Grape

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This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. For the European grapevine, see Vitis vinifera. For other uses, see Grape (disambiguation).
Grapes
"White" table grapes

A grape is a fruiting berry of the deciduous woody vines of the botanical genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar, and grape seed oil. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.


Grapes, red or green
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 288 kJ (69 kcal)
Carbohydrates 18.1 g
- Sugars 15.48 g
- Dietary fiber 0.9 g
Fat 0.16 g
Protein 0.72 g
Thiamine (vit. B1) 0.069 mg (6%)
Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.07 mg (6%)
Niacin (vit. B3) 0.188 mg (1%)
Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.05 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6 0.086 mg (7%)
Folate (vit. B9) 2 μg (1%)
Choline 5.6 mg (1%)
Vitamin C 3.2 mg (4%)
Vitamin E 0.19 mg (1%)
Vitamin K 14.6 μg (14%)
Calcium 10 mg (1%)
Iron 0.36 mg (3%)
Magnesium 7 mg (2%)
Manganese 0.071 mg (3%)
Phosphorus 20 mg (3%)
Potassium 191 mg (4%)
Sodium 2 mg (0%)
Zinc 0.07 mg (1%)
Fluoride 7.8 µg
Link to USDA Database entry
Percentages are roughly approximated
using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

History

The cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East.[1] The earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia.[2][3]

Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. The earliest known production occurred around 8,000 years ago on the territory of Georgia.[4] During an extensive gene-mapping project, archaeologists analyzed the heritage of more than 110 modern grape cultivars, and narrowed their origin to a region in Georgia, where wine residues were also discovered on the inner surfaces of 8,000-year-old ceramic storage jars.[5] The oldest winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC. By the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has been proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz, a city in Persia where the grape was used to make Shirazi wine. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. The growing of grapes would later spread to other regions in Europe, as well as North Africa, and eventually in North America.

In North America, native grapes belonging to various species of the Vitis genus proliferate in the wild across the continent, and were a part of the diet of many Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. Vitis vinifera cultivars were imported for that purpose.

Description

Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.[6] Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.[7][8] Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.

Grapevines

Main article: Vitis

Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:


Distribution and production

Concord is a variety of North American labrusca grape

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

There are no reliable statistics that break down grape production by variety. It is believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 km2. (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is Airén. Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Sauvignon blanc, Cabernet Franc, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, Riesling and Chardonnay.[9]

Top producers of grapes for wine making, by area planted
Country Area (km²)
Spain 11,750
France 8,640
Italy 8,270
Turkey 8,120
United States 4,150
Iran 2,860
Romania 2,480
Portugal 2,160
Argentina 2,080
Chile 1,840
Australia 1,642
Armenia 1,459
Lebanon 1,122

World grape production in 2009 and 2010 and some of the important producing countries
Country Production
in 2009
(Tonnes)		 ‡ Production
in 2010
(Tonnes)		 ‡ Percentage of
world production
in 2010
China 8,039,091 8,651,831 12.67%
Italy 8,242,500 7,787,800 11.40%
United States 6,629,160 6,220,360 9.11%
Spain 5,573,400 6,107,200 8.94%
France 6,104,340 5,848,960 8.56%
Turkey 4,264,720 4,255,000 6.23%
Chile 2,500,000 (F) 2,755,700 (I) 4.03%
Argentina 2,181,570 2,616,610 3.83%
India 1,878,000 2,263,100 (I) 3.31%
Iran 2,255,670 2,255,670 3.30%
World 67,901,744 (A) 68,311,466 (A) 100%


‡ Footnotes:
No symbol = official figure
(A) = May include official, semi-official or estimated data
(F) = FAO estimate
(I) = FAO data based on imputation methodology

Note: The individual country figures do not add to the world totals because many countries have been omitted from the table. The listed countries accounted for approximately 71.38% of world production in 2010.

Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

Table and wine grapes

Wine grapes on the vine

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes is usually around 15% sugar by weight.[10]

Seedless grapes

Seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings.[citation needed] Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Benjamin Gunnels's Prime seedless grapes, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of northeastern United States and southern Ontario.[11]

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).[12][13]

Raisins, currants and sultanas

Raisins

In most of Europe and North America, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "Dried vine fruit" in official documents.

A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins).

A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). Currant has also come to refer to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes.

A sultana was originally a raisin made from Sultana grapes of Turkish origin (known as Thompson Seedless in the United States), but the word is now applied to raisins made from either white grapes or red grapes that are bleached to resemble the traditional sultana.

Juice

A glass of grape juice

Grape juice is obtained from crushing and blending grapes into a liquid. The juice is often sold in stores or fermented and made into wine, brandy or vinegar. In the wine industry, grape juice that contains 7–23% of pulp, skins, stems and seeds is often referred to as "must". In North America, the most common grape juice is purple and made from Concord grapes while white grape juice is commonly made from Niagara grapes, both of which are varieties of native American grapes, a different species from European wine grapes. In California, Sultana (known there as Thompson Seedless) grapes are sometimes diverted from the raisin or table market to produce white juice.[14]

Health claims

Main articles: Wine and health, French Paradox, Resveratrol, and Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

French Paradox

Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, the incidence of heart disease remains low in France. This phenomenon has been termed the French Paradox, and is thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation,[15] polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:[16]

Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,[17] a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.[18][19][20] Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols like resveratrol[21] provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.[22] More may be seen in the article the Long-term effects of alcohol.

Resveratrol

Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves antifungal and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets.[23]

Resveratrol is found in widely varying amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds, which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp.[24] Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.[25]

In vitro studies indicate that protection of the genome through antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol.[26] In laboratory studies with mice, resveratrol has transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle and brain. Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart and skeletal muscle aging, and prevent age-related heart failure.[27]

Resveratrol is the subject of several human clinical trials,[28] among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease.[29]

Anthocyanins and other phenolics

Anatomical-style diagram of three grapes on their stalks. Two of the grapes are shown in cross-section with all their internal parts labeled.
Grape cross-section

Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (i.e. catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.[30] Total phenolic content, a laboratory index of antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.[30] It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.[31] Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Red wine may offer health benefits more so than white because potentially beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[32] Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L,[33] depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.[24][34] In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.[35] Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.

The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape.[36]

Seed constituents

Main articles: Grape seed extract and Grape seed oil

Since the 1980s, biochemical and preliminary clinical studies have demonstrated potential biological properties of grape seed oligomeric procyanidins (OPC).[37] A research paper from 2002 suggested that laboratory tests indicated a potential anticancer effect from grape seed extract, which could warrant further investigation.[38] According to the American Cancer Society, "there is very little reliable scientific evidence available at this time that drinking red wine, eating grapes, or following the grape diet can prevent or treat cancer in people".[39]

Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil has some amount of tocopherols (vitamin E), but is notable for its high contents of phytosterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.[40][41][42]

Concord grape juice

Commercial juice products from Concord grapes have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of cancer,[43] platelet aggregation and other risk factors of atherosclerosis,[44] loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging[45] and hypertension in humans.[46]

Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

Main article: Grape and raisin toxicity in dogs

The consumption of grapes and raisins presents a potential health threat to dogs. Their toxicity to dogs can cause the animal to develop acute renal failure (the sudden development of kidney failure) with anuria (a lack of urine production) and may be fatal.[47]

Religious significance

See also: Wine#Religious_uses

In the Bible, grapes are first mentioned when Noah grows them on his farm (Genesis 9:20–21). Instructions concerning wine are given in the book of Proverbs and in the book of Isaiah, such as in Proverbs 20:1 and Isaiah 5:20–25. Deuteronomy 18:3–5,14:22–27,16:13–15 tell of the use of wine during Jewish feasts. Grapes were also significant to both the Greeks and Romans, and their god of agriculture, Dionysus, was linked to grapes and wine, being frequently portrayed with grape leaves on his head.[48] Grapes are especially significant for Christians, who since the Early Church have used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist.[49] Views on the significance of the wine vary between denominations. In Christian art, grapes often represent the blood of Christ, such as the grape leaves in Caravaggio’s John the Baptist.

Use in religion

See also: Christianity and alcohol

Grape juice, because of its non-alcoholic content, is commonly used by those Christians who oppose the partaking of alcoholic beverages, as the "cup" or "wine" in the Lord's Supper.[50]

The Catholic Church uses wine in the celebration of the Eucharist because it is part of the tradition passed down through the ages starting with Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, where Catholics believe the consecrated bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ, a dogma known as transsubstantiation.[51] Wine is used (not grape juice) both due to its strong Scriptural roots, and also to follow the tradition set by the early Christian Church.[52] The Code of Canon Law of the Catholic Church (1983), Canon 924 says that the wine used must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt.[53] In some circumstances, a priest may obtain special permission to use grape juice for the consecration, however this is extremely rare and typically requires sufficient impetus to warrant such a dispensation, such as personal health of the priest.

Although alcohol is permitted in Judaism, grape juice is sometimes used as an alternative for kiddush on Shabbat and Jewish holidays and it has the same blessing as wine. Many authorities maintain that grape juice must be capable of turning into wine naturally in order to be used for kiddush. Common practice, however, is to use any kosher grape juice for kiddush.

Gallery

  • Flower buds

  • Flowers

  • Immature fruit

  • Grapes in Iran

  • Vineyard in the Troodos Mountains

See also

Sources

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Further reading

  • Creasy, G. L. and L. L. Creasy. (2009). Grapes (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-401-9

External links

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Biology and
horticulture
Environmental
variation
Vineyard
planting
Vineyard
management
Harvest
Pests and
diseases
Approaches
and issues
See also
Sources of tannins
Sources of
condensed tannins
Sources of
hydrolysable tannins
Other sources
Whole plant
General
Biofuels
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Energy from foodstock
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World grape production
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