller Arab and Jewish states, but this plan was rejected by both Arabs and Jews. 20 years later, the Jewish Agency leader, Ben-Gurion wrote: "Had partition [referring to the Peel Commission partition plan] been carried out, the history of our people would have been different and six million Jews in Europe would not have been killed---most of them would be in Israel". Ben-Gurion responded to the Arab Revolt with a policy of "Havlagah" -self-restraint and a refusal to be provoked by Arab attacks in order to prevent polarization. The Etzel militia left the Haganah in opposition to this policy.
With war in Europe looking increasingly likely, the British felt they needed to try to placate the Arab people of Palestine. The White Paper of 1939, was approved by the British Parliament. It stated that with over 450,000 Jews having now settled in Palestine, the Balfour Declaration aim for "a national home for the Jewish people" had been achieved and called for an independent Palestine established within 10 years, governed jointly by Arabs and Jews. The White Paper set a limit of 75,000 Jewish immigrants into Palestine over the period 1940-44. Both the Jewish and the Palestinian-Arab leadership rejected the White Paper. In March 1940 the British High Commissioner for Palestine issued an edict banning Jews from purchasing land in 95% of Palestine. During the Second World War and up until 1948, Aliyah Bet became the main form of Jewish entry into Palestine. After the war, Bricha ("flight"), an organization of former partisans and ghetto fighters, was primarily responsible for smuggling Jews from Poland and Eastern Europe to the Italian ports from which they travelled to Palestine. Despite all British efforts to curb illegal immigration, during the 14 years of the Aliyah Bet, over 110,000 Jews secretly gained entry into Palestine.
After 1945, when the full scale of the Holocaust became apparent to the world, many Jews in Palestine turned openly against the British Mandate, with its commissions and quotas. Illegal immigration escalated rapidly as many Holocaust survivors joined the Aliyah Bet.
The 2nd World War and the Holocaust (1939–45)
During the 2nd World War, the Jewish Agency leader Ben-Gurion supported the Allies. Palestine's Jewish youth were called on to volunteer for the British Army (both men and women). The Etzel supported this policy. Over a million Jews served in every branch of the allied armies, mainly in the Soviet and US armies. 200,000 Jews died serving in the Soviet army alone.
Not all Jews supported the British during the war. A small group dedicated to Jewish resistance to the British administration in Palestine broke away and formed the Lehi (Stern Gang), led by Avraham Stern. In 1943 the USSR released the Revisionist Zionist leader, Menachem Begin from the Gulag and he went to Palestine, taking command of the Etzel with a policy of increased conflict against the British. At about the same time Yitzhak Shamir escaped from the camp in Eritrea where the British had been holding him without trial and assumed command of the Lehi (Stern Gang).
Between 1939 and 1945, 72% of Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe were murdered. 20-25% of those killed were children. About half of all European Jews were killed. In the Middle East Jews were in danger, as North Africa had come under Nazi control. In 1941 there was a pro-Axis coup in Iraq, accompanied by massacres of Jews. Rommel's advance into Egypt in 1942 posed a real threat to the Jewish people of Palestine.
The Holocaust had a decisive impact on the Jewish world (and beyond). The Polish and German Jewish communities which had played an important role in defining the pre-1945 Jewish world ceased to exist. In the USA and Palestine, Jews of European origin became disconnected from their families and roots. Sephardi Jews, who had been a minority, became a much more significant factor in the Jewish world. The Second World War left the surviving remnant of Jews in central Europe as displaced persons (refugees); a survey of their ambitions found that 97% wanted to migrate to Palestine.
The Post War Years (1945–47)
The British Empire was severely weakened by the war and more importance was attached to cordial Anglo-Arab relations in the Middle East than to helping the Jewish people build a homeland. Shortly after VE Day, the Labour Party won the elections in Britain. Although Labour Party conferences had for years called for the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, the Labour government now decided to maintain the 1939 White Paper restrictions.
Therefore, after the war Jewish militias in Palestine, (the Haganah, 'Etzel' and Lehi) decided to form a unified Jewish Resistance Movement against the British. In June 1946, following instances of sabotage and kidnapping, the British launched 'Operation Agatha' in Palestine and arrested thousands of Jews, including the leadership of the Jewish Agency. They were held without trial. In Poland, the Kielce Pogrom (July 1946) highlighted the need for Holocaust survivors continue to seek to escape Europe. The British began to hold illegal Jewish immigrants to Palestine at Cyprus internment camps; where immigrants were held indefinitely. Those held were mostly Holocaust survivors, including large numbers of children and orphans. In response to Cypriot fears that the Jews would never leave (since they lacked a state or documentation) the administration subsequently began to allow the refugees to finally reach Palestine at a rate of 750 per month.
The unified resistance movement in Palestine split up in July 1946, after Irgun's bombing of the British Military Headquarters, the King David Hotel, which killed 92, mostly civilians. In the days following the bombing, Tel Aviv was placed under curfew and over 120,000, nearly 20% of the Jewish population of Palestine, were interrogated by CID. The British reaction to the bombing, together with their efforts to halt Jewish migration to Palestine added to voices in US Congress delaying the Anglo-American loan which was vital to preventing bankruptcy of the British Empire. The Labour Government decided to refer the Palestine problem to the United Nations.
United Nations Partition Plan
The UN appointed a committee to decide how to deal with Palestine, the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). While the UNSCOP mission was visiting Palestine, in July 1947, Jewish and Zionist delegations met with the committee; the Arab Higher Committee boycotted the meetings. At this time, British Foreign Secretary Bevin ordered an illegal immigrant ship, the Exodus 1947, to be sent back to Europe. The migrants on the ship were forcibly removed by British troops at Hamburg after a long period in prison ships.
In July 1947 several Irgun fighters were executed in Acre Prison. The Irgun responded with execution of two British sergeants and booby trapped their bodies, which caused outraged in the United Kingdom, and started riots in Liverpool; these spread to other major British cities, including London, Manchester, Cardiff, Derby and Glasgow.[11] The principal non-Zionist Orthodox Jewish (or haredi) party, Agudat Israel, recommended to UNSCOP that a Jewish state be created after reaching a religious status quo agreement with Ben-Gurion regarding the future state. The agreement granted future exemption of yeshiva (religious seminary) students and orthodox women from military service, made the Sabbath the national weekend, promised Kosher food in government institutions and allowed them to maintain a separate education system.[12] In September 1947, one month after Partition of India, UNSCOP recommended partition in Palestine, a suggestion ratified by the UN General Assembly on November 29, 1947.[13] The result envisaged the creation of two states, one Arab and one Jewish, with the city of Jerusalem to be under the direct administration of the United Nations.
The General Assembly resolution called upon Britain to evacuate a seaport and sufficient hinterland to support substantial Jewish migration, by February 1, 1948. Neither Britain nor the UN Security Council acted to implement the resolution and Britain continued imprisoning Jews attempting to migrate, in camps on Cyprus. Concerned that partition would severely damage Anglo-Arab/Muslim relations, Britain refused to cooperate with the UN, denying the UN access to Palestine during the interim period (a requirement of the partition decision). Final evacuation was completed by May 1948. Britain continued to hold Jews of "fighting age" and their families on Cyprus even after leaving Palestine.[citation needed] They were eventually released in March 1949.[citation needed]
The War of Independence (1947–49)
Fighting between the Arab and Jewish communities of Palestine began in November 1947, immediately after the UN decision to create a Jewish state. The Arab States declared they would greet any attempt to form a Jewish state with war.[14] Dr Izzat Tannous, the Palestinian Arab representative to the UN declared that
We are now at war, a war in which no quarter will be asked and none will be given. It will be a battle of life and death and woe to the vanquished.[15]
Fighting spread as the British gradually withdrew. The Arab League could not invade until the British completed their withdrawal, and planned an invasion for the day after. In this phase, before the British departure, the struggle was a civil war. Arab forces consisted of village militias buttressed by the Arab Liberation Army, a force composed largely of Arab volunteers from across the Middle-East but which included European mercenaries including British deserters, German Nazis[16] and veterans of the (Bosnian Moslem) Croatian Waffen SS (whose commander had been the Palestinian Mufti of Jerusalem). The Jews had their militias (including many World War II veterans) and a several thousand strong professional force called the Palmach.
Initially the Arabs had the advantage as the British maintained an embargo on Palestine's seas preventing the Jews from importing arms or manpower while Arab states could supply local Arabs who also occupied more strategic areas. The Jews, however, had a slight manpower advantage over the local Arabs among males in the twenty to forty-four age group,[17] were better organized and believed themselves to be fighting for their lives. Jewish taxes had funded both the British army in Palestine and British support for the Arab population so the Jewish economy benefited from the British departure while the Arab economy collapsed as the war expanded.[dubious ] The Jews had an elected government (the Va'ad Leumi) already in place with an independent taxation system. In the early stages 100,000 Palestinian Arabs, mainly the upper classes and the better off fled to neighbouring states.[18] Before May 1948, 150,000 more fled or were evicted during fighting as the Jews slowly overpowered the Arab forces. Jewish preparation for the Arab invasion led to the eviction of hostile Arab communities who controlled access routes. In Haifa the Arab Higher Committee (who were based in Syria) refused to allow a negotiated cease fire with the Jews or allow the Arab population to remain under Jewish control thus contributing to the departure of the city's Arab population.[19] There was particularly heavy fighting on the road to Jerusalem, whose 100,000 strong Jewish community was cut off from the rest of the country, and this led the Jews to destroy most of the Arab villages along the narrow route they eventually established between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.
State of Israel
On May 14, 1948, the last British forces left Haifa, and the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, declared the creation of the State of Israel, in accordance with the 1947 UN Partition Plan. Both superpower leaders, U.S. President Harry S. Truman and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, immediately recognized the new state. Arab League members Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq declared war and announced their rejection of the UN partition decision. They claimed the right of self-determination for the Arabs of Palestine over the whole of Palestine.[20] Saudi-Arabia and Sudan also sent forces. UN Secretary General Trygve Lie described this as
"the first armed aggression which the world had seen since the end of the war".[21]
The invading Egyptian and Iraqi armies were poorly trained and equipped as the British had feared they would support the Nazis during the Second World War. The Jordanian "Arab Legion" however, was well trained and had aided the British in Palestine. Many Arab Legion forces were still in Palestine when the British left. Arab Legion commanders were high-ranking British officers (who resigned from the British Army in 1948). The Commander-in-Chief was a British General, Glubb Pasha. The invading Arab armies were initially successful but met far harder Jewish resistance than they expected, causing them to slow their advance. On May 29, 1948 the British initiated United Nations Security Council Resolution 50 and declared an arms embargo on the region. Czechoslovakia violated the resolution supplying the Jewish state with critical military hardware to match the heavy equipment and planes available to the invading Arab states. In early June, the UN declared a month-long truce.
Following the announcement of independence, the Haganah became the Israel Defense Forces and the Palmach, Etzel and Lehi were required to join and cease independent existence. During the ceasefire, Etzel attempted to bring in a private arms shipment aboard a ship called "Altalena". When they refused to unconditionally hand over the arms to the government, Ben-Gurion ordered that the ship be sunk. Several Etzel members were killed in the fighting. Large numbers of Jewish immigrants, many of them World War II veterans and hardened Holocaust survivors now began arriving, and many joined the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).[22] When the fighting resumed, Israel gained the upper hand. Arab supply routes were long and fragile and as the war dragged on they had problems replenishing their ammunition supplies. The Jordanian 'Arab Legion', refrained from invading Israeli territory and focused on occupying the West Bank and East Jerusalem.
Armistice
In March 1949, after many months of battle, a permanent ceasefire went into effect and Israel's interim borders, later known as the Green Line, were established. By that time Israel had conquered the Galilee and Negev, however the Syrians remained in control of a strip of territory along the Sea of Galilee originally allocated to the Jewish state, the Lebanese occupied a tiny area at Rosh Hanikra and the Egyptians held the Gaza strip and had some forces surrounded inside Jewish territory. Jordanian forces remained in occupation of East Jerusalem and the West Bank, where the British had stationed them before the war.
Following the ceasefire declaration, Britain released over 2,000 Jewish prisoners it was holding on Cyprus and recognized the state of Israel. On May 11, 1949, Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations.[23] Out of a Jewish population of 650,000, some 6,000 men and women were killed in the fighting, including 4,000 soldiers in the IDF. According to United Nations figures, 726,000 Palestinians left Israeli-controlled territory between 1947 and 1949.[24] In December 1949 the UN (in response to a British proposal) established an agency (UNRWA) to aid Palestinian refugees. The agency still operates and is the only UN agency dedicated to a single group of refugees.
Over the next twenty years 850,000 Jews (almost the entire Jewish population) left the Arab world.[25] Today there are about 9,000 Jews living in the Arab world of whom 75% live in Morocco and 15% in Tunisia. At the end of the war, Egypt remained in occupation of the Gaza Strip and Transjordan annexed the "West Bank" and eastern Jerusalem, including the Old City. Jordan and Egypt did not establish an independent state for Palestinian Arabs and made no effort to facilitate the establishment of Palestine. Except in Jordan, Arab refugees that left Palestine were settled in refugee camps and denied citizenship and civil rights by the Arab countries that hosted them.
The new state established a 120-seat parliament, the Knesset, which first met in Tel Aviv but moved to Jerusalem after the 1949 ceasefire. In January 1949, Israel held its first elections. The first President of Israel was Chaim Weizmann. David Ben-Gurion was elected prime minister. From 1948 until 1977 all governments were led by Mapai and the Alignment, predecessors of the Labour Party. Labour Zionists led by David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics and the economy was run on primarily socialist lines; however, all governments have been coalitions. In 1949, the new Government passed a law making education free and compulsory for all citizens until the age of 14. The state now funded the existing party-affiliated Zionist education system and a new body created by the Haredi Agudat Israel party. A separate body was created to provide education for the Arab population. In 1950 the Knesset passed the Law of Return which granted all Jews and those of Jewish ancestry, and their spouses, the right to migrate to and settle in Israel and gain citizenship.
In 1950 50,000 Yemenite Jews were secretly airlifted to Israel. From 1949-1951, massacres led 30,000 Jews to flee Libya. In 1951 Iraqi Jews were granted temporary permission to leave the country and 120,000 were airlifted to Israel. Jews also fled from Lebanon, Syria and Egypt. Jews were not permitted to live in or enter Saudi Arabia. About 500,000 Jews left Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia by the late sixties. The property Arab Jews abandoned (much of it in city centres) is a matter of dispute.
In three years (1948 to 1951), mass immigration doubled the Jewish population (700,000 immigrants) and left an indelible imprint on Israeli society.[26] Most immigrants were either Holocaust survivors or Jews fleeing Arab lands; the largest groups (over 100,000 each) were from Iraq, Romania and Poland, although immigrants arrived from all over Europe and the Middle East.[27] From 1948 to 1958, the population rose from 800,000 to two million. During this period, food, clothes and furniture were rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period (Tkufat haTsena). Immigrants were mostly refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot.
Under the existing system major political parties ran their own education systems and these now competed for immigrants to join them. Fearing that the immigrants lacked sufficient "Zionist motivation", the government banned the existing educational bodies from teaching in the transit camps and instead tried to mandate a unitary secular socialist education.[28] Education came under the control of "camp managers" who also had to provide work, food and housing for the immigrants. There were attempts to force orthodox Yemenite children to adopt a secular life style by teachers, including many instances of Yemenite children having their side-curls cut by teachers. Immigrants who dissented from political lines sometimes faced discrimination, although no one went hungry and all were eventually housed. This treatment of Orthodox children led to the first Israeli public enquiry (the Fromkin Inquiry).[29] The crisis led to the collapse of the coalition and an election in 1951, with little change in the results from the previous election.
By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in tents or pre-fabricated shacks built by the government. Most of the financial aid Israel received were private donations from outside the country (mainly in the USA).[30] The need to solve the economic crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany. During the Knesset debate some 5,000 demonstrators gathered and riot police had to cordon the building. During the debate, the Herut leader Menachem Begin and Ben-Gurion called each other fascists and Begin branded Ben-Gurion a "hooligan."[31]
Dalia Ofer estimates that by 1952 about 400,000 Israelis were Jews who had been severely displaced by the Holocaust, and the Israeli government's demand for German reparations was in lieu of the expenses involved in resettling them.[32] Israel received several billion marks and in return Israel agreed to open diplomatic relations with Germany.
In its early years Israel sought to maintain a non-aligned position between the super-powers. Both the USA and the USSR had widespread support in Israel, however in 1952 an anti-Semitic public trial was staged in Moscow of a group of Jewish doctors accused of trying to poison Stalin (the Doctors' plot), followed by a similar trial in Czechoslovakia (Slánský trial). That and the failure of Israel to get invited to the Bandung Conference (of non-aligned states), effectively ended Israeli non-alignment. At this time the United States pursued close relations with the new Arab states, particularly the Egyptian Free Officers Movement and Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia.
Israel's solution to the diplomatic isolation resulting from Arab boycotts was to establish good relations with the emerging states in Africa[33] and with France which was then engaged in the Algerian War. In 1953 the party-affiliated education system was scrapped. The General Zionist and Socialist Zionist education systems were united to become the secular State education system while the Mizrahi became the State Modern-Orthodox system. Agudat Israel were allowed to maintain their existing school system. At the end of 1953, Ben Gurion retired to Kibbutz Sde Boker in the Negev.
In January 1954 Moshe Sharett became Prime-Minister of Israel, however his government was brought down by the Lavon Affair, a crude plan to disrupt US-Egyptian relations, involving Egyptian Israeli agents planting bombs at American sites in Egypt. The plan failed when the eleven agents were arrested. Defense Minister Lavon was blamed despite his denial of responsibility.[34] Archaeologist and General Yigael Yadin, purchased the Dead Sea Scrolls on behalf of the State of Israel. The entire first batch to be discovered were now owned by Israel and housed in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum. In 1954 the Uzi submachine gun first entered use by the Israel Defense Forces. The Lavon affair led to Sharett's resignation and Ben-Gurion returned to the post of Prime-Minister winning the 1955 election.
Ben-Gurion II (1956–63)
In 1955, Czechoslovakia began supplying arms to Egypt, and France became Israel's principal arms supplier.[35] Rudolph Kastner, a minor political functionary, was accused of collaborating with the Nazis and sued his accuser. Kastner lost the trial and was assassinated two years later. In 1958 the Supreme Court exonerated him. The Egyptian government began recruiting former Nazi rocket scientists for a missile program.[36][37] Some Nazi war criminals found asylum in the Arab world, including Alois Brunner.[38]
The Sinai Campaign came about as conflict between Egypt and Israel increased in 1956. During the Fifties, hundreds of Israelis were killed in Fedayeen attacks from (Egyptian occupied) Gaza into Israeli territory. The attacks began as private initiatives by Palestinian refugees and the victims were frequently Jewish refugees from Arab countries. Fedayeen attacks led to a growing cycle of violence as Israel launched reprisal attacks against Gaza and the Egyptian government organized and sponsored the Fedayeen.
In 1956 Egypt blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba, and closed the Suez canal to Israeli shipping. The canal was then nationalized, to the dismay of its British and French shareholders. In response, France and the United Kingdom entered into a secret agreement with Israel to take back the canal by force.
In accordance with this agreement Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula in October 1956. Israeli forces reached the Suez canal and then French and British forces stepped in on the pretext of restoring order. It is believed the French also agreed to build a nuclear plant for the Israelis and that by 1968 this was able to produce nuclear weapons.
The Israeli, French and United Kingdom forces were victorious, but withdrew in March 1957 due to pressure from the United States and USSR. The United Nations established the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) to keep peace in the area. In return for the withdrawal Israel was guaranteed freedom of access to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal and action to end attacks from Gaza.[39] In practice the Suez Canal remained closed to Israeli shipping.
In October 1957 a deranged man threw a handgrenade inside the Knesset wounding Ben-Gurion.[40] Ben-Gurion was once again victorious in the 1959 elections.
In May 1960 the Mossad located Adolf Eichmann, one of the chief administrators of the Nazi Holocaust, in Argentina and kidnapped him to Israel. In 1961 he was put on trial and after several months found guilty and sentenced to death. He was hanged in 1962 and is the only person ever sentenced to death by an Israeli court. Testimonies by Holocaust survivors at the trial and the extensive publicity which surrounded it has led the trial to be considered a turning point in public awareness of the Holocaust.[41]
In 1961 a Herut non-confidence motion over the Lavon affair led to Ben-Gurion's resignation. Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from the position of the head of Histadrut, Israel's labor union organization (due to his role in the Lavon Affair). His demands were accepted and he won the 1961 election.
In 1962 the Mossad began assassinating German rocket scientists working in Egypt after one of them reported the missile program was designed to carry chemical warheads. This action was condemned by Ben-Gurion and led to the Mossad director, Isser Harel's resignation.[42]
In 1963 Ben-Gurion quit again over the Lavon scandal. His attempts to make his party Mapai support him over the issue failed, and Ben-Gurion left the party to form Rafi. Levi Eshkol became leader of Mapai and the new Prime-Minister.
Eshkol (1963–69)
In 1963 Yigael Yadin began excavating Massada. In 1964, Egypt, Jordan and Syria developed a unified military command. Israel completed work on a national water carrier, a huge engineering project designed to transfer Israel's allocation of the Jordan river's waters towards the south of the country in realization of Ben-Gurion's dream of mass Jewish settlement of the Negev desert. The Arabs responded by trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan and this led to growing conflict between Israel and Syria.[43] In 1964, Israeli Rabbinical authorities accepted that the Bene Israel of India were indeed Jewish and most of the remaining Indian Jews migrated to Israel. The 2000 strong Jewish community of Cochin had already migrated in 1954.
In the 1965 elections Levi Eshkol was victorious. Until 1966, Israel's principal arms supplier was France, however in 1966, following the withdrawal from Algeria, Charles de Gaulle announced France would cease supplying Israel with arms (and refused to refund money paid for 50 warplanes).[44] In 1966 security restrictions placed on Arab citizens of Israel were lifted and efforts began to integrate them into the country's life. Black and white TV broadcasts began.
On May 15, 1967 the first public performance of Naomi Shemer's classic song "Jerusalem of Gold" took place and over the next few weeks it dominated the Israeli airwaves. Two days later Syria, Egypt and Jordan amassed troops along the Israeli borders and Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping. Nasser demanded that the UNEF leave Sinai, threatening escalation to a full war. Egyptian radio broadcasts talked of a coming genocide.[45] Israel responded by calling up its civilian reserves, bringing much of the Israeli economy to a halt. The Israelis set up a national unity coalition, including for the first time Menachem Begin's party, Herut in a coalition. During a national radio broadcast, Prime-Minister Levi Eshkol stammered, causing widespread fear in Israel. To calm public concern Moshe Dayan (Chief of Staff during the Sinai war) was appointed defense minister.
On the morning before Dayan was sworn in, June 5, 1967, the Israeli air force launched pre-emptive attacks destroying first the Egyptian air force and then later the same day destroying the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria. By June 11 the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236.
Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River. East Jerusalem was immediately arguably[46] annexed by Israel and its population granted Israeli citizenship. Other areas occupied remained under military rule (Israeli civil law did not apply to them) pending a final settlement. The Golan was also annexed in 1981.
On November 22, 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the "land for peace" formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries. The resolution was accepted by both sides, though with different interpretations, and eventually provided the basis for peace negotiations.
For the first time since the end of the British Mandate, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall to which they had been denied access by the Jordanians (in contravention of the 1949 Armistice agreement). In Hebron, Jews gained access to the Cave of the Patriarchs (the second most holy site in Judaism) for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were only allowed to pray at the entrance).[47] A third Jewish holy site, Rachel's Tomb, in Bethlehem, also became accessible.
After 1967 the USA began supplying Israel with aircraft. Anti-Semitic purges led to the final migration of the last Polish Jews to Israel. In 1968 Moshe Levinger led a group of Religious Zionists who created the first Jewish settlement, a town near Hebron called Kiryat Arba. There were no other religious settlements until after 1974. In 1968, compulsory education was extended until the age of 16 for all citizens (it had been 14) and the government embarked on an extensive program of integration in education. In the major cities children from mainly Sephardi/Mizrahi neighbourhoods were bused to newly established middle schools in better areas. The system remained in place until after 2000. In early 1969, fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. In retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in the 1969-1970 "War of Attrition". The United States helped end these hostilities in August 1970, but subsequent U.S. efforts to negotiate an interim agreement to open the Suez Canal and achieve the disengagement of forces were unsuccessful.
In 1969 some 50 of the remaining Iraqi Jews were executed, 11 were publicly executed after show trials and several hundred thousand Iraqis marched past the bodies amid a carnival-like atmosphere.[48] In late 1969, Levi Eshkol died in office, of a heart attack, and was succeeded by Golda Meir.
Meir (1969–74)
In the 1969 election, Golda Meir became Prime Minister with the largest percentage of the vote ever won by an Israeli party. Meir was the first female prime minister of Israel and is the only woman to have headed a Middle Eastern state in modern times. In September 1970 King Hussein of Jordan drove the Palestine Liberation Organization out of his country. On 18 September 1970 Syrian tanks invaded Jordan, intending to aid the PLO. At the request of the USA, Israel moved troops to the border and threatened Syria, causing the Syrians to withdraw. The center of PLO activity then shifted to Lebanon, where the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the Palestinians autonomy within the south of the country. The area controlled by the PLO became known by the international press and locals as "Fatahland" and contributed to the 1975-1990 Lebanese Civil War. The event also led to Hafez al-Assad taking power in Syria. Egyptian President Nasser died immediately after and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. During 1971, violent demonstrations by the Israeli Black Panthers, made the Israeli public aware of resentment among Mizrahi Jews at ongoing discrimination and social gaps.[49] Increased Soviet antisemitism and enthusiasm generated by the 1967 victory led to a wave of Jews applying to emigrate to Israel. Most Jews were refused exit visas and persecuted by the authorities. They became known as Prisoners of Zion. Those who left could only take two suitcases.
In 1972 the US Jewish Mafia leader, Meyer Lansky, who had taken refuge in Israel, was deported to the USA. At the Munich Olympics, 11 members of the Israeli team were taken hostage by Palestinian terrorists. A botched German rescue attempt led to the death of all 11 Israeli athletes and coaches. Five of the terrorists were shot and three survived unharmed. The three surviving Palestinians were released without charge by the German authorities a month later. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.
In 1971 the new Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had shown willingness to sign a peace treaty with Israel in return for the Sinai territories Israel captured in the 1967 war, but Israel refused the offer. In 1972 Sadat publicly announced that Egypt was "committed to going to war with Israel" and was willing to "sacrifice one million Egyptian soldiers".[50] A 1972 expulsion of Soviet advisors by Sadat led to Israeli complacency about the military threat from the Arab world. In 1973, 11 days before Yom Kippur, King Hussein repaid Israel for its assistance in September 1970 by warning Golda Meir of an impending Syrian attack. Meir ignored the warning.[51]
The Yom Kippur War (also known as the October War) began on October 6, 1973 (the Jewish Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar and a day when adult Jews are required to fast. The Syrian and Egyptian armies launched a well-planned surprise attack against the unprepared Israeli Defense Forces. For the first few days there was a great deal of uncertainty about Israel's capacity to repel the invaders, however the Syrians were repulsed and, although the Egyptians captured a strip of territory in Sinai, Israeli forces had in turn crossed the Suez Canal and were 100 kilometres from Cairo.[52]
Although the war's results were generally favourable to Israel, it cost over 2,000 dead and resulted in a heavy arms bill. The war generally made Israelis more aware of their vulnerability. Following the war, both Israelis and Egyptians showed greater willingness to negotiate. On January 18, 1974, following extensive diplomacy by US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, a Disengagement of Forces agreement was signed with the Egyptian government, and on May 31 with the Syrian government. On the international scene, the war led the Saudi Government to initiate the oil embargo, in conjunction with OPEC, against countries trading with Israel, contributing to stagflation in the US economy. As a result, many countries broke off relations with Israel or downgraded relations and Israel was banned from participation in the Asian Games and other Asian sporting events.
In May 1974, Palestinians attacked a school in Ma'alot, holding 102 children hostage. Twenty-two children were killed. In November 1974 the PLO was granted observer status at the UN and Yasser Arafat addressed the General Assembly. Later that year the Agranat Commission, appointed to assess responsibility for Israel's lack of preparedness for the war, exonerated the government of responsibility and held the Chief of Staff and head of military intelligence responsible. Despite the report, public anger at the Government led to Golda Meir's resignation.
Rabin I (1974–76)
Following Meir's resignation, Yitzhak Rabin (Chief of Staff during the Six Day War) became prime minister. Modern Orthodox Jews (Religious Zionist followers of the teachings of Rabbi Kook), formed the Gush Emunim movement and began an organized drive to settle the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In November 1975 the United Nations General Assembly, under the guidance of Austrian Secretary General Kurt Waldheim, adopted Resolution 3379 which asserted Zionism to be a form of racism. The General Assembly rescinded this resolution in December 1991 with Resolution 46/86. In July 1976, an Air France plane carrying 260 people was hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists and flown to Uganda, then ruled by Idi Amin Dada. There, the Germans separated the Jewish passengers from the Non-Jewish passengers, releasing the non-Jews. The hijackers threatened to kill the remaining, 100-odd Jewish passengers (and the French crew who had refused to leave). Despite the distances involved, Rabin ordered a daring rescue operation in which the kidnapped Jews were freed.[53] UN Secretary General Waldheim described the raid as "a serious violation of the national sovereignty of a United Nations member state" (meaning Uganda).[54] In 1976, the ongoing Lebanese Civil War led Israel to allow some South Lebanese to cross the border and work in Israel. At the end of 1976, Rabin resigned after it emerged that his wife maintained a dollar account in the United States (illegal at the time), which had been opened while Rabin was Israeli ambassador. The incident became known as the Dollar Account affair.
Peres I (1976–77)
Shimon Peres replaced him as prime minister, leading the Alignment in the subsequent elections. In January 1977, French authorities arrested Abu Daoud, the planner of the Munich massacre, releasing him a few days later.[55] In March 1977 Anatoly Sharansky, a prominent Russian Zionist, was sentenced to 13 years' hard labour.
Begin (1977–82)
In a surprise result, the Likud led by Menachem Begin won the 1977 elections. This was the first time in Israeli history that the government was not led by the left. A key reason for the victory was anger among Mizrahi Jews at discrimination, which was to play an important role in Israeli politics for many years. Moroccan-born David Levy made a major contribution to winning Mizrahi support for Begin. Many Labour voters voted for the Democratic Movement for Change in protest at high-profile corruption cases. The party joined in coalition with Begin and disappeared at the next election.
In addition to starting a process of healing the Mizrahi-Ashkenazi divide, Begin's government included Ultra-Orthodox Jews and was instrumental in healing the Zionist - Ultra-Orthodox rift. Begin's liberalization of the economy led to hyper-inflation but enabled Israel to begin receiving US financial aid. Begin actively supported Gush Emunim's efforts to settle the West Bank and Jewish settlements began in the occupied territories received government support , thus laying the grounds for intense conflict with the Palestinian population of the occupied territories.
Begin had been tortured by the KGB as a young man and one of his first acts was to instruct the Israeli secret service to "use wisdom rather than violence" in interrogations.[56]
In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat broke 30 years of hostility with Israel by visiting Jerusalem at the invitation of Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. Sadat's two-day visit included a speech before the Knesset, and was a turning point in the history of the conflict. The Egyptian leader created a new psychological climate in the Middle East in which peace between Israel and its Arab neighbours seemed possible. Sadat recognized Israel's right to exist and established the basis for direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel.
Following Sadat's visit, 350 Yom Kippur War veterans organized the Peace Now movement to encourage Israeli governments to make peace with the Arabs.
In March 1978, eleven armed Lebanese-Palestinians reached Israel in boats and hijacked a bus carrying families on a day outing, killing 35 people, including 13 children. The attackers opposed the Egyptian-Israeli peace process. Three days later, Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon beginning Operation Litani. After passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) peace-keeping force, Israel withdrew its troops.
In September 1978, U.S. President Jimmy Carter invited President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to meet with him at Camp David, and on September 11 they agreed on a framework for peace between Israel and Egypt and a comprehensive peace in the Middle East. It set out broad principles to guide negotiations between Israel and the Arab states. It also established guidelines for a West Bank-Gaza transitional regime of full autonomy for the Palestinians residing in these territories and for a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. The treaty was signed on March 26, 1979, by Begin and Sadat, with President Carter signing as witness. Under the treaty, Israel returned the Sinai peninsula to Egypt in April 1982. The final piece of territory to be repatriated was Taba, adjacent to Eilat, returned in 1989.
In December 1978 the Israeli Merkava battle tank entered use with the IDF.
| 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population (millions) | 1.4 | 2.1 | 3 | 3.9 | 4.8 | 6 |
| % of world's Jews | 7% | 20% | 25% | 30% | 39% | |
| GDP per capita 1995 NIS | 10,100 | 16,800 | 27,800 | 36,000 | 42,400 |
The Arab League reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from the organisation and moving its headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by Islamic fundamentalist members of the Egyptian army who opposed peace with Israel. Following the agreement Israel and Egypt became the two largest recipients of US military and financial aid (Iraq has now overtaken them by a large margin).[58] On 30 June 1981, the Israeli air-force destroyed the Osirak nuclear reactor that France was building for Iraq. Three weeks later, Begin won yet again, in the 1981 elections (48 seats Likud, 47 Labour). Ariel Sharon was made defense minister. The new government annexed the Golan Heights and banned El Al from flying on the Sabbath.
In the decades following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet compared to its borders with other neighbours. But the 1969 Cairo agreement gave the PLO a free hand to attack Israel from South Lebanon. The area was governed by the PLO independently of the Lebanese Government and became known as "Fatahland" (Fatah was the largest faction in the PLO). Palestinian irregulars constantly shelled the Israeli north, especially the town of Kiryat Shmona, which was a Likud stronghold inhabited primarily by Jews who had fled the Arab world. Lack of control over Palestinian areas was an important factor in causing civil war in Lebanon.
In June 1982, the attempted assassination of Shlomo Argov, the ambassador to Britain, was used as a pretext for an Israeli invasion aiming to drive the PLO out of the southern half of Lebanon. Sharon agreed with Chief of Staff Raphael Eitan to expand the invasion deep into Lebanon even though the cabinet had only authorized a 40 kilometer deep invasion.[59] The invasion became known as the 1982 Lebanon War and the Israeli army occupied Beirut, the only time an Arab capital has been occupied by Israel. Some of the Shia and Christian population of South Lebanon welcomed the Israelis, as PLO forces had maltreated them, but Lebanese resentment of Israeli occupation grew over time and the Shia became gradually radicalized under Iranian guidance.[60] Constant casualties among Israeli soldiers and Lebanese civilians led to growing opposition to the war in Israel.
In August 1982, the PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon (moving to Tunisia). Israel helped engineer the election of a new Lebanese president, Bashir Gemayel, who agreed to recognize Israel and sign a peace treaty. Gemayal was assassinated before an agreement could be signed, and one day later Phalangist Christian forces led by Elie Hobeika entered two Palestinian refugee camps and massacred the occupants. The massacres led to the biggest demonstration ever in Israel against the war, with as many as 400,000 people (almost 10% of the population) gathering in Tel Aviv. In 1983, an Israeli public inquiry found that Israel's defense minister, Sharon, was indirectly but personally responsible for the massacres.[61] It also recommended that he never again be allowed to hold the post (it did not forbid him from being Prime Minister).
Shamir (1983–91)
In September 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir as prime minister. The 1984 election was inconclusive and led to a power sharing agreement between Shimon Peres of the Alignment (44 seats) and Shamir of Likud (41 seats). Peres was prime minister from 1984 to 1986 and Shamir from 1986 to 1988. In 1984, continual discrimination against Sephardi ultra-orthodox Jews by the Ashkenazi ultra-orthodox establishment led political activist Aryeh Deri to leave the Agudat Israel party and join former chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef in forming Shas, a new party aimed at the non-Ashkenazi Ultra-Orthodox vote. The party won 11 seats in the first election it contested and over the next twenty years was the third largest party in the Knesset. Shas established a nationwide network of free Sephardi orthodox schools. In 1984, during a severe famine in Ethiopia, 8,000 Ethiopian Jews were secretly transported to Israel. In 1986 Natan Sharansky, a famous Russian human rights activist and Zionist refusenik (denied an exit visa) was released from the Gulag in return for two Soviet spies.
In June 1985, Israel withdrew most of its troops from Lebanon, leaving a residual Israeli force and an Israeli-supported militia in southern Lebanon as a "security zone" and buffer against attacks on its northern territory. By July 1985 Israel's inflation, buttressed by complex index linking of salaries, had reached 480% per annum and was the highest in the world. Peres introduced emergency control of prices and cut government expenditure successfully bringing inflation under control. The currency (known as the Israeli lira until 1980) was replaced and renamed the Israeli new shekel. In August 1987, the Israeli government cancelled the IAI Lavi project, an attempt to develop an independent Israeli fighter aircraft. The Israelis found themselves unable to sustain the huge development costs and faced US opposition to a project that threatened US influence in Israel and US global military ascendancy. In September 1988, Israel launched an Ofeq reconsaissance satellite into orbit, using a Shavit rocket, thus becoming one of only eight countries possessing a capacity to independently launch satellites into space (two more have since developed this ability).
Growing Israeli settlement and continuing occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, led to the first Palestinian Intifada (uprising) in 1987 which lasted until the Madrid Conference of 1991, despite Israeli attempts to suppress it. Human rights abuses by Israeli troops led a group of Israelis to form B'Tselem, an organization devoted to improving awareness and compliance with human rights requirements in Israel.
The Alignment and Likud remained neck and neck in the 1988 elections (39:40 seats). Shamir successfully formed a national unity coalition with the Labour Alignment.
In March 1990, Alignment leader Shimon Peres engineered a defeat of the government in a non-confidence vote and then tried to form a new government. He failed and Shamir became Prime-Minister at the head of a right-wing coalition. In 1990, the Soviet Union finally permitted free emigration of Soviet Jews to Israel. Prior to this, Jews trying to leave the USSR faced persecution; those who succeeded arrived as refugees. Over the next few years some one million Soviet citizens migrated to Israel, and there was concern that some of the new immigrants had only a very tenuous connection to Judaism and many were accompanied by non-Jewish relatives.
In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait, triggering the Gulf War between Iraq and a large allied force, led by the United States. Iraq attacked Israel with 39 Scud missiles. Israel did not retaliate. Israel provided gas masks for both the Palestinian population and Israeli citizens. In May 1991, during a 36 hour period, 15,000 Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) were secretly airlifted to Israel. The coalition's victory in the Gulf War opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the U.S. President, George H.W. Bush and Soviet Union Premier, Mikhail Gorbachev, jointly convened a historic meeting in Madrid of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders. Shamir opposed the idea but agreed in return for loan guarantees to help with absorption of immigrants from the former Soviet Union. His participation in the conference led to the collapse of his (right-wing) coalition.
Rabin II (1992–95)
In the 1992 elections, the Labour Party, led by Yitzhak Rabin, won a significant victory (44 seats) promising to pursue peace while promoting Rabin as a "tough general" and pledging not to deal with the PLO in any way. The pro-peace Zionist party Meretz won 12 seats and the Arab and communist parties a further 5 meaning that parties supporting a peace treaty had a full (albeit small) majority in the Knesset.
On September 13, 1993, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) signed a Declaration of Principles [62] on the South Lawn of the White House. The principles established objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority, as a prelude to a final treaty establishing a Palestinian state. The DOP established May 1999 as the date by which a permanent status agreement for the West Bank and Gaza Strip would take effect. In February 1994, a follower of the Kach movement killed 25 Palestinian-Arabs at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron (Cave of the Patriarchs massacre). Kach had been barred from participation in the 1992 elections (on the grounds that the movement was racist). It was subsequently made illegal. Israel and the PLO signed the Gaza-Jericho Agreement in May 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in August, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians. On July 18, 1994, a Jewish day centre in Argentina was blown up, killing 85 people. Argentine investigators concluded the attack was by Lebanese Hezbollah with Iranian assistance.
On July 25, 1994 Jordan and Israel signed the Washington Declaration which formally ended the state of war that had existed between them since 1948 and on October 26 the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace, witnessed by US President Bill Clinton.[63][64]
Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat signed the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on September 28, 1995, in Washington. The agreement was witnessed by President Bill Clinton on behalf of the United States and by Russia, Egypt, Norway and the European Union and incorporates and supersedes the previous agreements, marking the conclusion of the first stage of negotiations between Israel and the PLO. The agreement allowed the PLO leadership to relocate to the occupied territories and granted autonomy to the Palestinians with talks to follow regarding final status. In return the Palestinians promised to abstain from use of terror and changed the Palestinian National Covenant which had called for the expulsion of all Jews who migrated after 1917 and the elimination of Israel.[65]
The agreement was opposed by Hamas and other Palestinian factions which launched suicide bomber attacks at Israel. Rabin had a barrier constructed around Gaza to prevent attacks. The growing separation between Israel and the "Palestinian Territories" led to a labour shortage in Israel, mainly in the construction industry. Israeli firms began importing labourers from the Philippines, Thailand, China and Romania, some of these labourers stayed on without visas. In addition a growing number of Africans began illegally migrating to Israel. Tensions in Israel arising from the continuation of terrorism led to the assassination of Prime Minister Rabin by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4, 1995.
Direct elections 1996–2005
In 1992 the Israeli electoral system was changed to allow for direct election of the prime minister. It was hoped this would reduce the power of small parties to extract concessions in return for coalition agreements. The new system had the opposite effect; voters could split their vote for prime-minister from their (interest based) party vote and as a result larger parties won fewer votes and smaller parties becoming more attractive to voters. It thus increased the power of the smaller parties. By the 2006 election the system was abandoned.
Netanyahu I (1996–99)
In February 1996 Rabin's successor, Shimon Peres, called early elections. The May 1996 elections were the first featuring direct election of the prime minister and resulted in a narrow election victory for Likud leader Binyamin Netanyahu. A spate of suicide bombings reinforced the Likud position for security. Hamas claimed responsibility for most of the bombings. Despite his stated differences with the Oslo Accords, Prime Minister Netanyahu continued their implementation, but his Prime Ministership saw a marked slow-down in the Peace Process. Netanyahu also pledged to gradually reduce US aid to Israel.[66]
In January 1997 Netanyahu signed the Hebron Protocol with the Palestinian Authority, resulting in the redeployment of Israeli forces in Hebron and the turnover of civilian authority in much of the area to the Palestinian Authority.
Barak (1999–2001)
In the election of July 1999, Ehud Barak of the Labour Party became Prime Minister. His party was the largest in the Knesset with 26 seats. On March 21, 2000 Pope John Paul II arrived in Israel for a historic visit. In 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its remaining forces from the "security zone" in southern Lebanon. Several thousand members of the South Lebanon Army (and their families) left with the Israelis. The UN Secretary-General concluded [67] that, as of June 16, 2000, Israel had withdrawn its forces from Lebanon in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425. Lebanon claims that Israel continues to occupy Lebanese territory called "Sheba'a Farms" (however this area was governed by Syria until 1967 when Israel took control). The Sheba'a Farms provide Hezbollah with a ruse to maintain warfare with Israel. The Lebanese government did not assert sovereignty in the area (in contravention of the UN resolution) which came under the control of Hezbollah.
In the Fall of 2000, talks were held at Camp David to reach a final agreement on the Israel/Palestine conflict. Ehud Barak offered to meet most of the Palestinian teams requests for territory and political concessions, including Arab parts of east Jerusalem; however, Arafat abandoned the talks without making a counterproposal.[68]
On September 28, 2000, Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount, the following day the Palestinians launched the al-Aqsa Intifada. Israel claims the Palestinians had planned violence far in advance of Sharon's visit. In his book The High Cost of Peace, Yossef Bodansky describes the event: "When Sharon expressed interest in visiting the Temple Mount, Barak ordered GSS chief Ami Ayalon to approach Jibril Rajoub with a special request to facilitate a smooth and friendly visit... Rajoub promised it would be smooth as long as Sharon would refrain from entering any of the mosques or praying publicly... Just to be on the safe side, Barak personally approached Arafat and once again got assurances that Sharon's visit would be smooth..." (p354) In October 2000, Palestinians destroyed Joseph's Tomb, a Jewish shrine in Nablus. The Arrow missile, a missile designed to destroy ballistic missiles, including Scud missiles, was first deployed by Israel. In 2001, with the Peace Process increasingly in disarray, Ehud Barak called a special election for Prime Minister. Barak hoped a victory would give him renewed authority in negotiations with the Palestinians. Instead opposition leader Ariel Sharon was elected PM. After this election, the system of directly electing the Premier was abandoned.
Sharon (2001–06)
The failure of the peace process, increased Palestinian terror, and occasional attacks by Hezbollah from Lebanon led much of the Israeli public and political leadership to lose confidence in the Palestinian Authority as a peace partner. Most felt that many Palestinians viewed the peace treaty with Israel as a temporary measure only. Many Israelis were thus anxious to disengage from the Palestinians.
In response to a wave of suicide bomb attacks, culminating in the "Passover massacre" (see List of Israeli civilian casualties in the Second Intifada), Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield, and Sharon began construction of a barrier around the West Bank. In January 2003 separate elections were held for the Knesset. Likud won the most seats (27). An anti-religion party, Shinui, won 15 seats on a secularist platform, making it the third largest party (ahead of orthodox Shas). Internal fighting led to Shinui's demise at the next election. In December 2003, Ariel Sharon announced he would consider a unilateral withdrawal from parts of the occupied territories. This crystallized as a plan for total withdrawal from the Gaza Strip.
In 2004, the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel. The group had begun migrating to Israel 25 years earlier from the United States, but had not been recognized as Jews by the state and hence not granted citizenship under Israel's Law of Return. They had settled in Israel without official status. From 2004 onwards, they received citizen's rights. In 2005, all Jewish settlers were evacuated from Gaza (some forcibly) and their homes demolished. Disengagement from the Gaza Strip was completed on September 12, 2005. Military disengagement from the northern West Bank was completed ten days later. Following the withdrawal, the Israeli town of Sderot and other Israeli communities near the frontier became subject to constant shelling and mortar bomb attacks from Gaza. In 2005 Sharon left the Likud and formed a new party called Kadima, which accepted that the peace process would lead to creation of a Palestinian state. He was joined by many leading figures from both Likud and Labour. The Israeli withdrawal from Gaza was interpreted by the Palestinians as a Hamas victory and the January Palestinian legislative election, 2006 was won by Hamas, which rejected all agreements signed with Israel, refused to recognize Israel's right to exist, and claimed the Holocaust was a Jewish conspiracy. On April 14, 2006, Ariel Sharon was incapacitated by a severe hemorrhagic stroke, and Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister.[69]
Olmert (2006–08)
Ehud Olmert was elected Prime Minister after his party, Kadima, won the most seats (29) in the Israeli legislative election, 2006.
In 2005 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was officially elected president of Iran; since then, Iranian policy towards Israel has grown more confrontational. Israeli analysts believe Ahmadinejad has worked to undermine the peace process with arms supplies and aid to Hezbullah in South Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza[70] and is developing nuclear weapons, possibly for use against Israel.[71] Iranian support for Hizbullah and its nuclear arms program are in contravention of UN Security Council resolutions 1559 and 1747. Iran also encourages Holocaust denial. Following the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, Hizbullah had mounted periodic attacks on Israel which did not lead to Israeli retaliation. Similarly, the withdrawal from Gaza led to incessant shelling of towns around the Gaza area with only minimal Israeli response. The failure to react led to criticism from the Israeli right and undermined the government.
On June 25, 2006, a Hamas force crossed the border from Gaza and attacked a tank, capturing wounded Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit.[72] On July 12, Hezbollah attacked Israel from Lebanon, shelled Israeli towns and attacked a border patrol, taking two dead or badly wounded Israeli soldiers. These incidents led Israel to initiate the Second Lebanon War, which lasted through August 2006. The Israeli army proved unable to prevent Hizbullah from shelling the north of Israel, and the military failure led to a public inquiry.
In 2007 education was made compulsory until the age of 18 for all citizens (it had been 16). Refugees from the genocide in Darfur, mostly Moslem, arrived in Israel illegally, with some given Asylum.[73] Illegal immigrants arrived mainly from Africa in addition to foreign workers overstaying their visas. The numbers of such migrants are not known and estimates vary between 30,000 and over 100,000.
Olmert also came under investigation for corruption and this ultimately led him to announce, on July 30, 2008, that he would be stepping down as Prime Minister following election of a new leader of the Kadimah party in September 2008. Tzippi Livni won the election, but was unable to form a coalition and he remained in office until the general election.
On December 27, 2008, following the collapse of an unofficial cease-fire between Israel and Gaza and resumption of shelling of southern Israeli towns from Gaza, Israeli forces mounted a three-week campaign in Gaza, leading to widespread international protests.
Netanyahu II
In the 2009 legislative election Likud won 27 seats and Kadima 28; however, the right-wing camp won a majority of seats, and President Shimon Peres called on Netanyahu to form the government. Russian immigrant-dominated Yisrael Beiteinu came third with 15 seats, and Labour was reduced to fourth place with 13 seats.
See also
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- Years in Israel
- Archaeological sites in Israel
- Israeli literature
- Music of Israel
- Culture of Israel
- History of the Levant
- History of the Jews in the Land of Israel
- Paris Peace Conference, 1919
- Faisal–Weizmann Agreement
- 1949 Armistice Agreements
- Egyptian–Israeli Peace Treaty
- Madrid Conference of 1991
- Israel–Jordan peace treaty
- 2000 Camp David Summit
- History of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Peace process in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict
- Projects working for peace among Arabs and Israelis
- List of Middle East peace proposals
- International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict
Further reading
- Berger, Earl The Covenant and the Sword: Arab-Israeli Relations, 1948-56, London, Routledge K. Paul, 1965.
- Bregman, Ahron A History of Israel, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 ISBN 0-333-67632-7.
- Bright, John (2000). A History of Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=0VG67yLs-LAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Bright+History+of+Israel&source=bl&ots=v_NofKvZz3&sig=o6rqy_A7f26lDVm56CDLhNHOFYc&hl=en&ei=SijNTO3aC8nRcf2cibUO&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Butler, L.J. Britain and Empire: Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World I.B. Tauris 2002 ISBN 1-86064-449-X
- Coogan, Michael D., ed. (1998). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=zFhvECwNQD0C&dq=The+Oxford+History+of+the+Biblical+World&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=ToBWTIreOITJceLI7L8M&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false. Stager, Lawrence E. "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel".
- Darwin, John Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post-War World Palgrave Macmillan 1988 ISBN 0-333-29258-8
- Davis, John, The Evasive Peace: a Study of the Zionist-Arab Problem, London: J. Murray, 1968.
- Dever, William (2003). Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?. Eerdmans. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8WkbUkKeqcoC&dq=Who+were+the+early+Israelites,+and+where+did+they+come+from%3F&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=XDxdS8SRKc6OkQXd_YymAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Eytan, Walter The First Ten Years: a Diplomatic History of Israel, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1958
- Gilbert, Martin Israel: A History, New York: Morrow, 1998 ISBN 0-688-12362-7.
- Horrox, James A Living Revolution: Anarchism in the Kibbutz Movement, Oakland: AK Press, 2009
- Herzog, Haim The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence to Lebanon, London: Arms and Armour; Tel Aviv, Israel: Steimatzky, 1984 ISBN 0-85368-613-0.
- Israel Office of Information Israel’s Struggle for Peace, New York, 1960.
- Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 B.C.E.. Society of Biblical Literature. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=VtAmmwapfVAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Biblical+peoples+and+ethnicity:+an+archaeological&source=bl&ots=ZaKtgpooxk&sig=Qc02Q0uT2nZCL1zyDStCvgRsjMA&hl=en&ei=2X7WS5yOCJCTkAWG6I3ABg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Laqueur, Walter Confrontation: the Middle-East War and World Politics, London: Wildwood House, 1974, ISBN 0-7045-0096-5.
- Lucas, Noah The Modern History of Israel, New York: Praeger, 1975.
- McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=hd28MdGNyTYC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=Reconstructing+the+Society+of+Ancient+Israel++By+Paula+M.+McNutt&source=bl&ots=aE91cj05u4&sig=Jl3tjrv1Qfr0S3wcWYTDc7FFZ9M&hl=en&ei=VGhZS46fMM-IkAWng9mhAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 066421262X. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=uDijjc_D5P0C&dq=A+history+of+ancient+Israel+and+Judah++By+James+Maxwell+Miller,+John+Haralson+Hayes&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=IZxiS-zxMJCTkAWq4v38Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Miller, Robert D. (2005). Chieftains of the Highland Clans: A History of Israel in the 12th and 11th Centuries B.C.. Eerdmans. http://books.google.com.kh/books?id=Gtm7NtK87poC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Chieftains+of+the+highland+clans&source=bl&ots=RIe6i62fi4&sig=ZE8W_wvrExSkZ61YvQDlhrFpyJA&hl=km&ei=78p4S46GO4zq7AOiy8GmCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Morris, Benny 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9.
- O’Brian, Conor Cruise The Siege: the Saga of Israel and Zionism, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986 ISBN 0-671-60044-3.
- Oren, Michael Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-515174-7.
- The Peel Commission Report, (July 1937) http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/peel1.html
- Rubinstein, Alvin Z. (editor) The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Perspectives, New York: Praeger, 1984 ISBN 0-03-068778-0.
- Lord Russell of Liverpool, If I Forget Thee; the Story of a Nation’s Rebirth, London, Cassell 1960.
- Sachar, Howard M. A History of Israel, New York: Knopf, 1976 ISBN 0-394-48564-5.
- Samuel, Rinna A History of Israel: the Birth, Growth and Development of Today’s Jewish State, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989 ISBN 0-297-79329-2.
- Schultz, Joseph & Klausner, Carla From Destruction to Rebirth: The Holocaust and the State of Israel, Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1978 ISBN 0-8191-0574-0.
- Segev, Tom The Seventh Million: the Israelis and the Holocaust, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993 ISBN 0-8090-8563-1.
- Shlaim, Avi, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (2001)
- Talmon, Jacob L. Israel Among the Nations, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970 ISBN 0-297-00227-9.
- Vaughn, Andrew G.; Killebrew, Ann E., eds. (1992). Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period. Sheffield. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=yYS4VEu08h4C&dq=Jerusalem+in+Bible+and+archaeology:+the+First+Temple+period++By+Andrew+G.+Vaughn,+Ann+E.+Killebrew&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=4WVZS7CbF8uLkAWBpc2bAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=&f=false. Cahill, Jane M. "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Lehman, Gunnar. "The United Monarchy in the Countryside".
- Wolffsohn, Michael Eternal Guilt?: Forty years of German-Jewish-Israeli Relations, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993 ISBN 0-231-08274-6.
References
- ^ Original copy
- ^ Statistical Abstract of Israel No. 51, Central Bureau of Statistics 2000
- ^ http://www.jafi.org.il/education/congress/K01.html First Congress - Basle [Basel], 1897]
- ^ God, Guns and Israel, Jill Hamilton, UK 2004, Especially chapter 14.
- ^ God, Guns and Israel, Jill Hamilton, UK 2004, Especially chapter 15
- ^ A Survey of Palestine prepared for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, 1946, chapter 1
- ^ http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/181c4bf00c44e5fd85256cef0073c426/2fca2c68106f11ab05256bcf007bf3cb!OpenDocument
- ^ Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) page 172
- ^ http://www.amalnet.k12.il/meida/history/hisi1085.htm (in Hebrew accessed 22/4/2009)Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) page 48-49
- ^ Palestine Royal Commission, (Peel report) chapters 5, 8 and 16
- ^ Jewish Chronicle 8/8/47 & 22/8/47, both page 1. See http://www.workersliberty.org/node/6351 for an eye witness account of the Manchester riot. See also Bagon, Paul (2003). "The Impact of the Jewish Underground upon Anglo Jewry: 1945-1947". St Antony’s College, University of Oxford M-Phil thesis (mainly the conclusion) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~metheses/Bagon.html Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
- ^ (Hebrew)
- ^ Butler, L.J.: "Britain and Empire", page 78. I.B. Tauris, 2002
- ^ Benny Morris. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9. chapter 2 especially pages 50, 61, 65-71
- ^ London Times 20/2/47 page 4
- ^ Benny Morris. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, Yale University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9. pages 85 & 145
- ^ {harvnb|Smith|2007|p=200}
- ^ Benny Morris, 1948, Yale 2008 chapters 3 & 4
- ^ Benny Morris, 1948, Yale 2008 chapter 4 especially pages 140-147
- ^ Arab League Declaration on the help of Palestine, May 15, 1948
- ^ Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace, Seven Years with the United Nations (New York: MacMillan 1954) OCLC 299953832 pg.174
- ^ "גיוס חוץ לארץ" (in Hebrew). hagana.co.il. http://www.hagana.co.il/show_item.asp?levelId=59798&itemId=47310&itemType=3. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
- ^ NationMaster - UN membership date (most recent) by country
- ^ Morris 2004, pp. 604
- ^ Group seeks justice for 'forgotten' Jews - International Herald Tribune
- ^ Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and its Repercussions in the 1950s and After Dvora Hacohen, Syracuse University Press, 2003
- ^ Source: Professor Moshe Sikron, http://www.lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=12938 (Hebrew)
- ^ The melting pot in Israel: the commission of inquiry concerning education in the early years of the state by Tzvi Tzameret, Albany 2002 chapter 7
- ^ For more information see The melting pot in Israel by Tzvi Tzameret, Albany 2002
- ^ Mishtar HaTsena (in Hebrew), Dr Avigail Cohen & Haya Oren, Tel Aviv 1995
- ^ Haaretz 8/1/1952, http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3306796,00.html (Hebrew accessed 10/10/2007)
- ^ Dalia Ofer, Holocaust Survivors as Immigrants: The Case of Israel and the Cyprus Detainees in Modern Judaism, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Feb., 1996), pp. 1-23
- ^ Israel's Military Aid to Africa, 1960-66, Abel Jacob in The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 9, No. 2 (Aug., 1971), pp. 165-187
- ^ (Hebrew) http://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/heb/lavon.htm
- ^ Gerald M. Steinberg. Israel and the United States: Can the Special Relationship Survive the New Strategic Environment?, Middle East Review of International Affairs Volume 2, No. 4 - November 1998
- ^ Egypt Profile - Missile Chronology 1950-1974, Nuclear Threat Initiative. accessed 18/10/2007
- ^ Nasser and the Missile Age in the Middle East (Contemporary Security Studies) by Owen Sirrs, Routledge 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-37003-5. The Germans involved had worked on the V-1 and V-2 programs.
- ^ Rafael Medoff. Syria Sheltering War Criminals? Not the First Time, David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies
- ^ http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/unef1backgr2.html#three accessed 28/7/2008
- ^ History of the Third Knesset
- ^ The Eichmann Trial and American Jewry: A Reassessment, Françoise S. Ouzan in Jewish Political Studies Review 19:1-2 (Spring 2007), see also Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem (published 1963)
- ^ "Obituary:Isser Harel". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20030220/ai_n12678748.[dead link]
- ^ http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_periods3.html accessed 17/10/2007
- ^ http://hnn.us/articles/751.html accessed 17/10/2007
- ^ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1627015,00.html, http://www.sixdaywar.co.uk/timeline.htm, Whose Voice? Nasser, the Arabs, and 'Sawt al-Arab' Radio By Laura M. James in TBS (Transnational Broadcasting Studies) 16 2006 http://www.tbsjournal.com/James.html Note that many Israelis spoke Arabic.
- ^ Ian Lustick, Has Israel Annexed East Jerusalem? [1]
- ^ Accessed December 2007
- ^ Republic of fear: the politics of modern Iraq By Kanan Makiya, chapter 2 "A World of Fear", University of California 1998
- ^ 30 years to the Black Panthers in Israel by Sami Shalom Chetrit, http://www.kedma.co.il/Panterim/PanterimTheMovie/EnglishArticles.htm accessed October 2006
- ^ Nonie Darwish, "Now They Call Me Infidel" (2006), p. 102 Retrieved 24 June 2010
- ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/973868.html
- ^ (near bottom)
- ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/entebbe.html accessed 17/10/2007 many websites erroneously describe the hostages as Israelis. Although most were Israeli, they were all Jewish and the terrorists policy was to hold Jews.
- ^ National Review, July 9, 2007, Vol. LIX, No. 12, see also http://www.nytimes.com/2007/06/14/world/europe/14cnd-waldheim.html?_r=1&pagewanted=3&hp&oref=slogin
- ^ "TERRORISTS: L'Affaire Daoud: Too Hot to Handle". Time. January 24, 1977. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,945702-3,00.html. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
- ^ see http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3376951.stm http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E04E4D81E3AF934A3575AC0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all
- ^ Statistical Abstract of Israel No. 51, Central Bureau of Statistics 2000
- ^ see http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/trade/files/98-916.pdf accessed November 2007
- ^ Israel's Lebanon War by Ze'ev Schiff and Ehud Ya'ari, Touchstone 1985
- ^ Do Good Fences Make Good Neighbors?: Israel and Lebanon after the Withdrawal - Laura Zittrain Eisenberg - Middle East Review of International Affairs September 2000 http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2000/issue3/jv4n3a2.html
- ^ Belgium opens way for Sharon trial BBC News, 15 January 2003
- ^ Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements Jewish Virtual Library
- ^ Main Points of Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty October 26, 1994 Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- ^ Treaty of Peace between The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and The State of Israel King Hussein website
- ^ accessed Jan 2010
- ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/boldaid.html
- ^ Security Council endorses Secretary-General's conclusion on Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon as of 16 June United Nations, 18 June 2000
- ^ Israeli Proposal to Palestinians and Syria Information Regarding Israel's Security (IRIS)
- ^ Hasson, Nir (11 April 2006). "Cabinet approves appointment of Ehud Olmert as interim PM". http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/705050.html. Retrieved 2006-11-06.
- ^ http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=46037
- ^ http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Threats_to_Israel/Iran.html
- ^ In pictures: Gaza crisis BBC News, 3 July 2006
- ^ http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1931160,00.html http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqJFCBo0UW8&feature=related http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/SudaneseRefugees.html
External links
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- History of Israel and Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict
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- A history of Zionism and the creation of Israel
- A photo gallery of the history of Zionism and the creation of Israel
- First Photos of the Holy Land
- A timeline of Zionism and Israeli history
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