Shortening

For shortened forms of words, see Clipping (morphology).

Strutto, or clarified pork fat, a type of shortening common in Italy.

Shortening is any fat that is solid at room temperature and used to make crumbly pastry. The reason it is called shortening is that it prevents cross-linkage between gluten molecules. Cross linking gives dough elasticity. In pastries such as cake, which should not be elastic, shortening is used. Although butter is solid at room temperature and is frequently used in making pastry, the term "shortening" seldom refers to butter but is more closely related to margarine.

History and market

A 1918 advertisement for shortening.

Originally, shortening was synonymous with lard, and with the invention of margarine by French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès in 1869, margarine also came to be included in the term. Since the invention of hydrogenated vegetable oil in the early 20th century, "shortening" has come almost exclusively to mean hydrogenated vegetable oil. Vegetable shortening shares many properties with lard: both are semi-solid fats with a higher smoke point than butter and margarine. They contain less water and are thus less prone to splattering, making them safer for frying. Lard and shortening have a higher fat content compared to about 80% for butter and margarine. Cake margarines and shortenings tend to contain a few percent of monoglycerides whereas margarines typically have less. Such "high ratio shortenings" blend better with hydrophilic ingredients such as starches and sugar.

Hydrogenation of organic substances was first developed by the French chemist Paul Sabatier in 1897, and in 1901 the German chemist Wilhelm Normann developed the hydrogenation of fats, which he patented in 1902. In 1907, a German chemist, Edwin Cuno Kayser, moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, the home town of US soap manufacturer Procter & Gamble. He had worked for British soap manufacturer Joseph Crosfield and Sons and was well acquainted with Normann's process, as Crosfield and Sons owned the British rights to Normann's patent. Soon after arrival, Kayser made a business deal with Procter & Gamble, and shortly thereafter presented the company with two processes to hydrogenate cottonseed oil, with the intent of creating a raw material for soap. However, since the product looked like lard, Procter & Gamble instead began selling it as a vegetable fat for cooking purposes in June 1911, calling it "Crisco", a modification of the phrase "crystallized cottonseed oil".

A triglyceride molecule, the main constituent of shortening.

While similar to lard, vegetable shortening was much cheaper to produce. Shortening also required no refrigeration, which further lowered its costs and increased its appeal in a time when refrigerators were rare. With these advantages, plus an intensive advertisement campaign by Procter & Gamble, Crisco quickly gained popularity in US households. And as food production became increasingly industrialized and manufacturers sought low-cost raw materials, the use of vegetable shortening also became very common in the food industry. In addition, vast American government-financed surpluses of cottonseed oil, corn oil, and soy beans also helped create a market in low-cost vegetable shortening.

Crisco, since 2002 owned by The J.M. Smucker Co., is still the most well-known brand of shortening in the US, nowadays consisting of a blend of partially and fully hydrogenated soybean and palm oils. In Ireland and the UK, Cookeen is a popular brand, while in Australia, Copha is popular, although made primarily from coconut oil.

Shortened dough

A short dough is one that is crumbly or mealy. The opposite of a short dough is a "long" dough, especially a flaky pie crust. Vegetable shortening (or butter, or other solid fats) can produce both types of dough; the difference is in technique. To produce a short dough, which is commonly used for tarts, the shortening is cut into the flour with a pastry blender, pair of table knives, fingers, or other utensil until the resulting mixture has a fine, cornmeal-like texture. For a long dough, the shortening is cut in only until the pea-sized crumbs are formed, or even larger lumps may be included. After cutting in the fat, the liquid (if any) is added and the dough is shaped for baking.

Neither short dough nor long flake dough are considered to be either creamed or stirred batters.

Health concerns and reformulation

In the early 21st century, vegetable shortening became the subject of some health concerns due to its traditional formulation from partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that contain trans fat, as trans fats have been linked to a number of adverse health effects. Consequently, one manufacturer introduced a low trans fat variant in 2004. In January 2007 all products this manufacturer were reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving, and the separately marketed trans-fat free version introduced in 2004 was consequently discontinued. In 2006, the other manufacturer was also reformulated to remove trans fats. Non-hydrogenated vegetable shortening can be made from palm oil.

Comparative properties of common cooking fats (per 100g)

	Total Fat	Saturated Fat	Monounsaturated Fat	Polyunsaturated Fat	Smoke Point
Sunflower oil	100g	11g	20g	69g	225 °C (437 °F)
Soybean oil	100g	16g	23g	58g	257 °C (495 °F)
Olive oil	100g	14g	73g	11g	190 °C (374 °F)
Corn oil	100g	15g	30g	55g	230 °C (446 °F)
Peanut oil	100g	17g	46g	32g	225 °C (437 °F)
Vegetable Shortening (hydrogenated)	71g	23g (34%)	8g (11%)	37g (52%)	165 °C (329 °F)
Lard	100g	39g	45g	11g	190 °C (374 °F)
Suet	94g	52g (55%)	32g (34%)	3g (3%)	200°C (400°F)
Butter	81g	51g (63%)	21g (26%)	3g (4%)	150 °C (302 °F)

Bibliography

• William Shurtleff and Akiko Aoyagi, 2007. "History of Soy Oil Shortening: A Special Report on The History of Soy Oil, Soybean Meal, & Modern Soy Protein Products," from the unpublished manuscript, History of Soybeans and Soy foods: 1100 B.C. to the 1980s. Lafayette, CA (US): Soyinfo Center.[1]