Sailing

Wooden Gaff-rigged Cutter

Sailing is the art of controlling a boat with large (usually fabric) foils called sails. By changing the rigging, rudder, and sometimes the keel or centre board, a sailor manages the force of the wind on the sails in order to change the direction and speed of a boat. Mastery of the skill requires experience in varying wind and sea conditions, as well as knowledge concerning sailboats themselves and a keen understanding of one's surroundings.

While there are still some places in the world where sail-powered passenger, fishing and trading vessels are used, these craft have become rarer as outboard and modified car engines have become available even in the poorest and most remote areas. In most countries people enjoy sailing as a recreational activity or as a sport. Recreational sailing or yachting can be divided into racing and cruising. Cruising includes extended trips, short trips within sight of land, and daysailing.

[edit] History

Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording mankind greater mobility and capacity for fishing, trade and transport, and warfare. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating to the late 5th millennium BC.^[1] Advances in sailing technology from the Middle Ages onward enabled Arab, Chinese, Indian and European explorers to make longer voyages into regions with extreme weather and climatic conditions. There were improvements in sails, masts and rigging; navigation equipment improved. From the 15th century onwards, European ships went further north, stayed longer on the Grand Banks and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and eventually began to explore the Pacific Northwest and the Western Arctic.^[2] Sailing has contributed to many great explorations in the world.

[edit] Physics

[edit] Introduction

The air moving across the sails of a sailing vessel creates various forces, including reaction forces. If the sails are properly oriented with respect to the wind, then the net force on the sails will move the vessel forward. However, boats propelled by sails cannot sail directly into the wind. They must tack (turn the boat through the eye of the wind) back and forth in order to progress directly upwind (see below Beating or "Working").

[edit] Energy capture

Sails work in two ways using the wind (see Forces on sails):

• using conditions which push the sail (direct wind pressure as in sailing downwind) and
• using conditions which pull the sail (depression due to wind flow over the airfoil).

Sails are airfoils that work by using an airflow set up by the wind and the motion of the boat.^[3][4][5] The combination of the two is the apparent wind, which is the relative velocity of the wind relative to the boat's motion. Sails generate lift using the air that flows around them, in the same way that an aircraft wing generates lift.^[5]

The air flowing at the sail surface is not the true wind.^[6] Sailing into the wind causes the apparent wind to be greater than the true wind and the direction of the apparent wind will be forward^[7] of the true wind. Some high-performance boats are capable of traveling faster than the true windspeed on some points of sail, see for example the Hydroptère, which set a world speed record in 2009 by sailing 1.71 times the speed of the wind.^[8][9] Iceboats can typically sail at 5 times the speed of the wind.^[10]

The energy that drives a sailboat is harnessed by manipulating the relative movement of wind and water speed: if there is no difference in movement, such as on a calm day or when the wind and water current are moving in the same direction at the same speed, there is no energy to be extracted and the sailboat will not be able to do anything but drift. Where there is a difference in motion, then there is energy to be extracted at the interface. The sailboat does this by placing the sail(s) in the air and the hull(s) in the water.

A sailing vessel is not maneuverable with the sails alone—the torque caused by the wind on the sails would cause the vessel to rotate and travel sideways instead of moving forward. In the same manner that an aircraft requires stabilizers, such as a tailplane with elevators as well as wings, a boat requires a keel and rudder. The forces on the sails as well as those from below the water line on the keel, centerboard, and other underwater foils including the hull itself (especially for catamarans or in a traditional proa) combine and partially cancel each other to produce the motive force for the vessel. Thus, the physical portion of the boat that is below water can be regarded as functioning as a "second sail." The flow of water over the underwater hull portions creates hydrodynamic forces, which combine with the aerodynamic forces from the sails to allow motion in almost any direction except straight into the wind.^[11] When sailing close to the wind the force generated by the sail acts at 90° to the sail. This force is split into a small force acting in the direction of travel, as well as a large sideways force that heels (tips) the boat. To enable maximum forward speed, the force needs to be cancelled out, normally using human balast, leaving only a smaller forward resultant force. Depending on the efficiency of the rig and hull, the angle of travel relative to the true wind can be as little as 35° or may need to be 80° or greater. This angle is half of the tacking angle and defines one side of a 'no-go zone' into the wind, in which a vessel cannot sail directly.^[12]

Tacking is essential when sailing upwind. The sails, when correctly adjusted, will generate aerodynamic lift. When sailing downwind, the sails no longer generate aerodynamic lift and airflow is stalled, with the wind push on the sails giving drag only. As the boat is going downwind, the apparent wind is less than the true wind and this, allied to the fact that the sails are not producing aerodynamic lift, serves to limit the downwind speed.^[13]

Some non-traditional rigs purportedly capture energy from the wind in a different fashion and are capable of feats that traditional rigs are not, such as sailing directly into the wind. One such example is the wind turbine boat, also called the windmill boat,^[14] which uses a large windmill to extract energy from the wind, and a propeller to convert this energy to forward motion of the hull. A similar design, called the autogyro boat, uses a wind turbine without the propellor, and functions in a manner similar to a normal sail.^[15] A more recent (2010) development is a cart that uses wheels linked to a propeller to "sail" dead downwind at speeds exceeding wind speed.^[16][17]

[edit] Effects of wind shear

Wind shear affects sailboats in motion by presenting a different wind speed and direction at different heights along the mast. Wind shear occurs because of friction above a water surface slowing the flow of air. Thus, a difference in true wind creates a different apparent wind at different heights. Sailmakers may introduce sail twist in the design of the sail, where the head of the sail is set at a different angle of attack from the foot of the sail in order to change the lift distribution with height. The effect of wind shear can be factored into the selection of twist in the sail design, but this can be difficult to predict since wind shear may vary widely in different weather conditions. Sailors may also adjust the trim of the sail to account for wind gradient, for example, using a boom vang.^[18]

[edit] Points of sail

The points of sail. A. In Irons (into the wind) B. Close Hauled C. Beam Reach D. Broad Reach E. Running

The points of sail are the most important parts of sail theory to remember. The no-go zone (shown shaded in accompanying figure) is about 45° either side of the true wind for a racing hull and sail plan optimized for upwind work. On some cruising yachts, the best course achievable upwind is 50° to 55° to the true wind. No sailboat can sail directly into the wind; attempting to do so leads to the sails luffing. There are 5 main points of sail. In order from the edge of the no-go zone to directly downwind they are:

• close haul (often about 45° to the apparent wind - the least angle that the boat and its rig can manage)
• close reach (between close hauled and a beam reach)
• beam reach (90° to the apparent wind)
• broad reach (between a beam reach and running)
• running (close to directly downwind)

The sail trim (and, on smaller boats, centreboard/dagger board position) on a boat is relative to the point of sail one is on: on a beam reach sails are mostly let out, on a run sails are all the way out, and close hauled sails are pulled in very tightly. Two main skills of sailing are trimming the sails correctly for the direction and strength of the wind, and maintaining a course relative to the wind that suits the sails once trimmed.

[edit] Beating or "working"

Using a series of close-hauled legs to beat a course upwind.

A boat can only get to an upwind destination by sailing close-hauled with the wind coming from one side, then tacking (turning the boat through the eye of the wind) and sailing with the wind coming from the other side. By this method of zig-zagging into the wind it is possible to reach any upwind destination.^[11] A yacht beating to a mark directly upwind one mile (1.6 km) away will cover a distance through the water of at least 1.4 miles (2.3 km), if it can tack through an angle of 90 degrees with negligible leeway. An old adage describes beating as sailing for twice^[19] the distance at half the speed and three times the discomfort.

When beating to windward often times one tack is more favorable than the other - more in the direction you wish to travel. The best strategy is to stay on the favorable tack as much as possible. If the wind shifts in your favor, called a "lift," so much the better, then this tack is even more favorable. But if it shifts against you, called a "header," then the opposite tack may become the more favorable course. So when sailing directly into the wind the best strategy is given by the old racing adage "Tack on a header." This is true because a header on one tack is a lift on the other.

How closely a boat can sail into the wind depends on the boat's design, sail shape and trim, the sea state, and the wind speed.

Typical angles to the true wind are as follows. Actual course over the water will be worse due to leeway.

• about 35° for modern racing yachts which have been optimized for upwind performance (like America's Cup yachts)
• about 42 to 45° for modern cruiser-racer yachts (fast cruising yachts)
• about 50 to 60° for cruisers with an emphasis on interior space, ease of handling and often low draught rather than sailing performance, and for boats carrying two or more masts (since the forward sails adversely affect the aft sails when sailing upwind)
• close to 90° for square riggers and similar vessels due to the sail shape which is very ineffective when sailing upwind

[edit] Reaching

When the boat is traveling approximately perpendicular to the wind, this is called reaching. A "beam" reach is with the apparent wind at right angles to the boat, a "close" reach is anywhere between beating and a beam reach, and a "broad" reach is between a beam reach and running.

For most modern sailboats, that is boats with fore-and-aft sails, reaching is the fastest way to travel. The direction of the wind is ideal when reaching because it can maximize the lift generated on the sails in the forward direction of the boat, giving the best boat speed. Also when reaching, the boat can be steered exactly in the direction that is most desirable, and the sails can be trimmed for that direction.

Reaching may, however, put the boat on a course parallel with the crests of the waves. When the waves are steep, it may be necessary to sail closer to the wind to avoid waves directly on the beam.

[edit] Running

A Thistle running downwind with a spinnaker.

Sailing the boat within roughly 30 degrees either side of dead downwind is called a run. This can be the most comfortable point of sail, but requires constant attention. Loss of attention by the helmsman can lead to an accidental jibe, causing injury to the boat or crew. All on deck must be aware of, and if possible avoid, the potential arc of the boom, mainsheet and other gear in case an accidental jibe occurs during a run. A preventer can be rigged to reduce danger and damage from accidental jibes.

In stronger winds, rolling increases as there is less rolling resistance provided by the sails, as they are eased out. In smaller boats, death rolls can build up and lead to capsize.

Any boat over-canvassed on a run can round up, heel excessively and stop suddenly in the water. This is called broaching and it can lead to capsize, possible crew injury and loss of crew into the water. Also on a run an inexperienced or inattentive sailor can easily misjudge the real wind strength since the boat speed subtracts directly from the true wind speed and makes the apparent wind less. In addition sea conditions also falsely seem milder on this point of sail as white caps are less apparent. When changing course from this point of sail to a reach or a beat, a sailboat that seemed under control can instantly become over canvassed and in danger.

Options for manoeuvering are also reduced. On other points of sail, it is easy to stop or slow the boat by heading into the wind; there may be no such easy way out when running, especially in close quarters or when a spinnaker, whisker pole or preventer are set.

[edit] Basic sailing techniques

Sailing in front of Helsinki, Finland. 8mR Sagitta (Camper & Nicholson 1929), a true sailboat with no motor, lowers its mainsail after a training session before returning to its mooring with the foresail only.

[edit] Trim

An important aspect of sailing is keeping the boat in "trim".

• Course made good - The turning or steering of the boat vessel using the wheel or tiller to the desired course or buoy. See different points of sail. This may be a definite bearing (e.g. steer 270 degrees), or towards a landmark, or at a desired angle to the apparent wind direction.
• Trim - This is the fore and aft balance of the boat. The aim is to adjust the moveable ballast (the crew) forwards or backwards to achieve an 'even keel'. On an upwind course in a small boat, the crew typically sit forward to reduce drag. When 'running', it is more efficient for the crew to sit to the rear of the boat. The position of the crew matters less as the size (and weight) of the boat increases.
• Balance - This is the port and starboard balance. The aim, once again, is to adjust weight 'windward' or 'leeward' to prevent excessive heeling. The boat moves at a faster velocity if it is flat to the water.
• Sail trim - Trimming sails is a large topic. Simply put, however, a sail should be pulled in until it fills with wind, but no further than the point where the front edge of the sail (the luff) is exactly in line with the wind. Let it out until it starts to flap, and then pull it in until it stops.
• Centreboard (Daggerboard) - If a moveable centreboard is fitted, then it should be lowered when sailing "close to the wind" but can be raised up on downwind courses to reduce drag. The centreboard prevents lateral motion and allows the boat to sail upwind. A boat with no centreboard will instead have a permanent keel, some other form of underwater foil, or even the hull itself which serves the same purpose. On a close haul the daggerboard should be fully down, and while running, over half way up.

Together, these points are known as 'The Five Essentials' and constitute the central aspects of sailing.

[edit] Tacking and jibing

There are two ways to change course by turning either the bow through the eye of the wind, "tacking" or the stern, "jibing." Tacking is the safer method and preferred especially when sailing upwind.

When sailing on a starboard or port tack there is generally little work that needs to be done to keep the boat moving well and in trim. However during a course change as above, much work needs to be done quickly. Just before tacking the command "Ready about" is given, at which point the crew must man the sheet lines which need to be changed over to the other tack and the helmsman gets ready. Then the command "Hard-a-lee" is given to make the turn. This refers to the act of the helmsman pushing the tiller as far as it will go to the leeward side of the boat making the bow of the boat come up and turn through the eye of the wind. In synch with the turn the original sheets must be loosened and the opposite sheet lines must be hauled in and set quickly and properly for the new point of sail.

Jibing is often necessary to change course when sailing off the wind or downwind. It is a more dangerous maneuver because the booms must be controlled as they catch the new wind direction from astern. An uncontrolled jibe can happen suddenly by itself when sailing downwind if the helmsman is not paying attention to the wind direction and can be very dangerous as the main boom will sweep across the cockpit very quickly and with great force. Before jibing the command "Ready to jibe" is given. The crew gets ready at their positions. If any sails are constrained with preventers or whisker poles these are taken down. The command "Jibe-ho" is given to execute the turn. The boomed sails must be hauled in very quickly and in synch with the turn so that they are amid ship and controlled as the stern passes through the eye of the wind, then let out quickly under control and adjusted to the new point of sail.

[edit] Reducing sail

An important safety aspect of sailing is to adjust the amount of sail to suit the wind conditions. As the wind speed increases the crew should progressively reduce the amount of sail. On a small boat with only jib and mainsail this is done by furling the jib and by partially lowering the mainsail, a process called 'reefing the main'.

Reefing means reducing the area of a sail without actually changing it for a smaller sail. Ideally reefing does not only result in a reduced sail area but also in a lower centre of effort from the sails, reducing the heeling moment and keeping the boat more upright.

There are three common methods of reefing the mainsail:

• Slab reefing, which involves lowering the sail by about one-quarter to one-third of its luff length and tightening the lower part of the sail using an outhaul or a pre-loaded reef line through a cringle at the new clew, and hook through a cringle at the new tack.
• In-mast (or on-mast) roller-reefing. This method rolls the sail up around a vertical foil either inside a slot in the mast, or affixed to the outside of the mast. It requires a mainsail with either no battens, or newly-developed vertical battens.
• In-boom roller-reefing, with a horizontal foil inside the boom. This method allows for standard- or full-length horizontal battens.

Mainsail furling systems have become increasingly popular on cruising yachts, as they can be operated shorthanded and from the cockpit, in most cases. However, the sail can become jammed in the mast or boom slot if not operated correctly. Mainsail furling is almost never used while racing because it results in a less efficient sail profile. The classical slab-reefing method is the most widely used. Mainsail furling has an additional disadvantage in that its complicated gear may somewhat increase weight aloft. However, as the size of the boat increases, the benefits of mainsail roller furling increase dramatically.

An old saying goes, "The first time you think of reducing sail you should,"^{[citation needed]} and correspondingly, "When you think you are ready to take out a reef, have a cup of tea first."^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Sail trimming

A Contender dinghy on a reach.

Sail trimming is a large subject and a matter of debate.

The most basic control of the sail consists of setting its angle relative to the wind. The control line that accomplishes this is called a "sheet." If the sheet is too loose the sail will flap in the wind, an occurrence that is called "luffing." Optimum sail angle can be approximated by pulling the sheet in just so far as to make the luffing stop. Finer controls adjust the overall shape of the sail.

Two or more sails are frequently combined to maximize the smooth flow of air. The sails are adjusted to create a smooth laminar flow over the sail surfaces. This is called the "slot effect". The combined sails fit into an imaginary aerofoil outline, so that the most forward sails are more in line with the wind, whereas the more aft sails are more in line with the course followed. The combined efficiency of this sail plan is greater than the sum of each sail used in isolation.

More detailed aspects include specific control of the sail's shape, e.g.:

• reefing, or reducing the sail area in stronger wind
• altering sail shape to make it flatter in high winds
• raking the mast when going upwind (to tilt the sail towards the rear, this being more stable)
• providing sail twist to account for wind speed differential and to spill excess wind in gusty conditions
• gibbing or lowering a sail

[edit] Hull trim

Hull trim is the adjustment of a boat's loading so as to change its fore-and-aft attitude in the water. In small boats, it is done by positioning the crew. In larger boats the weight of a person has less effect on the hull trim, but it can be adjusted by shifting gear, fuel, water, or supplies. Different hull trim efforts are required for different kinds of boats and different conditions. Here are just a few examples: In a lightweight racing dinghy like a Thistle, the hull should be kept level, on its designed water line for best performance in all conditions. In many small boats, weight too far aft can cause drag by submerging the transom, especially in light to moderate winds. Weight too far forward can cause the bow to dig into the waves. In heavy winds, a boat with its bow too low may capsize by pitching forward over its bow (pitch-pole) or dive under the waves (submarine). On a run in heavy winds, the forces on the sails tend to drive a boat's bow down, so the crew weight is moved far aft.

[edit] Heeling

It has been suggested that Heeling (sailing) be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since December 2010.

When a ship or boat leans over to one side under wind pressure, from the action of waves or from the centrifugal force of a turn, it is said to 'heel'. A sailing boat that is overcanvassed and heeling over beyond a certain angle sails less efficiently.

Boats heeling in front of Britannia Bridge in a round-Anglesey race 1998

When a vessel heels, the buoyancy of that part of the hull which is being submerged acts to balance the heeling force. A weighted keel provides additional force to right the boat. In some high-performance racing yachts, the angle of the keel can be changed to provide additional righting force: such keels are called canting keels. The crew may move onto the high (upwind) side of the boat, called hiking, which changes the centre of gravity. They can trapeze if the boat is designed for this (see Dinghy sailing).

The underwater shape of the hull relative to the sails may make the boat turn upwind when it heels excessively: this can reduce the force on the sails, and so allow the boat to right itself. It is known as rounding up, and can lead to difficulties in controlling the vessel if overcanvassed. A boat can be turned upwind in gusts to produce the same effect, or wind can be spilled from the sails by 'sheeting out', or loosening them. Sail shape can be flattened, for example by tightening the downhaul.

If a sailing vessel heels too much, the real solution is to reduce the sail area, by removing and/or reefing sails. Raising the centreboard can reduce heeling, which can be surprising, but it is not an ideal solution as it only works by increasing leeway. As a sailing boat heels further over, wind spills from the tops of the sails, so that an equilibrium angle may be reached. This may not be satisfactory if the angle is so great that rounding up makes the boat uncontrollable or if the roughness of the sea due to the wind, when combined with an extreme angle of heel makes progress untenable. If however a boat heels beyond a certain point of stability, it can capsize.

Yachts with heavy keels may need a combined effect of wind- and wave-induced heeling to put the tip of the mast so far into the water that they go beyond their point of negative stability and roll. Depending on their stability when floating deck-down, when combined with the roughness of the sea tending to disrupt this, they may remain inverted or self-right themselves in this extreme case. Dinghies and other vessels without a weighted keel, including open boats and many historic vessels, are easier to capsize. If sufficient buoyancy has been built in, as it should have in modern sailing dinghies, the craft may fill with water but still not sink. This may not be true for older vessels, or those where the buoyancy structures have not been properly maintained.

[edit] Sailing hulls and hull shapes

Musto Performance Skiff

Sailing boats with one hull are "monohulls", those with two are "catamarans", those with three are "trimarans". A boat is turned by a rudder, which itself is controlled by a tiller or a wheel, while at the same time adjusting the sheeting angle of the sails. Smaller sailing boats often have a stabilising, raisable, underwater fin called a centreboard (or daggerboard); larger sailing boats have a fixed (or sometimes canting) keel. As a general rule, the former are called dinghies, the latter keelboats. However, up until the adoption of the Racing Rules of Sailing, any vessel racing under sail was considered a yacht, be it a multi-masted ship-rigged vessel (such as a sailing frigate), a sailboard (more commonly referred to as a windsurfer) or remote-controlled boat, or anything in between. (See Dinghy sailing.)

Multihulls use flotation and/or weight positioned away from the centre line of the sailboat to counter the force of the wind. This is in contrast to heavy ballast that can account for up to 90% (in extreme cases like AC boats) of the weight of a monohull sailboat. In the case of a standard catamaran there are two similarly-sized and -shaped slender hulls connected by beams, which are sometimes overlaid by a deck superstructure. Another catamaran variation is the proa. In the case of trimarans, which have an unballasted centre hull similar to a monohull, two smaller amas are situated parallel to the centre hull to resist the sideways force of the wind. The advantage of multihulled sailboats is that they do not suffer the performance penalty of having to carry heavy ballast, and their relatively lesser draft reduces the amount of drag, caused by friction and inertia, when moving through the water.

One of the most common dinghy hulls in the world is the Laser hull. It was designed by Bruce Kirby in 1971 and unveiled at the New York boat show (1971) It was designed with speed and simplicity in mind. The Laser is 13 feet 10.5 inches long and a 12.5 inch water line and 76 square feet (7.1 m²) of sail.

[edit] Types of sails and layouts

Traditional sailing off the northern coast of Mozambique.

A traditional modern yacht is technically called a "Bermuda sloop" (sometimes a "Bermudan sloop"). A sloop is any boat that has a single mast and usually a single headsail (generally a jib) in addition to the mainsail (Bermuda rig but c.f. Friendship sloop). A cutter (boat) also has a single mast, set further aft than a sloop and more than one headsail. The Bermuda designation refers to the fact that the sail, which has its forward edge (the "luff") against the mast (the main sail), is a sail roughly triangular in shape. Additionally, Bermuda sloops only have a single sail behind the mast. Other types of sloops are gaff-rigged sloops and lateen sloops. Gaff-rigged sloops have quadrilateral mainsails with a gaff (a small boom) at their upper edge (the "head" of the sail). Gaff-rigged vessels may also have another sail, called a topsail, above the gaff. Lateen sloops have triangular sails with the upper edge attached to a gaff, and the lower edge attached to the boom, and the boom and gaff are attached to each other via some type of hinge. It is also possible for a sloop to be square rigged (having large square sails like a Napoleonic Wars-era ship of the line). Note that a "sloop of war", in the naval sense, may well have more than one mast, and is not properly a sloop by the modern meaning.

If a boat has two masts, it may be a schooner, a ketch, or a yawl, if it is rigged fore-and-aft on all masts. A schooner may have any number of masts provided the second from the front is the tallest (called the "main mast"). In both a ketch and a yawl, the foremost mast is tallest, and thus the main mast, while the rear mast is shorter, and called the mizzen mast. The difference between a ketch and a yawl is that in a ketch, the mizzen mast is forward of the rudderpost (the axis of rotation for the rudder), while a yawl has its mizzen mast behind the rudderpost. In modern parlance, a brigantine is a vessel whose forward mast is rigged with square sails, while her after mast is rigged fore-and-aft. A brig is a vessel with two masts both rigged square.

As one gets into three or more masts the number of combinations rises and one gets barques, barquentines, and full rigged ships.

A spinnaker is a large, full sail that is only used when sailing off wind either reaching or downwind, to catch the maximum amount of wind.

[edit] Sailing by high altitude wind power

SkySails is sailing freighter ships.^[20] Speedsailor Dave Culp strongly introduced his OutLeader kite sail for speedsailing.^[21] Malcolm Phillips invents an advanced sailing technique using high altitude kites and kytoon.^[22]

[edit] Rigid foils

With modern techonology, "wings", that is rigid sails, may be used in place of fabric sails. An example of this would be the International C-Class Catamaran Championship and the yacht USA 17 that won the 2010 America's Cup.^[23] Such rigid sails are typically made of thin plastic fabric held stretched over a frame.^[23]

[edit] Sailing terminology

Sailors use traditional nautical terms for the parts of or directions on a vessel; starboard (right), port (left), forward or fore (front), aft (rearward), bow (forward part of the hull), stern (aft part of the hull), beam (the widest part). Vertical spars are masts, horizontal spars are booms (if they can hit the sailor), gaffs (if they are too high to reach) or poles (if they cannot hit the sailor).

[edit] Rope and lines

Standing rigging (on the left) and running rigging (on the right), on a sailing boat.

In most cases, rope is the term used only for raw material. Once a section of rope is designated for a particular purpose on a vessel, it generally is called a line, as in outhaul line or dock line. A very thick line is considered a cable. Lines that are attached to sails to control their shapes are called sheets, as in mainsheet. If a rope is made of wire, it maintains its rope name as in 'wire rope' halyard.

Lines (generally steel cables) that support masts are stationary and are collectively known as a vessel's standing rigging, and individually as shrouds or stays. The stay running forward from a mast to the bow is called the forestay or headstay.

Moveable lines that control sails or other equipment are known collectively as a vessel's running rigging. Lines that raise sails are called halyards while those that strike them are called downhauls. Lines that adjust (trim) the sails are called sheets. These are often referred to using the name of the sail they control (such as main sheet, or jib sheet). Sail trim may also be controlled with smaller lines attached to the forward section of a boom such as a cunningham; a line used to hold the boom down is called a vang, or a kicker in the United Kingdom. A topping lift is used to hold a boom up in the absence of sail tension. Guys are used to control the ends of other spars such as spinnaker poles.

Lines used to tie a boat up when alongside a dock are called docklines, docking cables or mooring warps. In dinghies the single line from the bow is referred to as the painter.

Some lines are referred to as ropes:

• a bell rope (to ring the bell),
• a bolt rope (attached to the edge of a sail for extra strength),
• a foot rope (on old square riggers for the sailors to stand on while reefing or furling the sails), and
• a tiller rope (to temporarily hold the tiller and keep the boat on course). A rode is what keeps an anchor attached to the boat when the anchor is in use. It may be chain, rope, or a combination of the two.

[edit] Other terms

Sailboat on a mooring ball near Youngstown, NY

Walls are called bulkheads or ceilings, while the surfaces referred to as ceilings on land are called 'overheads'. Floors are called 'soles' or decks. The toilet is traditionally called the 'head', the kitchen is the galley. Lines are rarely tied off, they are almost always 'made fast' or 'belayed.' Sails in different sail plans have unchanging names, however. For the naming of sails, see sail-plan.

[edit] Knots

Knots are among the most important things a sailor needs to know. Although only a few are required, the bowline in particular is essential. By also learning the clove hitch and "round turn and two half hitches," one can easily cope with all of the knot requirements of a boat. A more complete grasp of knot-tying includes mastery of the following knots:

• bowline
• clove hitch
• round turn and two half hitches
• rolling hitch
• figure of eight
• reef knot
• sheet bend
• stopper knots

Additional knots are available List of knots

Even experienced sailors may forget their knots if they are not performed on a regular basis. Forgetting how to tie an important knot can damage a boat or cause injury.

[edit] Rules and regulations

Every vessel in coastal and offshore waters is subject to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (the COLREGS). On inland waterways and lakes other similar regulations, such as CEVNI in Europe, may apply. In some sailing events, such as the Olympic Games, which are held on closed courses where no other boating is allowed, specific racing rules such as the Racing Rules of Sailing (RRS) may apply. Often, in club racing, specific club racing rules, perhaps based on RRS, may be superimposed onto the more general regulations such as COLREGS or CEVNI.

In general, regardless of the activity, every sailor must

• Maintain a proper lookout at all times
• Adjust speed to suit the conditions
• Know whether to 'stand on' or 'give way' in any close-quarters situation.^[24]

The stand-on vessel must hold a steady course and speed but be prepared to take late avoiding action to prevent an actual collision if the other vessel does not do so in time. The give-way vessel must take early, positive and obvious avoiding action, without crossing ahead of the other vessel.(Rules 16-17)

1. If an approaching vessel remains on a steady bearing, and the range is decreasing, then a collision is likely. (Rule 7) This can be checked with a hand-bearing compass.
2. The sailing vessel on port tack^[25] gives way to the sailing vessel on starboard tack^[26] (Rule 12)
3. If both sailing vessels are on the same tack, the windward boat gives way to the leeward one (Rule 12)
4. If a vessel on port tack is unable to determine the tack of the other boat, she should be prepared to give way (Rule 12)
5. An overtaking vessel must keep clear of the vessel being overtaken (Rule 13)
6. Sailing vessels must give way to vessels engaged in fishing, those not under command, those restricted in their ability to manoeuvre and should avoid impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained by her draft. (Rule 18)

The COLREGS go on to describe the lights to be shown by vessels under way at night or in restricted visibility. Specifically, for sailing boats, red and green sidelights and a white sternlight are required, although for vessels under 7 metres (23.0 ft) in length, these may be substituted by a torch or white all-round lantern. (Rules 22 & 25)

Sailors are required to be aware not only of the requirements for their own boat, but of all the other lights, shapes and flags that may be shown by other vessels, such as those fishing, towing, dredging, diving etc., as well as sound signals that may be made in restricted visibility and at close quarters, so that they can make decisions under the COLREGS in good time, should the need arise. (Rules 32 - 37)

In addition to the COLREGS, CEVNI and/or any specific racing rules that apply to a sailing boat, there are also

• The IALA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities standards for lateral marks, lights, signals, and buoyage and rules designed to support safe navigation.
• The SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) regulations, specifically Chapter V, which is mandatory for all leisure craft users of the sea from 1 July 2002.^[27] These regulations place the obligations for safety on the owners and operators of any boat including sailboats. They specify the safety equipment needed, the emergency procedures to be used appropriate to the boat's size and its sailing range, and requirements for passage planning with regard to weather and safety.

[edit] Licensing

Depending on the country or continental union, boating on coastal waters and inland waters may require a license. Boating on inland waters almost always requires a license, while boating on coastal waters only requires a license when a certain boat size is exceeded (e.g., a length of 20 meters), or when passenger ships, ferries or tugboats are steered. Boating on international waters does not require any license, due to the absence of any laws or restrictions in this area. Europe's continental union, the EU, issues the International Certificate of Competence.

[edit] Sailboat racing

U.S. Sailing team at the World Military Games Sailing Competition, December 2003

Sailboat racing generally fits into one of three categories:

Class - Where all the boats have identical hull shapes and identical sail area, and the first boat to finish wins. (e.g. Contender, Star, 470, Laser, Thistle, Soling, Farr 40, 49er, etc.)

Handicap- Where boats of different types sail against each other and the handicaps are calculated either before the start or after the finish. ( e.g. Fastnet Race, Commodore's Cup, Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, Bermuda Race, etc.)

Box Rule- Where boats of similar types sail against each other and the first boat to finish wins.( e.g. America's Cup, Volvo Ocean Race, Barcelona World Race, etc.)

Sailboat racing ranges from single person dinghy racing to large boats with 10 or 20 crew and from small boats costing a few hundred dollars to multi-million dollar America's Cup or Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race campaigns. The costs of participating in the high end large boat competitions make this type of sailing one of the most expensive sports in the world. However, there are inexpensive ways to get involved in sailboat racing, such as at community sailing clubs, classes offered by local recreation organizations and in some inexpensive dinghy and small catamaran classes. Additionally high schools and colleges may offer sailboat racing programs through the Interscholastic Sailing Association (in the USA) and the Intercollegiate Sailing Association (in the USA and some parts of Canada). Under these conditions, sailboat racing can be comparable to or less expensive than sports such as golf and skiing. Sailboat racing is one of the few sports in which people of all ages and genders can regularly compete with and against each other.

Most sailboat and yacht racing is done in coastal or inland waters. However, in terms of endurance and risk to life, ocean races such as the Volvo Ocean Race, the solo VELUX 5 Oceans Race, and the non-stop solo Vendée Globe, rate as some of the most extreme and dangerous sporting events. Not only do participants compete for days with little rest, but an unexpected storm, a single equipment failure, or collision with an ice floe could result in the sailboat being disabled or sunk hundreds or thousands of miles from search and rescue.

The sport of Sailboat racing is governed by the International Sailing Federation, and the rules under which competitors race are the Racing Rules of Sailing, which can be found on the ISAF web site.

[edit] Recreational sailing

A 1 year old in a car seat attached to the stern pulpit, enjoying gunkholing with his family.

Casual coastal cruising called gunkholing, is a popular summertime family recreational activity . It consists of taking a series of day sails to out of the way places and anchoring overnight while enjoying such activities as exploring isolated islands, swimming, fishing, etc.

Planning gunkholing cruising trips of several days or longer is a deep immersion in logistics, navigation, meteorology, local geography and history, fishing lore, sailing knowledge, general psychological coping, and serendipity. Once the boat is acquired it is not all that expensive an endeavor, often much less expensive than a normal traveling vacation on land. It naturally develops self reliance, responsibility, economy, and many other useful skills. Besides improving sailing skills, all the other normal needs of everyday living must also be addressed. There are work roles that can be done by everyone in the family to help contribute to an enjoyable outdoor adventure for all.

Many areas in the northeast US like Chesapeake Bay, Long Island Sound, Cape Cod, and the Maine coast among many in other areas including the Great Lakes, and Puget Sound are great natural cruising grounds. Sailing together can be a lifetime family bonding experience which can rarely to be equaled in any other way.

[edit] See also

[edit] Notes

[edit] Bibliography

• "Transportation and Maps" in Virtual Vault, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada
• Rousmaniere, John, The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, Simon & Shuster, 1999
• Chapman Book of Piloting (various contributors), Hearst Corporation, 1999
• Herreshoff, Halsey (consulting editor), The Sailor’s Handbook, Little Brown and Company, 1983
• Seidman, David, The Complete Sailor, International Marine, 1995
• Jobson, Gary, Sailing Fundamentals, Simon & Shuster, 1987

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sailing

Look up sailing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• US Sailing
• Royal Yacht Association
• Sailing at the Open Directory Project
• The physics of sailing (School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia)