បារាំង
|
|||||
| បាវចនា | សេរីភាព ភាពស្មើគ្នា ភាតរភាព | ||||
| ភ្លេងជាតិ | ឡាម៉ាសេឡាសេ | ||||
 |
|||||
 |
|||||
| រដ្ឋធានី | ប៉ារីស | ||||
| ប្រធានាធិបតី | ហ្រ្វង់សេស ហូឡង់ | ||||
| នាយករដ្ឋមន្រ្ដី | ហ្រាន្ដកូស ហ្វីឡុន | ||||
| ភាសាផ្លូវការ | ភាសាបារាំង | ||||
| ផ្ទៃដី |
674 843 គម២ |
||||
| ចំនួនប្រជាជន – ដង់ស៊ីតេ/គម² |
៦៥,៤៤៧,៣៧៤ នាក់ ១១៥ នាក់/គម² |
||||
| រូបបិយប័ណ្ណ | អ៊ឺរ៉ូ ហ្រ្វង់ | ||||
| ល្វែងម៉ោង រដូវក្ដៅ |
UTC +១ UTC +២ |
||||
| កូដទូរសព្ទប្រទេស | ៣៣ | ||||
បារាំង ដែលមានឈ្មោះផ្លូវការថាសាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំង គឺជាប្រទេសមួយនៅអឺរ៉ុបខាងលិចនិងជាសមាជិកនៃសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប។ បារាំងជារដ្ឋដ៏ចំណាស់ក្នុងចំនោមរដ្ឋធំៗនៅអឺរ៉ុប។ បូករួមទាំងដែនដីឯនាយសមុទ្រ បារាំងមានផ្ទៃដីសរុបប្រហែល ៦៧៥ ៤១៧ គ.ម២ និងមានប្រជាជន ប្រមាណ ៦៤,៥ លាននាក់។ ភាសាប្រើប្រាស់ជាផ្លូវការគឺភាសាបារាំង។ បារាំងមានភាសាតំបន់ចំនួន៧៧ភាសា។ បារាំងជាប្រទេសមានអានុភាពសេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិភពលោកលំដាប់ទី ៥ ឬ ទី៦។
| French Republic République française
|
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
| បាវចនា: "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" (បារាំង) "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" |
||||||
| បទភ្លេង: "La Marseillaise" |
||||||
|
ទីតាំង Metropolitan France (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey) |
||||||
|
Territory of the French Republic.a
|
||||||
| ធានី និង ទីក្រុងធំបំផុត |
Paris 48°51.4′N 2°21.05′E / 48.8567°N 2.35083°E |
|||||
| ភាសាផ្លូវការ | French[note ១] | |||||
| ប្រជានាម | French | |||||
| រដ្ឋាភិបាល | Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic | |||||
| - | President | François Hollande | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Jean-Marc Ayrault | ||||
| នីតិបញ្ញត្តិ | Parliament | |||||
| - | សភាជាន់ខ្ពស់ | Senate | ||||
| - | សភាជាន់ទាប | National Assembly | ||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | Frankish Kingdom (unified by Clovis) |
486 | ||||
| - | Kingdom of France (Treaty of Verdun) |
843 | ||||
| - | French Republic (National Convention) |
1792 | ||||
| - | Current constitution (Fifth Republic) |
4 October 1958 | ||||
| ផ្ទៃដី | ||||||
| - | សរុប[note ២] | 640679[១] គ.ម.២ (43rd) 246201 ម៉ាយការ៉េ |
||||
| - | Metropolitan France | |||||
| - IGN[note ៣] | ៥៥១៦៩៥ km2 (50th) ២១៣០១០ ម៉ាយការ៉េ |
|||||
| - Cadastre[note ៤] | ៥៤៣៩៦៥ km2 (50th) ២១០០២៦ ម៉ាយការ៉េ |
|||||
| ប្រជាជន | ||||||
| (2013) | ||||||
| - | សរុប[note ២] | 65,950,000[៣] (19th) | ||||
| - | Metropolitan France | 63,460,000[២] (22nd) | ||||
| - | សន្ទភាព[note ៥] | 116/គម២ (89th) 301/ម៉ាយការ៉េ |
||||
| ផសស (យអទ) | ការប៉ាន់ស្មាន 2013 | |||||
| - | សរុប | $2.273 trillion[៤] (9th) | ||||
| - | ក្នុងម្នាក់ | $35,680[៤] (24th) | ||||
| ផសស (មធ្យម) | ការប៉ាន់ស្មាន 2013 | |||||
| - | សរុប | $2.739 trillion[៤] (5th) | ||||
| - | ក្នុងម្នាក់ | $42,991[៤] (20th) | ||||
| ជីនី (2008) | 32.7[៥] មធ្យម |
|||||
| លអម (2013) |  0.893[៦]ខ្ពស់ណាស់ · 20th |
|||||
| រូបិយបណ្ណ |
(EUR, XPF) |
|||||
| តំបន់ម៉ោង | CET[note ៨] (មសស+1) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | CEST[note ៩] (មសស+2) | ||||
| បើកបរប្រកាន់ | right | |||||
| ក្រមហៅទូរសព្ទ | 33[note ១០] | |||||
| វថកអន្តរជាល | .fr[note ១១] | |||||
| ក. | Excluding Adélie Land in Antarctica, where sovereignty is suspended. | |||||
France (UK /ˈfrɑːns/; US /ˈfræns/; French: [fʁɑ̃s] (
ស្ដាប់)), officially the French Republic (បារាំង: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a sovereign country in Western Europe that includes overseas regions and territories.[note ១២] Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of only three countries (besides Morocco and Spain) to have both Atlantic and Mediterranean coastlines. Due to its shape, it is often referred to in French as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon").
France is the largest country in Western Europe and the European Union, and the third-largest in Europe as a whole. With a total population of around 66 million, it is the third most-populous European country. France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the nation's largest city and the main cultural and commercial centre. The current Constitution of France, adopted by referendum on 4 October 1958, establishes the country as secular and democratic, with its sovereignty derived from the people. The nation's ideals are expressed in the foundational Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, one of the world's earliest documents on human rights, which was formulated during the seminal French Revolution of the late 18th century.
France has been a major power in Europe since the Late Middle Ages, reaching the height of its influence and prestige during the 19th and early 20th centuries, when it possessed the second-largest colonial empire of the time, and one of the largest in history. This legacy is reflected in the prevalence of French language, culture, and jurisprudence worldwide. France has produced many influential artists, thinkers, and scientists, and remains a prominent global centre of culture. It hosts the world's fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites, drawing around 83 million foreign tourists annually, the most of any country in the world.[៧]
France remains a major power with significant cultural, economic, military, and political influence in Europe and around the world.[៨] It has the world's sixth-largest military budget[៩] and third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,[១០] with a diplomatic corps that is second only to the United States.[១១] France is a developed country and has the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by purchasing power parity.[១២] In terms of total household wealth, France is the wealthiest nation in Europe and fourth in the world.[១៣]
French citizens enjoy a high standard of living, with the country performing well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, civil liberties, and human development.[១៤][១៥] France is a founding member of the United Nations, where it serves as one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. It is a member of numerous international institutions, including Francophonie, the G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, and the Latin Union. France is a founding and leading member state of the European Union.[១៦]
មាតិកា
Etymology[កែប្រែ]
The name "France" comes from the Latin Francia, which means "country of the Franks".[១៧] There are various theories as to the origin of the name Franks: one is that it is derived from the Proto-Germanic word frankon which translates as javelin or lance as the throwing axe of the Franks was known as a francisca.[១៨] Another proposed etymology is that in an ancient Germanic language, Frank means free as opposed to slave.[ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង]
History[កែប្រែ]
Prehistory[កែប្រែ]
The oldest traces of human life (homo) in what is now France date from approximately 1.8 million years ago.[១៩] Humans were then confronted by a hard and variable climate, marked by several glacial eras which led them to a nomadic hunter-gatherer life.[១៩] France has a large number of decorated caves from the upper Paleolithic era, including one of the most famous and best preserved: Lascaux[១៩] (approximately 18,000 BC).
At the end of the last glacial period (10,000 BC), the climate softened[១៩] and from approximately 7,000 BC, this part of Western Europe entered the Neolithic era and its inhabitants became sedentary. After strong demographic and agricultural development between the 4th and 3rd millennia, metallurgy appeared at the end of the 3rd millennium, initially working gold, copper and bronze, and later iron.[២០] France has numerous megalithic sites from the Neolithic period, including the exceptionally dense Carnac stones site (approximately 3,300 BC).
Gaul[កែប្រែ]
In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks, originating from Phocaea, founded the colony of Massalia (present-day Marseille), on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This makes it France's oldest city.[២១][២២] At the same time, some Gallic Celtic tribes penetrated parts of the current territory of France, and this occupation spread to the rest of France between the 5th and 3rd century BC.[២៣]
The concept of Gaul emerged at that time; it corresponds to the territories of Celtic settlement ranging between the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean. The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient Gaul, which was inhabited by Celtic Gauls. Gaul was then a prosperous country, of which the southernmost part was heavily subject to Greek and Roman influences. However, around 390 BC, the Gallic chieftain Brennus and his troops made their way to Italy through the Alps, defeated the Romans in the Battle of the Allia, and besieged and ransomed Rome. The Gallic invasion left Rome weakened and the Gauls continued to harass the region until 345 BC, when they entered into a formal peace treaty with Rome. But the Romans and the Gauls would maintain an adversarial relationship for the next several centuries and the Gauls would remain a threat in Italia.
Around 125 BC, the south of Gaul was conquered by the Romans, who called this region Provincia Romana ("Roman Province"), which over time evolved into the name Provence in French.[២៤] Julius Caesar conquered the remainder of Gaul and overcame a revolt carried out by the Gallic chieftain Vercingetorix in 52 BC.[២៥] Gaul was divided by Augustus into Roman provinces.[២៦] Many cities were founded during the Gallo-Roman period, including Lugdunum (present-day Lyon), which is considered to be the capital of the Gauls.[២៦] These cities were built in traditional Roman style, with a forum, a theatre, a circus, an amphitheatre and thermal baths. The Gauls mixed with Roman settlers and eventually adopted Roman speech (Latin, from which the French language evolved) and Roman culture. The Roman polytheism merged with the Gallic paganism into the same syncretism.
From the 250s to the 280s AD, Roman Gaul suffered a serious crisis with its "limes" or fortified borders protecting the Empire being attacked on several occasions by barbarians.[២៧] Nevertheless, the situation improved in the first half of the 4th century, which was a period of revival and prosperity for Roman Gaul.[២៨] In 312, the emperor Constantin I converted to Christianity. Christians, persecuted until then, increased rapidly across the entire Roman Empire.[២៩] But, from the beginning of the 5th century, the Barbarian Invasions resumed,[៣០] and Germanic tribes, such as the Vandals, Suebi and Alans crossed the Rhine and settled in Gaul, Spain and other parts of the collapsing Roman Empire.[៣១]
Kingdom of Francia (3rd century–843)[កែប្រែ]
At the end of the Antiquity period, ancient Gaul was divided into several Germanic kingdoms and a remaining Gallo-Roman territory, known as the Kingdom of Syagrius (West). Simultaneously, Celtic Britons, fleeing the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, settled the western part of Armorica. As a result, the Armorican peninsula was renamed Brittany, Celtic culture was revived and independent petty kingdoms arose in this region.
The pagan Franks, from whom the ancient name of "Francie" was derived, originally settled the north part of Gaul, but under Clovis I conquered most of the other kingdoms in northern and central Gaul. In 498, Clovis I was the first Germanic conqueror after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to Catholic Christianity, rather than Arianism; thus France was given the title "Eldest daughter of the Church" (បារាំង: La fille aînée de l’Église) by the papacy,[៣២] and French kings would be called "the Most Christian Kings of France" (Rex Christianissimus).
The Franks embraced the Christian Gallo-Roman culture and ancient Gaul was eventually renamed Francia ("Land of the Franks"). The Germanic Franks adopted Romanic languages, except in north Gaul where Roman settlements were less dense and where Germanic languages emerged. Clovis made Paris his capital and established the Merovingian dynasty, but his kingdom would not survive his death. The Franks treated land purely as a private possession and divided it among their heirs, so four kingdoms emerged from Clovis's: Paris, Orléans, Soissons, and Rheims.
The last Merovingian kings lost power to their mayors of the palace (head of household). One mayor of the palace, Charles Martel, defeated an Islamic invasion of Gaul at the Battle of Tours (732) and earned respect and power within the Frankish kingdoms. His son, Pepin the Short, seized the crown of Francia from the weakened Merovingians and founded the Carolingian dynasty. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, reunited the Frankish kingdoms and built a vast empire across Western and Central Europe.
Proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III and thus establishing in earnest the French government's longtime historical association with the Catholic Church,[៣៣] Charlemagne tried to revive the Western Roman Empire and its cultural grandeur.
Charlemagne's son, Louis I (emperor 814–840), kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian Empire would not survive his death. In 843, under the Treaty of Verdun, the empire was divided between Louis' three sons, with East Francia going to Louis the German, Middle Francia to Lothair I, and West Francia to Charles the Bald. West Francia approximated the area occupied by, and was the precursor, to modern France.[៣៤]
During the 9th and 10th centuries, continually threatened by Viking invasions, France became a very decentralised state: the nobility's titles and lands became hereditary, and the authority of the king became more religious than secular and thus was less effective and constantly challenged by powerful noblemen. Thus was established feudalism in France. Over time, some of the king's vassals would grow so powerful that they often posed a threat to the king. For example, after the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror added "King of England" to his titles, becoming both the vassal to (as Duke of Normandy) and the equal of (as king of England) the king of France.
Kingdom of France (843–1791)[កែប្រែ]
The Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of the Franks.[៣៥] His descendants – the Capetians, the House of Valois, and the House of Bourbon – progressively unified the country through wars and dynastic inheritance into the Kingdom of France, which was fully declared in 1190 by Philip II Augustus. Gerbert d'Aurillac (Gerbert of Aurillac) was the first French pope; his reign as Pope Sylvester II lasted from 999 to 1003.
The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars in the south-western area of modern-day France. In the end, the Cathars were exterminated and the autonomous County of Toulouse was annexed into the kingdom of France.[៣៦] Later Kings expanded their territory to cover over half of modern continental France, including most of the North, Centre and West of France. Meanwhile, the royal authority became more and more assertive, centred around a hierarchically conceived society distinguishing nobility, clergy, and commoners.
Charles IV the Fair died without an heir in 1328.[៣៧] Under the rules of the Salic law the crown of France could not pass to a woman nor could the line of kingship pass through the female line.[៣៧] Accordingly, the crown passed to Philip of Valois, a cousin of Charles, rather than through the female line to Charles' nephew, Edward, who would soon become Edward III of England. During the reign of Philip of Valois, the French monarchy reached the height of its medieval power.[៣៧]
However, Philip's seat on the throne was contested by Edward III of England and in 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death,[៣៨] England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War.[៣៩] The exact boundaries changed greatly with time, but French landholdings of the English Kings remained extensive for decades.
With charismatic leaders, such as Joan of Arc and La Hire, strong French counterattacks won back English continental territories. Like the rest of Europe, France was struck by the Black Death. Around 1340, France had a population of approximately 17 million,[៤០] which by the end of the pandemic had declined by about one-half.[៤១]
The French Renaissance saw a long set of wars, known as the Italian Wars, between the Kingdom of France and the powerful Holy Roman Empire. It also saw the first standardization of the French language, which would become the official language of France and the language of Europe's aristocracy. French explorers, such as Jacques Cartier or Samuel de Champlain, claimed lands in the Americas for France, paving the way for the expansion of the First French colonial empire.
The rise of Protestantism in Europe led France to a civil war known as the French Wars of Religion, where, in the most notorious incident, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.[៤២] The Wars of Religion were ended by Henry IV's Edict of Nantes, which granted some freedom of religion to the Huguenots.
Under Louis XIII, the energetic Cardinal Richelieu reinforced the centralization of the state, royal power and French dominance in Europe, foreshadowing the reign of Louis XIV. During Louis XIV's minority and the regency of Queen Anne and Cardinal Mazarin, a period of trouble known as the Fronde occurred in France, which was at that time at war with Spain. This rebellion was driven by the great feudal lords and sovereign courts as a reaction to the rise of royal power in France.
The monarchy reached its peak during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. By turning powerful feudal lords into courtiers at the Palace of Versailles, Louis XIV's personal power became unchallenged. Remembered for his numerous wars, he made France the leading European power. France possessed the largest population in Europe (see Demographics of France) and had tremendous influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the most-used language in diplomacy, science, literature and international affairs, and remained so until the 20th century.[៤៣] France obtained many overseas possessions in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing thousands of Huguenots into exile.
Under Louis XV, France lost New France and most of its Indian possessions after its defeat in the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763. Its continental territory kept growing, however, with notable acquisitions such as Lorraine (1766) and Corsica (1770). An unpopular king, Louis XV's weak rule, his ill-advised financial, political and military decisions, and his debauchery discredited the monarchy and arguably led to the French Revolution 15 years after his death.[៤៤][៤៥]
Louis XVI, Louis XV's grandson, actively supported the Americans, who were seeking their independence from Great Britain (realized in the Treaty of Paris (1783)). The example of the American Revolution and the financial crisis which followed France's involvement in it were two of many contributing factors to the French Revolution.
Much of the Enlightenment occurred in French intellectual circles, and major scientific breakthroughs and inventions, such as the discovery of oxygen (1778) and the first hot air balloon carrying passengers (1783), were achieved by French scientists. French explorers, such as Bougainville and Lapérouse, took part in the voyages of scientific exploration through maritime expeditions around the globe. The Enlightenment philosophy, in which reason is advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority, undermined the power of and support for the monarchy and helped pave the way for the French Revolution.
Republics and Empires (1792–)[កែប្រែ]
After the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, the absolute monarchy was abolished and France became a constitutional monarchy. Through the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, France established fundamental rights for French citizens (who could only be male). The Declaration affirms "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man" to "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression". It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges and proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men, as well as access to public office based on talent rather than birth.
The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed. The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, eliminating the privileges of the nobility and clergy.
While Louis XVI, as a constitutional king, enjoyed popularity among the population, his disastrous flight to Varennes seemed to justify rumours he had tied his hopes of political salvation to the prospects of foreign invasion. His credibility was deeply undermined to the extent that the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of a republic became an increasing possibility.
European monarchies gathered against the new régime, to restore the French absolute monarchy. The foreign threat exacerbated France's political turmoil and deepened the sense of urgency among the various factions and war was declared against Austria on 20 April 1792. Mob violence occurred during the insurrection of 10 August 1792[៤៦] and the following month.[៤៧] As a result of this violence and the political instability of the constitutional monarchy, the Republic was proclaimed on 22 September 1792.
Louis XVI was convicted of treason and guillotined in 1793. Facing increasing pressure from European monarchies, internal guerrilla wars and counterrevolutions (such as the War in the Vendée or the Chouannerie), the young Republic fell into the Reign of Terror. Between 1793 and 1794, between 16,000 and 40,000 people were executed. In Western France, the civil war between the Bleus ("Blues", supporters of the Revolution) and the Blancs ("Whites", supporters of the Monarchy) lasted from 1793 to 1796 and led to the loss of between 200,000 and 450,000 lives.[៤៨][៤៩]
Both foreign armies and French counterrevolutionnaries were crushed and the French Republic survived. Furthermore, it extended greatly its boundaries and established "Sister Republics" in the surrounding countries. As the threat of a foreign invasion receded and France became mostly pacified, the Thermidorian Reaction put an end to Robespierre's rule and to the Terror. The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage, enacted during this radical phase of the revolution, were cancelled by subsequent governments.
After a short-lived governmental scheme, Napoleon Bonaparte seized control of the Republic in 1799 becoming First Consul and later Emperor of the French Empire (1804–1814/1815). As a continuation of the wars sparked by the European monarchies against the French Republic, changing sets of European Coalitions declared wars on Napoleon's Empire. His armies conquered most of continental Europe, while members of the Bonaparte family were appointed as monarchs in some of the newly established kingdoms.[៥០]
These victories led to the worldwide expansion of French revolutionary ideals and reforms, such as the Metric system, the Napoleonic Code and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. After the catastrophic Russian campaign, Napoleon was defeated and the Bourbon monarchy restored. About a million Frenchmen died during the Napoleonic Wars.[៥០]
After his brief return from exile, Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the monarchy was re-established (1815–1830), with new constitutional limitations. The discredited Bourbon dynasty was overthrown by the July Revolution of 1830, which established the constitutional July Monarchy, which lasted until 1848, when the French Second Republic was proclaimed, in the wake of the European Revolutions of 1848. The abolition of slavery and male universal suffrage, both briefly enacted during the French Revolution were re-enacted in 1848.
In 1852, the president of the French Republic, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, Napoleon I’s nephew, was proclaimed emperor of the second Empire, as Napoleon III. He multiplied French interventions abroad, especially in Crimea, in Mexico and Italy. Napoleon III was unseated following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and his regime was replaced by the Third Republic.
France had colonial possessions, in various forms, since the beginning of the 17th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, its global overseas colonial empire extended greatly and became the second largest in the world behind the British Empire. Including metropolitan France, the total area of land under French sovereignty almost reached 13 million square kilometres in the 1920s and 1930s, 8.6% of the world's land.
France was a member of the Triple Entente when World War I broke out. A small part of Northern France was occupied, but France and its allies emerged victorious against the Central Powers, at a tremendous human and material cost. World War I left 1.4 million French soldiers dead, 4% of its population,[៥១] between 27 and 30% of the conscript classes of 1912–1915.[៥២]
The interbellum years were marked by intense international tensions and a variety of social reforms introduced by the Popular Front government (Annual leave, working time reduction, women in Government among others). France was occupied following the German Blitzkrieg campaign in World War II, with metropolitan France divided into a German occupation zone in the north and Vichy France, a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, in the south.[៥៣] The Allies and the French Resistance eventually emerged victorious from the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored.
The Fourth Republic was established after World War II and saw spectacular economic growth (les Trente Glorieuses). Suffrage was extended to women in 1944. France was one of the founding members of NATO (1949). France attempted to regain control of French Indochina but was defeated by the Viet Minh in 1954. Only months later, France faced a new conflict in Algeria. The debate over whether or not to keep control of Algeria, then home to over one million European settlers,[៥៤] wracked the country and nearly led to civil war.
In 1958, the weak and unstable Fourth Republic gave way to the Fifth Republic, which contained a strengthened Presidency.[៥៥] In the latter role, Charles de Gaulle managed to keep the country together while taking steps to end the war. The Algerian War was concluded with the Évian Accords in 1962 that led to Algerian independence. France granted independence progressively to its colonies. A vestige of the colonial empire are the French overseas departments and territories.
In the wake of the series of worldwide protests of 1968, the revolt of May 1968 had an enormous social impact. In France, it is considered to be the watershed moment when a conservative moral ideal (religion, patriotism, respect for authority) shifted towards a more liberal moral ideal.
France has been at the forefront of the European Union member states seeking to capitalise on the momentum of monetary union to create a more unified and capable European Union political, defence, and security apparatus.[៥៦]
Geography[កែប្រែ]
Metropolitan France is situated mostly between latitudes 41° and 51° N, and longitudes 6° W and 10° E, on the western edge of Europe, and thus lies within the northern temperate zone.
From northeast to southwest, France shares borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Spain and Andorra. France also borders Suriname to its west and Brazil to its east and south, by way of the overseas region of French Guiana, which is considered an integral part of the Republic.[៣]
Corsica and the French mainland form Metropolitan France; Guadeloupe, Martinique, Réunion, and Mayotte form, with French Guiana, the overseas regions. These two integral groupings, along with several overseas collectivities and one territory, comprise the French Republic.
The European territory of France covers ៥៤៧០៣០ សហតិមាត្រការ៉េ (២១១២០៩ ម៉ាយ ក.),[៣] the largest among European Union members.[១៦] France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges of the Alps in the south-east, the Massif Central in the south-central and Pyrenees in the south-west.
At ៤៨១០,៤៥ មាត្រ (១៥៧៨២ ភត)[៥៧] above sea level, the highest point in Western Europe, Mont Blanc, is situated in the Alps on the border between France and Italy. France also has extensive river systems such as the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps and flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the Camargue. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast.
France's total land area, with its overseas departments and territories (excluding Adélie Land), is ៦៧៤៨៤៣ គ.ម២ (២៦០៥៥៨ ម៉ាយ ក.), 0.45% of the total land area on Earth. France possesses the second largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world,[៥៨] covering ១១០៣៥០០០ គ.ម២ (៤២៦០៦៣៧ ម៉ាយ ក.), approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, just behind the US (ទំព័រគំរូ:Convert/LoffAonDorSoff).[៥៩]
Climate[កែប្រែ]
The north and northwest have a temperate climate, while a combination of maritime influences, latitude and altitude produce a varied climate in the rest of Metropolitan France.[៦០] In the south-east a Mediterranean climate prevails. In the west, the climate is predominantly oceanic with a high level of rainfall, mild winters and cool to warm summers. Inland the climate becomes more continental with hot, stormy summers, colder winters and less rain. The climate of the Alps and other mountainous regions is mainly alpine, with the number of days with temperatures below freezing over 150 per year and snow cover lasting for up to six months.
-
Mediterranean vegetation (lavender) in Provence
-
The plains of the Beauce
-
Alpine climate in the French Alps
-
Verdon Gorge in Provence
-
Heathland in Pointe du Van, Western Brittany
-
Oceanic climate and sandy beach in Arcachon Bay
-
Semi-arid climate in Corsica
Environment[កែប្រែ]
France was one of the first countries to create an environment ministry, in 1971.[៦១] Although France is one of the most industrialised countries, it is ranked only seventeenth by carbon dioxide emissions, behind less populous nations such as Canada or Australia. This situation results from the France's decision to invest in nuclear power in 1974 after the 1973 oil crisis,[៦២] which now accounts for 75% of France's electricity production[៦៣] and explains why France pollutes less than comparable countries.[៦៤][៦៥]
Like all European Union members, France agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by the year 2020,[៦៦] in comparison the US agreed to a cut of 4% of its emissions.[៦៧] In 2009, French carbon dioxide emissions per capita was lower than the Chinese.[៦៨]
France was set to impose a carbon tax in 2009 at 17 Euros per tonne of carbon emitted.[៦៩] The carbon tax would have brought in 4 billion Euros of revenue per year.[៧០] But the tax was abandoned for various reasons, including that French companies would have difficulty competing with companies in neighbouring countries that would not have to pay such steep taxes on carbon emissions. Instituting a carbon tax was an unpopular political move for President Sarkozy.[៧១]
In 2010, a study at Yale and Columbia universities ranked France the seventh most environmentally conscious country in the world.[៧២][៧៣]
Forests account for 28% of the land area of France.[៧៤][៧៥] French forests are some of the most diversified of Europe, with more than 140 differents varieties of trees.[៧៦] There are nine national parks[៧៧] and 46 natural parks in France.[៧៨] France wants to convert 20% of its Exclusive Economic Zone to a Marine Protected Area by 2020.[៧៩]
លក្ខណៈទូទៅរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង[កែប្រែ]
ផ្ទៃដី[កែប្រែ]
មានផ្ទៃដីចំនួន ៥៥០០០០ គីឡូម៉ែត្រការេ។ ប្រទេសបារាំងលាតសន្ធឹងលើទឹកដីនៃទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិច ប្រហែល១ភាគ១៥នៃផ្ទៃ ដីសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប ទាំងមូល ហើយជា ប្រទេសមួយដែលមានតំបន់សមុទ្រធំទូលាយ (ជា តំបន់សេដ្ឋកិច្ច ផ្ដាច់មុខលាតសន្ឋឹងលើផ្ទៃ១១លាន គម២)។
ស្ថានភាពដី[កែប្រែ]
- តំបន់ទំនាប ៖ ២/៣ នៃផ្ទៃដីទាំងមូល.
- ប្រជុំភ្នំសំខាន់ៗ: ភ្នំអាល់ (Alpes) ភ្នំដែលមានកំពស់ខ្ពស់ជាងគេនៅអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិច គឺភ្នំម៉ុងប្លង់ ដែលមានកំពស់ ៤៨០៧ម៉ែត្រ ភ្នំពីរេណ៉េ ភ្នំហ៊្សុយរ៉ា ភ្នំអាកឌែន ភ្នំម៉ាស៊្សីស សង់ត្រាល់ និងភ្នំវ៉ូហ្សឺ។
- តំបន់មាត់សមុទ្រ: ដោយមានព្រំប្រទល់ជាប់នឹងសមុទ្រចំនួន៤ សមុទ្រខាងជើង សមុទ្រឡាម៉ង់ មហាសមុទ្រ អាត្លង់ទិច និងសមុទ្រម៉េឌីទែរ៉ាណេ ប្រទេសបារាំងមាន ឆ្នេរសរុបប្រវែង ៥៥០០គីឡូម៉ែត្រ។
- ដែនដីសំខាន់ហ៊ុំព័ទ្ឋដោយ មហាសមុទ្រអាត្លង់ទិកនៅខាងលិច សមុទ្រម៉ង់ និង សមុទ្រខាងជើង(la mer du Nord)នៅខាងជើង ប្រទេសបែលហ្ស៊ីក លុចហ្សំបួរ អាលឺម៉ង់ ស្វីសនិងអ៊ីតាលី នៅខាងកើត និងដោយ សមុទ្រមេឌីទែរ៉ានេ ប្រទេសអង់ដូរ៉ា ម៉ូណាកូ និងអេស្បាញនៅខាងត្បូង។
- ដែនដីឯនាយសមុទ្រមាន ហ្គុយយ៉ាន(la Guyane)និងកោះសាំងម៉ាតាំង( l’île de Saint-Martin)នៅទ្វីបអាមេរិកខាងត្បូង , ប៉ូលីនេស៊ីបារាំង( la Polynésie française) វ៉ាលីនិងហ្វុទុណា(Wallis-et-Futuna) ណូវ៉ែលកាលេដូនី(la Nouvelle-Calédonie) និងកោះខ្លីបពឺតុង(l’Île Clipperton) នៅមហាសមុទ្រប៉ាស៊ីហ្វិក , ឡារ៉េអ៊ុយនីញ៉ុង(La Réunion) ម៉ាយ៉ុត(Mayotte) និងកោះអេប៉ាស(Îles Éparses)នៅមហាសមុទ្រឥណ្ឌា , ដែនដែអូស្ត្រាល់និងអង់តាទិកបារាំង
(les Terres australes et antarctiques françaises)នៅទ្វីបអូសេអានីនិងមហាសមុទ្រអង់តាទិក , ហ្គាដឺលូប(la Guadeloupe) ម៉ាទីនីក(la Martinique) កោះសាំងម៉ាតាំង(l’île Saint-Martin)កោះសាំងបេទេលេមី(l’île Saint-Barthélemy) នៅសមុទ្រការ៉ាអ៊ីប។
អាកាសធាតុ[កែប្រែ]
ប្រទេសបារាំងស្ថិតក្រោមឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុ៣ប្រភេទ៖
- ផ្នែកខាងលិចនៃប្រទេសបារាំងទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុមហាសមុទ្រ
- ផ្នែកខាងត្បូងទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុម៉េឌីទេរ៉ាណេ
- ភាគកណ្ដាល និងខាងកើតទទួលរងឥទ្ធិពលអាកាសធាតុពីដែនទ្វីបជាអាកាសធាតុក្ដៅ ត្រជាក់ខ្លាំង ។
បរិស្ថាន[កែប្រែ]
តំបន់ផលិតផលកសិកម្ម និងព្រៃឈើគ្របដណ្ដប់លើផ្ទៃដី៤៨លានហិកតា គឺស្មើនឹង៨២%នៃផ្ទៃដីគោក។ ព្រៃក្រាស់លាតសន្ធឹងលើ២៦%នៃផ្ទៃដីហើយជាប់ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់លេខ៣នៅអឺរ៉ុប បន្ទាប់ពី ស៊ុយអែដ និងហ្វាំងឡង់ ។ ផ្ទៃដីព្រៃឈើនៅប្រទេសបារាំងបានកើន៤៦%ចាប់តាំងពីឆ្នាំ១៩៤៥ ហើយនឹងកើនឡើងទ្វេដងក្នុងរយៈពេល២០០ឆ្នាំ។ លើលពីនេះ គេឃើញមាន ដើមឈើចំនួន១៣៦ប្រភេទផ្សេងគ្នានៅក្នុងប្រទេសបារាំង ដែលនេះគឺជាករណីពិសេសមួយសំរាប់ប្រទេសនៅក្នុងទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប។
ចំនួនសត្វព្រៃមាន ការកើនឡើង ក្នុងរយៈពេលតែ២០ឆ្នាំ សត្វប្រើសមានចំនួនកើន ឡើងទ្វេ ដង រីឯពពួកសត្វឈ្លូសវិញកើនឡើងបីដង។
ដើម្បីថែរក្សា និងលើកតំកើងបេតិកភណ្ឌធម្មជាតិរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង រដ្ឋបានបង្កើត ៖
- ឧទ្យានជាតិចំនួន៧
- តំបន់ការពារធម្មជាតិ១៥៦កន្លែង
- តំបន់ការពាររុក្ខជាតិ និងសត្វចំនួន៥១៦កន្លែង
- តំបន់រមណីដ្ឋាន ៤២៩កន្លែង ស្ថិតក្រោមការការពាររបស់ការិយាល័យការពារដែន សមុទ្រ
- រាប់បញ្ចូលផងដែរនូវឧទ្យានធម្មជាតិ៤៣កន្លែង។
នៅលើឆាកអន្ដរជាតិ ប្រទេសបារាំងជាភាគីនៃសន្ធិសញ្ញា និងអនុសញ្ញាជាច្រើនក្នុងនោះ មានទាំង អនុសញ្ញា អង្គការសហប្រជាជាតិស្ដីអំពីអា-កាសធាតុ ជីវៈចំរុះ និងការប្រែក្លាយ ជាតំបន់រហស្ថាន។
Demographics[កែប្រែ]
With an estimated population of 66 million people in July 2013, France is the 21st most populous country in the world.[៣]
In 2004, the Institut Montaigne estimated there were 51 million (85%) white people, 6 million (10%) North African people, 2 million (3.5%) black people and 1 million (1.5%) people of Asian origin in Metropolitan France.[៨០][៨១]
In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all natural population growth in the European Union. The natural growth rate (excess of births over deaths) rose to 300,000 in 2006,[៨២] its highest since the end of the baby boom in 1973. The total fertility rate rose to 2 in 2010,[៨៣] from a nadir of 1.7 in 1994.[៨៤] From 2006 to 2011 population growth was on average +0.6% per year.[៨២] In 2010, 27% of newborns in metropolitan France had at least one foreign-born parent and 24% had at least one parent born outside of Europe (parents born in overseas territories are considered as born in France).[៨៥]
In 2008, the French national institute of statistics INSEE estimated that 11.8 million foreign-born immigrants and their direct descendants (born in France) lived in France, representing 19% of the country's population. More than 5 million are of European origin and 4 million of Maghrebi origin. There are 2.7 million immigrants aged 18–50 (accounting for 10% of the population aged 18–50) and 5 million altogether (8% of the entire population). The second generation aged 18–50 make up 3.1 million (12% of 18–50) and 6.5 million for all ages (11% of population)[៨៦][៨៧][៨៨] In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, mostly to people from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey.[៨៩]
Although it is illegal for the French state to collect data on ethnicity and ancestry, a law with its origins in the 1789 revolution and reaffirmed in the French Constitution of 1958, some surveys, like the TeO ("Trajectories and origins") survey conducted jointly by INED and INSEE in 2008, are allowed to.[៩០][៩១] Before this survey, it was estimated that 5 million people were of Italian ancestry (the most numerous immigrant community),[៩២] between 3 million[៩៣] and 6 million[៩៤] people are of North African ancestry, 2.5 million people are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, 200,000 people are of Turkish ancestry,[៩៥] and many more are of other European ethnic ancestry, such as Spaniards, Portuguese, Poles, and Greeks.[៩២][៩៦][៩៧]
It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of immigration the country has received.[៩៨] Between 1921 and 1935 about 1.1 million net immigrants came to France.[៩៩] An estimated 1.6 million pieds noirs returned to France as the country's North African possessions gained independence.[១០០][១០១]
France accepts about 200,000 legal immigrants each year.[១០២] France is the leading asylum destination in Western Europe with an estimated 50,000 applications in 2005 (a 15% decrease from 2004).[១០៣] The European Union allows free movement between the member states, France however put in place controls to curb Eastern European migration.
The largest cities in France, in terms of metropolitan area population, are Paris (11,836,970), Lyon (1,757,180), Marseille (1,618,369), Lille (1,163,934), Toulouse (1,118,472), Bordeaux (1,009,313), Nice (999,678), Nantes (768,305). A perennial political issue concerns rural flight.
Language[កែប្រែ]
According to Article 2 of the Constitution, the official language of France is French,[១០៤] a Romance language derived from Latin. Since 1635, the Académie française has been France's official authority on the French language, although its recommendations carry no legal power.
The French government does not regulate the choice of language in publications by individuals but the use of French is required by law in commercial and workplace communications. In addition to mandating the use of French in the territory of the Republic, the French government tries to promote French in the European Union and globally through institutions such as La Francophonie. The perceived threat from anglicisation has prompted efforts to safeguard the position of the French language in France. Besides French, there exist 77 vernacular minority languages of France, eight spoken in French metropolitan territory and 69 in the French overseas territories.
From the 17th to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe.[១០៥] The dominant position of French language in international affairs was overtaken by English, since the emergence of the US as a major power.[៤៣][១០៦][១០៧] Though for most of the time in which French served as an international lingua franca, it was not the native language of most Frenchmen: a report in 1794 conducted by Henri Grégoire found that of the country's 25 million people, only three million spoke French natively; the rest spoke one of the country's many regional languages, such as Alsatian, Breton or Occitan.[១០៨] Through the expansion of public education, in which French was the sole language of instruction, as well as other factors such as increased urbanization and the rise of mass communication, French gradually came to be adopted by virtually the entire population, a process not completed until the 20th century.
As a result of France's extensive colonial ambitions between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to America, Africa, Polynesia, South-East Asia, and the Caribbean. French is the second most studied foreign language in the world after English,[១០៩] and is a lingua franca in some regions, notably in Africa. The legacy of French as a living language outside Europe is mixed: it is nearly extinct in some former French colonies (South-east Asia), while creoles and pidgins based on French have emerged in the French departments in the West Indies and the South Pacific (French Polynesia). On the other hand, many former French colonies have adopted French as an official language, and the total number of French speakers is increasing, especially in Africa.
It is estimated that between 300 million[១១០] and 500 million[១១១] people worldwide can speak French, either as a mother tongue or a second language.
Religion[កែប្រែ]
France is a secular country, and freedom of religion is a constitutional right. French religious policy is based on the concept of laïcité, a strict separation of church and state under which public life is kept completely secular.
Catholicism has been the predominant religion in France for more than a millennium, though it is not as actively practised today as it was. Among the 47,000 religious buildings in France, 94% are Roman Catholic.[១១៣] Whilst in 1965, 81% of the French declared themselves to be Catholics, in 2009 this proportion was 64%. Moreover, whilst 27% of the French went to Mass once a week or more in 1952, only 5% did so in 2006.[១១៤] The same survey found that Protestants accounted for 3% of the population, an increase from previous surveys, and 5% adhered to other religions, with the remaining 28% stating they had no religion.[១១៤] Evangelical Christianity may be the fastest growing religion in France.[១១៥]
The French Revolution saw a radical shift in the status of the Catholic Church with the launch of a brutal campaign of de-Christianization. After the back and forth of Catholic royal and secular republican governments over the 19th century, laïcité was established with the 1905 law on the Separation of the Churches and the State.[១១៦]
According to a poll in January 2007,[១១៧] only 5% of the French population attended church regularly (10% attend church services regularly among the respondents who did identify themselves as Catholics). The poll showed[១១៨] 51% identified as being Catholics, 31% identified as being agnostics or atheists (another poll[១១៩] sets the proportion of atheists equal to 27%), 10% identified as being from other religions or being without opinion, 4% identified as Muslim, 3% identified as Protestant, 1% identified as Buddhist, 1% identified as Jewish. Meanwhile, an independent estimate by the politologist Pierre Bréchon in 2009 concluded that the proportion of Catholics had fallen to 42% while the number of atheists and agnostics had risen to 50%.[១២០]
Estimates of the number of Muslims in France vary widely. In 2003, the French Ministry of the Interior estimated the total number of people of Muslim background to be between 5 and 6 million (8–10%).[១២១][១២២] According to the Pewforum, "In France, proponents of a 2004 law banning the wearing of religious symbols in schools say it protects Muslim girls from being forced to wear a headscarf, but the law also restricts those who want to wear headscarves – or any other “conspicuous” religious symbol, including large Christian crosses and Sikh turbans – as an expression of their faith"[១២៣]
The current Jewish community in France numbers around 600,000 according to the World Jewish Congress and is the largest in Europe.
Since 1905 the French government has followed the principle of laïcité, in which it is prohibited from recognising any specific right to a religious community (except for legacy statutes like that of military chaplains and the local law in Alsace-Moselle). Instead, it merely recognises religious organisations, according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine. Conversely, religious organizations should refrain from intervening in policy-making.[១២៤] Certain bodies of beliefs such as Scientology, Children of God, the Unification Church, or the Order of the Solar Temple are considered cults ("sectes" in French),[១២៥] and therefore do not have the same status as religions in France. Secte is considered a pejorative term in France.[១២៦]
Health[កែប្រែ]
The French healthcare system was ranked first worldwide by the World Health Organization in 1997[១២៨] and then again in 2000.[១២៩] Care is generally free for people affected by chronic diseases (affections de longues durées) such as cancer, AIDS or Cystic Fibrosis. Average life expectancy at birth is 78 years for men and 85 years for women, one of the highest of the European Union.[១៣០] There are 3.22 physicians for every 1000 inhabitants in France,[១៣១] and average health care spending per capita was US$4,719 in 2008.[១៣២] As of 2007, approximately 140,000 inhabitants (0.4%) of France are living with HIV/AIDS.[៣]
Even if the French have the reputation of being one of the thinnest peoples in developed countries, [១៣៣][១៣៤][១៣៥][១៣៦][១៣៧][១៣៨] France—like other rich countries—faces an increasing and recent epidemic of obesity, due mostly to the replacement of traditional healthy French cuisine by junk food in French eating habits.[១៣៣][១៣៤][១៣៩] Nevertheless, the French obesity rate is far below that of the USA (for instance, obesity rate in France is the same that the American once was in the 1970s[១៣៤]), and is still the lowest of Europe,[១៣៦][១៣៩] but it is now regarded by the authorities as one of the main public health issues[១៤០] and is fiercely fought; rates of childhood obesity are slowing in France, while continuing to grow in other countries.[១៤១]
Education[កែប្រែ]
In 1802, Napoleon created the lycée.[១៤២] Nevertheless it is Jules Ferry who is considered to be the father of the French modern school, which is free, secular, and compulsory until the age of 13 since 1882[១៤៣] (school attendance in France is now compulsory until the age of 16[១៤៤]).
Nowadays, the schooling system in France is centralized, and is composed of three stages, primary education, secondary education, and higher education. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks France's education as the 25th best in the world, being neither significantly higher nor lower than the OECD average.[១៤៥] Primary and secondary education are predominantly public, run by the Ministry of National Education.
Higher education in France is divided between public universities and the prestigious and selective Grandes écoles, such as Science Po Paris for Political studies, HEC Paris for Economics, Polytechnique and the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris that produces high-profile engineers, or the École nationale d'administration for careers in the great corps of the State. The Grandes écoles have been criticised for alleged elitism,[១៤៦] nevertheless they have produced many if not most of France's high-ranking civil servants, CEOs, and politicians.
ប្រជាជន[កែប្រែ]
មានប្រជាជនរស់នៅ៦៣,៨ លាននាក់ (២០០៨)។ ដង់សីតេប្រជាជន: ៩៨,១ នាក់/គម២។ទីក្រុងដែលមានប្រជាជនរស់នៅលើសពី ១០០ ០០០នាក់ មានចំនួន៥៧។ ក្នុងនោះមានទីក្រុង៥ ដែលមានប្រជាជន រស់នៅច្រើនជាងគេ ៖
| ទីក្រុង | ប្រជាជនក្នុងឆ្នាំ២០០៦ |
|---|---|
| 1. បារីស | ៩,៦ លាន |
| 2. លីល | ១,៧ លាន |
| 3. លីយ៉ុង | ១,៤ លាន |
| 4. ម៉ាកសី | ១,៣ លាន |
| 5. ទូលូ | ១ លាន |
Culture[កែប្រែ]
France has been a center of Western cultural development for centuries. Many French artists have been among the most renowned of their time, and France is still recognized in the world for its rich cultural tradition.
The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation, and the creation of the Ministry of Culture in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists, promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting historical monuments. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a cultural exception to defend audiovisual products made in the country.
France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200 museums welcoming more than 50 million people annually.[១៤៧] The most important cultural sites are run by the government, for instance through the public agency Centre des monuments nationaux, which is responsible for approximately 85 national historical monuments.
The 43,180 buildings protected as historical monuments include mainly residences (many castles, or châteaux in French) and religious buildings (cathedrals, basilicas, churches, etc.), but also statutes, memorials and gardens. The UNESCO inscribed 38 sites in France on the World Heritage List.[១៤៨]
Art[កែប្រែ]
The origins of French art were very much influenced by Flemish art and by Italian art at the time of the Renaissance. Jean Fouquet, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance at first hand. The Renaissance painting School of Fontainebleau was directly inspired by Italian painters such as Primaticcio and Rosso Fiorentino, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of Baroque era, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy.
The 17th century was the period when French painting became prominent and individualized itself through classicism. Louis XIV's prime minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded in 1648 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture to protect these artists, and in 1666 he created the still-active French Academy in Rome to have direct relations with Italian artists.
French artists developed the rococo style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists Antoine Watteau, François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as Napoleon favoured artists of neoclassic style such as Jacques-Louis David and the highly influential Académie des Beaux-Arts defined the style known as Academism. At this time France had become a centre of artistic creation, the first half of the 19th century being dominated by two successive movements, at first Romanticism with Théodore Géricault and Eugène Delacroix, and Realism with Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet and Jean-François Millet, a style that eventually evolved into Naturalism.
In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting became even more important, with the development of new styles of painting such as Impressionism and Symbolism. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were Camille Pissarro, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir.[១៤៩] The second generation of impressionist-style painters, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec and Georges Seurat, were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,[១៥០] as well as the fauvist artists Henri Matisse, André Derain and Maurice de Vlaminck.[១៥១][១៥២]
At the beginning of 20th century, Cubism was developed by Georges Braque and the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as Vincent van Gogh, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Wassily Kandinsky.
Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to sculptures and painting works. A huge collection of old masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned Musée du Louvre, such as Mona Lisa, also known as La Joconde. While the Louvre Palace has been for a long time a museum, the Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in a major reorganization of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[១៥៣][១៥៤]
Modern works are presented in the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.[១៥៥] Other national museums hosting paintings include the Grand Palais (1.3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums owned by cities, the most visited being the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (0.8 million entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.[១៥៥]
Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in Lyon, Lille, Rouen, Dijon, Rennes and Grenoble.
Architecture[កែប្រែ]
During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse, the largest romanesque church in Europe,[១៥៧] and the remains of the Cluniac Abbey.
The Gothic architecture, originally named Opus Francigenum meaning « French work »,[១៥៨] was born in Île-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be copied in all Europe.[១៥៩] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims.[១៦០] Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon.
The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the Loire Valley. Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise.
Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one.[១៦១] In the secular domain, the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architect of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at Les Invalides.[១៦២] Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[១៦៣][១៦៤]
After the Revolution, the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although neoclassicism was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such building as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the first French Empire, the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent the best example of Empire style architecture.[១៦៥]
Under Napoleon III, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; for example, Haussmann's renovation of Paris. The architecture associated to this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century, Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower.
In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 meters, or 121 feet.[១៦៦] France's largest financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[១៦៧] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel, Dominique Perrault, Christian de Portzamparc or Paul Andreu.
Literature[កែប្រែ]
The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French mediaeval texts are unknown, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot-Grail. Other authors are known, for example Chrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan.
Much mediaeval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the various chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the mediaeval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing.
An important 16th-century writer was François Rabelais, whose novel Gargantua and Pantagruel has remained famous and appreciated until now. Michel de Montaigne was the other major figure of the French literature during that century. His most famous work, Essais, created the literary genre of the essay.[១៧០] French poetry during that century was embodied by Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Both writers founded the La Pléiade literary movement.
During the 17th century, Madame de La Fayette published anonymously La Princesse de Clèves, a novel that is considered to be one of the very first psychological novels of all times.[១៧១] Jean de La Fontaine is one of the most famous fabulist of that time, as he wrote hundreds of fables, some being far more famous than others, such as The Ant and the Grasshopper. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, that were seen as helping teaching wisdom and common sense to the young people. Some of his verses have entered the popular language to become proverbs.[១៧២]
Jean Racine, whose incredible mastery of the alexandrine and of the French language has been praised for centuries, created plays such as Phèdre or Britannicus. He is, along with Pierre Corneille (Le Cid) and Molière, considered as one of the three great dramatists of the France's golden age. Molière, who is deemed to be one of the greatest masters of comedy of the Western literature,[១៧៣] wrote dozens of plays, including Le Misanthrope, L'Avare, Le Malade imaginaire, and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. His plays have been so popular around the world that French language is sometimes dubbed as "the language of Molière" (la langue de Molière),[១៧៤] just like English is considered as "the language of Shakespeare".
French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries. Denis Diderot's best-known works are Jacques the Fatalist and Rameau's Nephew. He is however best known for being the main redactor of the Encyclopédie, whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century (in fields such as arts, sciences, languages, philosophy) and to present them to the people, in order to fight ignorance and obscurantism. During that same century, Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including Puss in Boots, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard. At the start of the 19th century, symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé.[១៧៥]
The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all times"[១៦៩] for excelling in all literary genres. The preface of his play Cromwell is considered to be the manifesto of the Romantic movement. Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles are considered as "poetic masterpieces",[១៧៦] Hugo's verse having been compared to that of Shakespeare, Dante and Homer.[១៧៦] His novel Les Misérables is widely seen as one of the greatest novel ever written[១៧៧] and The Hunchback of Notre Dame has remained immensely popular.
Other major authors of that century include Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), Émile Zola (Les Rougon-Macquart), Honoré de Balzac (La Comédie humaine), Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal (The Red and the Black, The Charterhouse of Parma), whose works are amongst the most well known in France and the world.
The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.[១៧៨] Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote Little Prince which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.[១៧៩] As of 2010, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation.[១៨០]
Philosophy[កែប្រែ]
Medieval philosophy was dominated by Scholasticism until the emergence of Humanism in the Renaissance. Modern philosophy began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, and Nicolas Malebranche. Descartes revitalised Western philosophy, which had been declined after the Greek and Roman eras.[១៨១] His Meditations on First Philosophy changed the primary object of philosophical thought and raised some of the most fundamental problems for foreigners such as Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Berkeley, and Kant.
During the 18th century, French philosophers produced one of the most important works of the Age of Enlightenment. In The Spirit of the Laws, Baron de Montesquieu theorized the principle of separation of powers, which has been implemented in all liberal democracies since it was first applied in the United States. In The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau openly criticized the European divine right monarchies and strongly affirmed the principle of the sovereignty of the people. Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion.
19th-century French thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionnary thinkers such as Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald and Lamennais, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre is considered, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke, one of the founders of European conservatism, while Comte is regarded as the founder of positivism and sociology.
In the early 20th century, French spiritualist thinkers such as Maine de Biran, Henri Bergson and Louis Lavelle influenced Anglo-Saxon thought, including the Americans Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, and the Englishman Alfred North Whitehead. In the late 20th century, partly influenced by German phenomenology and existentialism, postmodern philosophy began in France, with notable post-structuralist thinkers including Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze.
Sciences[កែប្រែ]
France has been since the Middle Ages a major focus of knowledge and discoveries. Around the beginning of the 11th century Pope Sylvester II reintroduced the abacus and armillary sphere, and introduced Arabic numerals and clocks to northern and western Europe.[១៨២] The University of Paris, founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important universities of the Western world.[១៨៣]
In the 17th century, René Descartes defined a method for the acquisition of scientific knowledge, while Blaise Pascal became famous for his work on probability and fluid mechanics. They were both key figures of the Scientific revolution which erupted in Europe during this period. The Academy of Sciences was founded by Louis XIV to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest academies of sciences.
The Age of Enlightenment was marked by the work of biologist Buffon and chemist Lavoisier, who discovered the role of oxygen in combustion, while Diderot and D'Alembert published the Encyclopédie which aimed to give access to "useful knowledge" to the people, a knowledge that they can apply to their everyday life.[១៨៤]
With the Industrial Revolution, the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France with scientists such as Augustin Fresnel, founder of modern optics, Sadi Carnot who laid the foundations of thermodynamics, or Louis Pasteur, a pioneer of microbiology. Other eminent French scientists of the 19th century have their names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré, physicists Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie, remained famous for their work on radioactivity, the physicist Paul Langevin or virologist Luc Montagnier, co-discoverer of HIV AIDS.
As of 2012, 65 French people have been awarded a Nobel Prize[១៨៥] and 11 have received the Fields Medal.[១៨៦]
Music[កែប្រែ]
France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed several musicians and composers in the royal court. The most renowned composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers.
French classical music knew a revival in the 19th and 20th century, at the end of the romantic movement, at first with opera composers Hector Berlioz, Georges Bizet, Gabriel Fauré, Charles Gounod, Jacques Offenbach, Édouard Lalo, Jules Massenet and Camille Saint-Saëns. This period was a golden age for operas, being popular in the country the opéra bouffon, the opera-ballet and the opéra comique genres. Later came precursors of modern classical music Érik Satie, Francis Poulenc, and above all Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy, who invented new musical forms.[១៨៨][១៨៩][១៩០][១៩១] More recently, at the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.[១៩២]
French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, French pop music, known as chanson française, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are Édith Piaf, Georges Brassens, Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour and Serge Gainsbourg. Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,[១៩៣] bands such as Noir Désir, Mano Negra, Niagara, Les Rita Mitsouko and more recently Superbus, Phoenix and Gojira[១៩៤] have reached worldwide popularity.
Other French artists with international careers have been popular in several countries, for example female singers Dalida, Mireille Mathieu and Mylène Farmer,[១៩៤] electronic music pioneers Jean-Michel Jarre, Laurent Garnier and Bob Sinclar, and later Martin Solveig and David Guetta. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), electronic duos Daft Punk, Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.[១៩៤][១៩៥][១៩៦]
Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned Paris National Opera (with its two sites Palais Garnier and Opéra Bastille), the Opéra National de Lyon, the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse and the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux. As for music festivals, there are several events organized, the most popular being the Eurockéennes and Rock en Seine. The Fête de la Musique, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French government in 1982.[១៩៧][១៩៨] Major music halls and venues in France include Le Zénith sites present in many cities and other places in Paris (Paris Olympia, Théâtre Mogador, Élysée Montmartre, etc.).
Cinema[កែប្រែ]
France has historical and strong links with cinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the Lumière Brothers) having created cinema in 1895.[២០២] France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2006 producing more films than any other European country.[២០៣] The nation also hosts the Cannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[២០៤][២០៥]
Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.[២០៦] French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.[២០៦]
Until recently, France had for centuries been the cultural center of the world,[១០៥] although its dominant position has been surpassed by the United States. Subsequently, France takes steps in protecting and promoting its culture, becoming a leading advocate of the cultural exception.[២០៧] The nation succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalized sectors of the WTO in 1993.[២០៨]
Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a voting in the UNESCO in 2005, and the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory: 198 countries voted for it, only 2 countries, the U.S and Israel, voted against it.[២០៩]
Fashion[កែប្រែ]
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
The association of France with fashion and style (បារាំង: la mode) dates largely to the reign of Louis XIV[២១០] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (បារាំង: couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishing of the great couturier houses such as Chanel, Dior, and Givenchy. The French perfume industry is world leader in its sector and is centered around the town of Grasse.[២១១]
In the 1960s, the elitist "Haute couture" came under criticism from France's youth culture. In 1966, the designer Yves Saint Laurent broke with established Haute Couture norms by launching a prêt-à-porter ("ready to wear") line and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing. With a greater focus on marketing and manufacturing, new trends were established by Sonia Rykiel, Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean-Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1990s saw a conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as LVMH.
Media[កែប្រែ]
Compared to other developed countries, the French do not spend much time reading newspapers, due to the popularity of broadcast media. Best-selling daily national newspapers in France are Le Monde and Le Figaro, with around 300,000 copies sold daily, but also L'Équipe, dedicated to sports coverage.[២១២] In the past years, free dailies made a breakthrough, with Metro, 20 Minutes and Direct Plus distributed at more than 650,000 copies respectively.[២១៣] However, the widest circulations are reached by regional daily Ouest France with more than 750,000 copies sold, and the 50 other regional papers have also high sales.[២១៤][២១៥] The sector of weekly magazines is stronger and diversified with more than 400 specialized weekly magazines published in the country.[២១៦]
The most influential news magazine are left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur, centrist L'Express and right-wing Le Point (more than 400.000 copies),[២១៧] but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV magazines and by women’s magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers Le Canard Enchaîné and Charlie Hebdo, as well as Paris Match. Like in most industrialized nations, the print media have been affected by a severe crisis in the past decade. In 2008, the government have launched a major initiative to help the sector reform to be financially independent,[២១៨][២១៩] but in 2009 it had to give 600.000 euros to help the print media cope with the economic crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[២២០]
In 1974, after years of centralized monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations[២២១][២២២] remained under state-control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending state monopoly on radio.[២២២] French television was partly liberalized in the next two decade with the creation of several commercial channels, mainly thanks to cable and satellite television. In 2005 the national service Télévision Numérique Terrestre introduced digital television all over the territory, allowing the creation of other channels.
The four existing national channels are now owned by state-owned consortium France Télévisions, while public broadcasting group Radio France run five national radio stations. Among these public media are Radio France Internationale, which broadcasts programs in French all over the world, and Franco-German TV channel TV5 Monde. In 2006, the government created global news channel France 24. Long-established TV channels TF1 (privatized in 1987), France 2 and France 3 have the highest shares, while radio stations RTL, Europe 1 and state-owned France Inter are the least listened to.
Society[កែប្រែ]
According to a BBC poll in 2010, based on 29,977 responses in 28 countries, France is globally seen as a positive influence in the world's affairs: 49% have a positive view of the country's influence, whereas 19% have a negative view.[២២៣][២២៤] The Nation Brand Index of 2008 suggested that France has the second best international reputation, only behind Germany.[២២៥]
According to a poll in 2011, the French were found to have the highest level of religious tolerance and to be the country where the highest proportion of the population defines its identity primarily in term of nationality and not religion.[២២៦] 69% of French have a favourable view of the US, making France one of the most pro-American countries in the world.[២២៧]
In January 2010, the magazine International Living ranked France as "best country to live in", ahead of 193 other countries, for the fifth year running.[២២៨][២២៩]
The four official symbols of the Republic, as stated by the Constitution,[២៣០] all commemorate events from the French Revolution. Bastille Day, the national holiday, commemorates the Fête de la Fédération, held on 14 July 1790 to celebrate the storming of the Bastille.[២៣១] The origins of the Tricolour flag date to the Revolution, as the cockade was the symbols adopted by the revolutionaries in 1789.[២៣២]
The national anthem, La Marseillaise, was written in 1792 as a war song for the French Army.[២៣៣][២៣៤] The official motto of the French Republic, "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" (Liberty, equality, brotherhood), also appeared during the Revolution.[២៣៥] Marianne, an unofficial symbol, is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic, and appeared at the time of the Revolution.[២៣៦]
A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the Gallic rooster. Its origins date back to Antiquity, since the Latin word Gallus meant both "rooster" and "inhabitant of Gaul". Then this figure gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national identity, used for some stamps and coins.[២៣៧]
Gastronomy[កែប្រែ]
French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.[២៣៩][២៤០][២៤១][២៤២][២៤៣][២៤៤] French cuisine is extremely diverse and has exerted a major influence on other western cuisines.[២៤៥] According to the regions, traditional recipes are different, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the preferred fat for cooking, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the South.[២៤៦]
Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialities : Cassoulet in the Southwest, Choucroute in Alsace, Quiche in the Lorraine region, Beef bourguignon in the Bourgogne, provençal Tapenade, etc. France's most renowned products are wines,[២៤៧] including Champagne, Bordeaux, Bourgogne, and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort and Brie. There are more than 400 different varieties.[២៤៨][២៤៩]
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.[២២៩] A French publication, the Michelin guide, had by 2006 awarded 620 stars to French restaurants, at that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than in any other country (by 2010, Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having half the number of Michelin inspectors working there).[២៥០][២៥១]
Sports[កែប្រែ]
Popular sports played in France include football, judo, tennis[២៥៣] and basketball.[២៥៤] France has hosted events such as the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups,[២៥៥] and the 2007 Rugby World Cup.[២៥៦] Stade de France in Saint-Denis is France's largest stadium and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup finals. France hosts the annual Tour de France, the most famous road bicycle race in the world.[២៥៧][២៥៨] France is famous for its 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race.[២៥៩] Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments. French martial arts include Savate and Fencing.
France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.[២៦០][២៦១] After Athens was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Olympics' Greek origins, Paris hosted the second Games in 1900.[២៦២] Paris was the first home of the International Olympic Committee, before it moved to Lausanne.[២៦៣] Since 1900, France has hosted the Olympics on 4 further occasions: the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris[២៦១] and three Winter Games (1924 in Chamonix, 1968 in Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville).[២៦១]
.jpg)
Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed “Les Bleus” in reference to the team’s shirt color as well as the national French tricolor flag. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players, and over 18,000 registered clubs.[២៦៤] The football team is among the most successful in the world, particularly at the start of the 21st century, with one FIFA World Cup victory in 1998,[២៦៥] one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006,[២៦៦] and two UEFA European Championships in 1984[២៦៧] and 2000.[២៦៨] The top national football club competition is Ligue 1. France has produced some of the greatest players in the world, including three time FIFA World Player of the Year Zinedine Zidane, three time Ballon d'Or recipient Michel Platini, record holder for most goals scored at a World Cup Just Fontaine, first football player to receive the Légion d'honneur Raymond Kopa, and the all-time leading goalscorer for the French national team Thierry Henry.
Rugby union is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.[២៦៩] The national rugby union team has competed at every Rugby World Cup, and takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship. Stemming from a strong domestic league, the French rugby team has won 16 Six Nations Championships, including 8 grand slams; and has reached the semi-final of the Rugby World Cup 6 times and the final 3 times.
Rugby league in France is a sport that is most popular in the south, in cities such as Perpignan and Toulouse. The Catalans Dragons currently play in the Super League, which is the top tier rugby league competition in Europe. The Elite One Championship is the professional competition for rugby league clubs in France.
In recent decades, France has produced world-elite basketball players, most notably Tony Parker. The French National Basketball Team won gold at the FIBA EuroBasket 2013. The national team has won two Olympic Silver Medals: in 2000 and 1948.
Administrative divisions[កែប្រែ]
France is divided into 27 administrative regions.[៣] 22 are in metropolitan France (21 are on the continental part of metropolitan France; one is the territorial collectivity of Corsica), and five are overseas regions. The regions are further subdivided into 101 departments[២៧០] which are numbered (mainly alphabetically). This number is used in postal codes and vehicle number plates amongst others.
The 101 departments are subdivided into 341 arrondissements which are, in turn, subdivided into 4,051 cantons. These cantons are then divided into 36,697 communes, which are municipalities with an elected municipal council. There are 2,588 intercommunal entities grouping 33,414 of the 36,697 communes (i.e. 91.1% of all the communes). Three communes, Paris, Lyon and Marseille are subdivided into 45 municipal arrondissements.
The regions, departments and communes are all known as territorial collectivities, meaning they possess local assemblies as well as an executive. Arrondissements and cantons are merely administrative divisions. However, this was not always the case. Until 1940, the arrondissements were territorial collectivities with an elected assembly, but these were suspended by the Vichy regime and definitely abolished by the Fourth Republic in 1946.
Metropolitan regions[កែប្រែ]
Overseas regions[កែប្រែ]
Among the 101 departments of France, five (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Réunion) are in overseas regions (ROMs) that are also simultaneously overseas departments (DOMs) and are an integral part of France (and the European Union) and thus enjoy exactly the same status to metropolitan departments.
| Name | Constitutional status | Capital |
|---|---|---|
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Guiana | Overseas region (régions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously overseas department (département d'outre-mer or DOM) | Cayenne |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Guadeloupe | Overseas region (régions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously overseas department (département d'outre-mer or DOM) | Basse-Terre |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Martinique | Overseas region (régions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously overseas department (département d'outre-mer or DOM) | Fort-de-France |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Mayotte | Overseas region (régions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously overseas department (département d'outre-mer or DOM) | Mamoudzou |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Réunion | Overseas region (régions d'outre-mer) and simultaneously overseas department (département d'outre-mer or DOM) | Saint-Denis |
Overseas territories and collectivities[កែប្រែ]
In addition to the 27 regions and 101 departments, the French Republic has five overseas collectivities (French Polynesia, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and Wallis and Futuna), one sui generis collectivity (New Caledonia), one overseas territory (French Southern and Antarctic Lands), and one island possession in the Pacific Ocean (Clipperton Island).
Overseas collectivities and territories form part of the French Republic, but do not form part of the European Union or its fiscal area (with the exception of St. Bartelemy, which seceded from Guadeloupe in 2007). The Pacific Collectivities (COMs) of French Polynesia, Wallis and Fortuna, and New Caledonia continue to use the CFP franc[២៧១] whose value is strictly linked to that of the euro. In contrast, the five overseas regions used the French franc and now use the euro.[២៧២]
| Name | Constitutional status | Capital |
|---|---|---|
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Clipperton Island | State private property under the direct authority of the French government | Uninhabited |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Polynesia | Designated as an overseas land (pays d'outre-mer or POM), the status is the same as an overseas collectivity. | Papeete |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស French Southern and Antarctic Lands | Overseas territory (territoire d'outre-mer or TOM) | Port-aux-Français |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស New Caledonia | Sui generis collectivity | Nouméa |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Saint Barthélemy | Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) | Gustavia |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Saint Martin | Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM) | Marigot |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a collectivité territoriale. | Saint-Pierre |
| ទំព័រគំរូ:ទិន្នន័យប្រទេស Wallis and Futuna | Overseas collectivity (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM). Still referred to as a territoire. | Mata-Utu |
ការគ្រប់គ្រងរដ្ឋបាល[កែប្រែ]
ទឹកដីនៃសាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំងចែកជា ៖
- មេត្រូប៉ូល រួមមានទាំងអស់២២តំបន់ និង៩៦ខេត្ដ
- ខេត្ដឯនាយសមុទ្រចំនួន៤ (DOM) ហ្គាដឺឡុប ម៉ាកទីនិក ហ្គីយាន ឡារ៉េអ៊ុយនីញុង
- ដែនដីឯនាយសមុទ្រចំនួន៧: Polynésie française, Wallis et Futuna, Mayotte, Saint-Pierre និងMiquelon, les Terres australes និងantarctiques françaises, Saint-Barthélémy, Saint-Martin,
- និង La Nouvelle Calédonie.
Governance[កែប្រែ]
Government[កែប្រែ]
The French Republic is a unitary semi-presidential republic with strong democratic traditions.[២៧៣] The constitution of the Fifth Republic was approved by referendum on 28 September 1958.[២៧៤] It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to parliament. The executive branch itself has two leaders: the President of the Republic, currently François Hollande, who is head of state and is elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year term (formerly 7 years),[២៧៥] and the Government, led by the president-appointed Prime Minister, currently Jean-Marc Ayrault.
.jpg)
The French parliament is a bicameral legislature comprising a National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) and a Senate.[២៧៦] The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms.[២៧៧] The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by an electoral college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submitted to election every 3 years starting in September 2008.[២៧៨]
The Senate's legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National Assembly has the final say.[២៧៩] The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament.
French politics are characterised by two politically opposed groupings: one left-wing, centred around the French Socialist Party, and the other right-wing, centred previously around the Rassemblement pour la République (RPR) and now its successor the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).[២៨០] Since the 2012 elections, the executive branch is currently composed mostly of the Socialist Party.
Law[កែប្រែ]
France uses a civil legal system;[៣] that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judicial interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law). Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code (which was, in turn, largely based on the royal law codified under Louis XIV). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, wrote about the management of prisons: Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality. That is, Law should lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy.
French law is divided into two principal areas: private law and public law. Private law includes, in particular, civil law and criminal law. Public law includes, in particular, administrative law and constitutional law. However, in practical terms, French law comprises three principal areas of law: civil law, criminal law, and administrative law. Criminal laws can only address the future and not the past (criminal ex post facto laws are prohibited). While administrative law is often a subcategory of civil law in many countries, it is completely separated in France and each body of law is headed by a specific supreme court: ordinary courts (which handle criminal and civil litigation) are headed by the Court of Cassation and administrative courts are headed by the Council of State.
To be applicable, every law must be officially published in the Journal officiel de la République française.
France does not recognize religious law as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. France has long had neither blasphemy laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1791). However, "offenses against public decency" (contraires aux bonnes mœurs) or disturbing public order (trouble à l'ordre public) have been used to repress public expressions of homosexuality or street prostitution. Laws prohibiting discriminatory speech in the press are as old as 1881. Some consider however that hate speech laws in France are too broad or severe and damage freedom of speech.[ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង] France has laws against racism and antisemitism.[២៨១]
France's attitude towards freedom of religion is complex. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitutional rights set forth in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. However, since the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, the State tries to prevent its policy-making from being influenced by religion and became suspicious in recent decades towards new religious tendencies of the French society: the Parliament has listed many religious movements as dangerous cults since 1995, and has banned wearing conspicuous religious symbols in schools since 2004. In 2010, it banned the wearing of face-covering Islamic veils in public. As some have complained that they have suffered from discrimination thus, and after criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[២៨២][២៨៣] these laws remain controversial, although they are supported by most of the population.[២៨៤]
France is tolerant of the LGBT community. Since 1999, civil unions for homosexual couples are permitted, and since May 2013, same-sex marriage and LGBT adoption are legal in France.[២៨៥]
Foreign relations[កែប្រែ]
France is a member of the United Nations and serves as one of the permanent members of the UN Security Council with veto rights.[២៨៦] It is also a member of the G8, World Trade Organization (WTO),[២៨៧] the Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)[២៨៨] and the Indian Ocean Commission (COI).[២៨៩] It is an associate member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS)[២៩០] and a leading member of the International Francophone Organisation (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries.[២៩១]
France hosts the headquarters of the OECD,[២៩២] UNESCO,[២៩៣] Interpol,[២៩៤] Alliance Base[២៩៥] and the International Bureau for Weights and Measures.[២៩៦] France has the second largest network of diplomatic missions in the world, second only to the USA.[២៩៧] In 1953, France received a request from the United Nations to pick a coat of arms that would represent it internationally. Thus the French emblem was adopted and is currently used on passports.[២៩៨]
Postwar French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the European Union, of which it was a founding member. Since the 1960s, France has developed close ties with reunified Germany to become the most influential driving force of the EU.[២៩៩] In the 1960s, France sought to exclude the British from the European unification process,[៣០០] seeking to build its own standing in continental Europe. However, since 1904, France has maintained an "Entente cordiale" with the United Kingdom, and there has been a strengthening of links between the countries, especially militarily.
France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), but under President de Gaulle, it excluded itself from the joint military command to protest the special relationship between the United States and Britain and to preserve the independence of French foreign and security policies.[៣០១] France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq,[៣០២][៣០៣] straining bilateral relations with the US[៣០៤][៣០៥] and the UK.[៣០៦] However, as a result of Nicolas Sarkozy's pro-American politics (much criticised in France by the leftists and by a part of the right),[៣០៧][៣០៨] France rejoined the NATO joint military command on 4 April 2009.
In the early 1990s, the country drew considerable criticism from other nations for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia.[៣០៩]
France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies (Françafrique)[៣១០] and has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in Ivory Coast and Chad.[៣១១] Recently, after the unilateral declaration of independence of northern Mali by the Tuareg MNLA and the subsequent regional Northern Mali conflict with several Islamist groups including Ansar Dine and MOJWA, France and other African states intervened to help the Malian Army to retake control.
In 2009, France was the second largest (in absolute numbers) donor of development aid in the world, behind the US, and ahead of Germany, Japan and the UK.[៣១២] This represents 0.5% of its GDP, in this regard rating France as tenth largest donor on the list.[៣១៣] The organisation managing the French help is the French Development Agency, which finances primarily humanitarian projects in sub-Saharan Africa.[៣១៤] The main goals of this help are "developing infrastructure, access to health care and education, the implementation of appropriate economic policies and the consolidation of the rule of law and democracy."[៣១៤]
Military[កែប្រែ]
The French Armed Forces (Armées françaises) are the military and paramilitary forces of France, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the French Army (Armée de Terre), French Navy (Marine Nationale), the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary force, the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and are among the largest armed forces in the world. While administratively a part of the French armed forces, and therefore under the purview of the Ministry of Defence, the Gendarmerie is operationally attached to the Ministry of the Interior.
The gendarmerie is a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. It encompasses the counter terrorist units of the Parachute Intervention Squadron of the National Gendarmerie (Escadron Parachutiste d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale) and the National Gendarmerie Intervention Group (Groupe d'Intervention de la Gendarmerie Nationale). One of the French intelligence units, the Directorate-General for External Security (Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure) reports to the Ministry of Defence. The other, the Central Directorate of Interior Intelligence (Direction Centrale du Renseignement Intérieur), reports directly to the Ministry of the Interior. There has been no national conscription since 1997.[៣១៥]
France is a permanent member of the Security Council of the UN, and a recognised nuclear state since 1960. France has signed and ratified the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)[៣១៦] and acceeded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. France's annual military expenditure in 2011 was US$62.5 billion, or 2.3%, of its GDP making it the fifth biggest military spender in the world after the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom.[៩]
French nuclear deterrence, (formerly known as “Force de Frappe”), relies on complete independence. The current French nuclear force consists of four Triomphant class submarines equipped with submarine-launched ballistic missiles. In addition to the submarine fleet, it is estimated that France has about 60 ASMP medium-range air-to-ground missiles with nuclear warheads,[៣១៧] of which around 50 are deployed by the Air Force using the Mirage 2000N long-range nuclear strike aircraft, while around 10 are deployed by the French Navy's Super Étendard Modernisé (SEM) attack aircraft which operate from the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle. The new Rafale F3 aircraft will gradually replace all Mirage 2000N and SEM in the nuclear strike role with the improved ASMP-A missile with a nuclear warhead.
France has major military industries with one of the largest aerospace industries in the world.[៣១៨][៣១៩] Its industries have produced such equipment as the Rafale fighter, the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, the Exocet missile and the Leclerc tank amongst others. Despite withdrawing from the Eurofighter project, France is actively investing in European joint projects such as the Eurocopter Tiger, multipurpose frigates, the UCAV demonstrator nEUROn and the Airbus A400M. France is a major arms seller,[៣២០][៣២១] with most of its arsenal's designs available for the export market with the notable exception of nuclear-powered devices.
The military parade held in Paris each 14 July for France's national day is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe.[៣២២]
Government finance[កែប្រែ]
In April and May 2012, France held a presidential election in which the winner, François Hollande, had opposed austerity measures, promising to eliminate France's budget deficit by 2017. The new government stated that it aimed to cancel recently enacted tax cuts and exemptions for the wealthy, raising the top tax bracket rate to 75% on incomes over a million euros, restoring the retirement age to 60 with a full pension for those who have worked 42 years, restoring 60,000 jobs recently cut from public education, regulating rent increases; and building additional public housing for the poor.
In June, Hollande's Socialist Party won a supermajority in legislative elections capable of amending the French Constitution and enabling the immediate enactment of the promised reforms. French government bond interest rates fell 30% to record lows,[៣២៣] less than 50 basis points above German government bond rates.[៣២៤]
Government debt[កែប្រែ]
Under European Union rules, member states are supposed to limit their debt to 60% of output or be reducing the ratio structurally towards this ceiling, and run public deficits of no more than 3% of GDP. The French government has run a budget deficit each year since the early 1970s. In 2012, French government debt levels reached 1.8 trillion euros, the equivalent of 90% of French GDP.[៣២៥]
In late 2012, credit rating agencies warned that growing French government debt levels risked France's AAA credit rating, raising the possibility of a future downgrade and subsequent higher borrowing costs for the French government.[៣២៦]
ស្ថាប័ននានារបស់បារាំង[កែប្រែ]
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ[កែប្រែ]
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញថ្ងៃទី ៤ តុលា ឆ្នាំ១៩៥៨ ចែងពីដំណើរការស្ថាប័ននានានៃសាធារណរដ្ឋទី៥។
រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញត្រូវបានគេសើរើ ពិនិត្យឡើងវិញជាច្រើនដងទាក់ទងនឹង ៖
- ការបោះឆ្នោតប្រធានាធិបតីជាសកល និងដោយចំពោះ (១៩៦២)
- ការដាក់បញ្ចូលជំពូកថ្មីមួួយស្ដីការទទួលខុសត្រូវខាងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌរបស់សមាជិករដ្ឋាភិបាល(១៩៩៣)
- ការបង្កើតសម័យប្រជុំរួមមួយរវាងស្ថាប័នសភា
- ការពង្រីកដែនធ្វើប្រជាមតិ(១៩៩៥)
- អន្ដរបញ្ញត្ដិស្ដីពីលក្ខន្ដិកៈរបស់កោះណូវែលកាលេដូនី ( Nouvelle-Calédonie ) (១៩៩៨)
- ការបង្កើតសហព័ន្ធសេដ្ឋកិច្ចនិងរូបិយវត្ថុ
- ភាពស្មើគ្នារវាងបុរសនិងស្ដ្រីនៅក្នុងការទទួលអណត្ដិបោះឆ្នោតនានា និងទទួលនូវដែលគេជ្រើសរើស
- ការទទួលស្គាល់យុត្ដាធិការនៃតុលាការព្រហ្មទណ្ឌអន្ដរជាតិ(១៩៩៩)
- ការកាត់បន្ថយអាណត្ដិប្រធានាធិបតី(២០០០)
- កែទំរង់ការទទួលខុសត្រូវខាងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌរបស់ប្រមុខរដ្ឋ
- បញ្ចូលការហាមឃាត់់ទោសប្រហារជីវិតក្នុងរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ
- កំណែទំរង់ភាពស្វយ័តរបស់កោះណូវែលកាឡេដូនី(២០០៧)
ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញ[កែប្រែ]
ក្រុមប្រឹក្សាធម្មនុញ្ញមានសមាជិក៩រូប និងមានសមត្ថកិច្ចត្រួតពិនិត្យជាពិសេសនៃ ភាពត្រឹម ត្រូវ តាមច្បាប់ នៃការបោះឆ្នោតនានា និងពិនិត្យធម្មនុញ្ញភាពនៃច្បាប់រៀបចំអង្គការ ព្រម ទាំងច្បាប់ ដែលដាក់មកអនុម័ត។
ប្រធានាធិបតីនៃសារធារណរដ្ឋ[កែប្រែ]
ប្រមុខរដ្ឋត្រូវបានជ្រើសរើសសំរាប់រយៈពេល៥ឆ្នាំតាមរយៈការបោះឆ្នោតជាសកល និង ដោយចំពោះ (អណត្ដិរយៈពេល៥ឆ្នាំនេះបានបង្កើតឡើងបន្ទាប់ពីការធ្វើប្រជាមតិនៅថ្ងៃទី ២៤ ខែកញ្ញា ឆ្នាំ២០០០)។ លោក នីកូឡា សាកូហ្ស៊ី ជាប្រធានាធិបតីទី៦នៃសាធារណរដ្ឋ ទី៥ លោកបានជាប់ឆ្នោតនៅថ្ងៃទី៧ឧសភា ឆ្នាំ២០០៧ ។
ប្រធានាធិបតីតែងតាំងនាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី និងសមាជិករដ្ឋាភិបាលតាមសំណើររបស់នាយក រដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី (មាត្រា ទី៨នៃរដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ)។
ប្រធានាធិបតីដឹកនាំគណៈរដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី ប្រកាសអោយប្រើច្បាប់នានា ជាបញ្ជាការនៃកងកម្លាំង ប្រដាប់អាវុធ។ ប្រធានាធិបតីអាចរំលាយរដ្ឋសភា ហើយក្នុងករណីធ្ងន់ធ្ងរ ប្រធានាធិបតីមានអំណាចពិសេស (មាត្រាទី១៦)។
នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី និងរដ្ឋាភិបាល[កែប្រែ]
ក្រោមការដឹកនាំរបស់នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី រដ្ឋាភិបាលកំណត់ និងដឹកនាំនយោបាយជាតិ។ នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រី ទទួល ខុសត្រូវចំពោះរដ្ឋសភា (មាត្រាទី២០)។ នាយករដ្ឋមន្ដ្រីដឹកនាំសកម្មភាពរដ្ឋាភិបាលនិងធានានូវការអនុវត្ដច្បាប់ (មាត្រាទី២១)។ លោក François Fillon ត្រូវ បានតែងតាំងជានាយក រដ្ឋមន្ដ្រីនៅថ្ងៃទី១៧ ឧសភា ឆ្នាំ២០០៧។
សភា[កែប្រែ]
សភាមានពីរថ្នាក់ ៖
- ព្រឹទ្ធសភា ៖ ព្រឹទ្ធសមាជិកត្រូវជ្រើសតាំងសំរាប់រយៈពេល៦ឆ្នាំ(ពីមុនមានរយៈពេល៩ឆ្នាំ) ចាប់តាំងពីឆ្នាំ ២០០៣ ដោយការបោះឆ្នោតជាសកល និងមិនចំពោះ ហើយត្រូវបានផ្លាស់ ប្ដូរសមាជិក ៣០% ក្នុងរយៈ ពេលបីឆ្នាំម្ដង។ ការបោះឆ្នោតលើកចុងក្រោយ បានប្រព្រឹត្ដ ទៅនៅខែ កញ្ញាឆ្នាំ២០០៤។
- រដ្ឋភាជាតិ ៖ តំណាងរាស្ដ្រត្រូវបានជ្រើសតាំងសំរាប់រយៈពេល៥ឆ្នាំដោយការបោះឆ្នោត ជាសកល និង ដោយចំពោះ។ ការបោះឆ្នោតលើកចុងក្រោយបាន ប្រព្រឹត្ដទៅនៅខែមិថុ- នា ឆ្នាំ២០០៧។
ក្រៅពីត្រួតពិនិត្យរដ្ឋាភិបាល សភាទាំងពីរថ្នាក់មានតួនាទីរៀបចំ និងអនុម័តច្បាប់។ ក្នុងករណីមិនមានការយល់ព្រម រដ្ឋសភាជាតិធ្វើការសំរេចជាស្ថាពរ។
ព្រឹទ្ធសភា[កែប្រែ]
ក្រោយការបោះឆ្នោតខែកញ្ញឆ្នាំ២០០៤ ព្រឹទ្ធសភាមានសមាជិក៣៣១នាក់ដែលមកពី ៖
- គណបក្សសហព័ន្ធសំរាប់ចលនាប្រជាជន ( UMP ) ៖ ១៥៨នាក់
- គណបក្សសង្គមនិយម ៖ ៩៦នាក់
- ក្រុមគណបក្សកណ្ដាលនិយម ៖ ៣០នាក់
- គណបក្សកុម្មុយនិស្ដ គណបក្សសាធារណរដ្ឋ និងគណបក្សពលរដ្ឋ ៖ ២៣នាក់
- គណបក្សសម្ព័ន្ធភាពប្រជាធិបតី និងសង្គមអឺរ៉ុប ៖១៦នាក់
- បេក្ខជនឯករាជ្យ ៖ ៦នាក់ ។
រដ្ឋសភាជាតិ[កែប្រែ]
បន្ទាប់ពីការបោះឆ្នោតថ្ងៃទី១០ និង១៧ឆ្នាំ២០០៧មិថុនា រដ្ឋសភាជាតិមានតំណាងរាស្ដ្រ៥៧៧នាក់ មកពី ៖
- គណបក្សសហព័ន្ធសំរាប់ចលនាប្រជាជន (UMP) ៖ ៣១៤នាក់ (សម្ព័ន្ធភាព៦គណបក្ស)
- ក្រុមសង្គមនិយម និងប្រជាជនៈ ១៨៦នាក់(សម្ព័ន្ធ១៨គណបក្ស)
- ក្រុមប្រជាធិបតីឆ្វេងនិយម និងសាធារណរដ្ឋ ៖ ២៤នាក់ (គ្មានសម្ព័ន្ធភាព)
- ក្រុមគណបក្សកណ្ដាលនិយមថ្មី ៖ ២០នាក់(សម្ព័ន្ធភាព២គណបក្ស)
- តំណាងរាស្ដ្រមិនស្ថិតក្នុងក្រុមណាមួយ ៖ ២០នាក់
តុលាការ[កែប្រែ]
តុលាការជាអ្នកការពារសេរីភាពបុគ្គល (មាត្រា៦៦នៃ រដ្ឋធម្មនុញ្ញ)។ អំណាចតុលាការបា- រាំងបានរៀបចំ ទៅតាមភាពខុសគ្នាជាមូលដ្ឋានរវាង ៖
- តុលាការយុត្ដិធម៌ត្រូវទទួលខុសត្រូវជំលោះរវាងបុគ្គល និងបុគ្គល។
- តុលាការរដ្ឋបាលដោះស្រាយជំលោះរវាងប្រជាជននិងអំណាចសាធារណៈ។
តុលាការមានពីរលំដាប់ថ្នាក់ ៖
1. យុត្ដាធិការរដ្ឋប្បវេណី តុលាការនីតិរួម (តុលាការជាន់ខ្ពស់) រឺនីតិពិសេសផ្សេងៗ (សាលាតំបូង តុលាការពាណិជ្ជ កម្ម តុលាការកិច្ចការសន្ដិសុខសង្គម និងក្រុមតុលាការការងារដែលដោះស្រាយជំលោះ រវាងបុគ្គលិក និយោជិក និងនិយោជក។
2. យុត្ដិធិការព្រហ្មទណ្ឌទទួលបន្ទុកវិនិច្ឆ័យលើបទល្មើស៣ប្រភេទ ៖
- បទលហុដែលវិនិច្ឆ័យដោយតុលាការនគរបាល
- បទល្មើសដែលវិនិច្ឆ័យដោយតុលាការលហុ
- បទឧក្រិដ្ឋដោយសាលាឧក្រិដ្ឋ
មានតុលាការដោយឡែកសំរាប់រដ្ឋប្បវេណី និងព្រហ្មទណ្ឌតុលាការកុមារ។
សាលាវិនិច្ឆ័យ ៖គឺជាតុលាខ្ពស់ជាងគេ ហើយទទួលខុសត្រូវពិនិត្យបណ្ដឹងសារទុក្ខលើអង្គច្បាប់ប្រឆាំងនឹងសាលដីការបស់សាលាឧទ្ធរណ៍។យុត្ដាធិការខ្ពស់ជាងគេក្នុងតុលាការរដ្ឋបាលគឺក្រុមប្រឹក្សារដ្ឋដែលមានសមត្ថកិច្ចធ្វើការវិនិច្ឆ័យចុងក្រោយ គេបង្អស់លើភាពត្រឹមត្រូវនៃលិខិតរដ្ឋបាលតាមច្បាប់។ ក្រុមប្រឹក្សារដ្ឋនេះក៏ផ្ដល់ការពិគ្រោះផងដែរដល់រដ្ឋាភិបាលក្នុងការផ្ដល់ជាគំនិតស្ដីពីសេចក្ដី ព្រាងច្បាប់និង សេចក្ដីព្រាងក្រឹត្យមួយចំនួន។
ភ្លេង និងបាវចនាជាតិ[កែប្រែ]
បទចំរៀងសំរាប់កងទ័ពនៅទីក្រុង Rhin ដែលត្រូវបានតែងឡើងនៅទីក្រុងស្ដ្រាសបួ ឆ្នាំ ១៧៩២ បានក្លាយជាបទ Marseillaise ហើយចុងបញ្ចប់់ត្រូវបាន ប្រើជាភ្លេងជាតិនៅ ថ្ងៃទី១៤ កក្កដា ឆ្នាំ១៧៩៥។
បាវវចនារបស់សាធារណៈរដ្ឋបារាំងគឺ “សេរីភាព សមភាព ភាតរភាព“។
ទង់ជាតិបារាំង[កែប្រែ]
នៅឆ្នាំ១៧៨៩ លោកឧត្ដមសេនីយ Fayette បាន បន្ថែមពណ៌សដែលជានិមិត្ដរូបនៃរាជា និយម ទៅលើ សញ្ញាទង់ជាតិដែលមានពណ៌ខៀវ និង ពណ៌ក្រហម របស់កងទ័ពជាតិទីក្រុង ប៉ារីស ។ ទង់ជាតិបីពណ៌ជា និមិត្ដរូបផ្លូវការរបស់ សាធារណរដ្ឋបារាំង។
ការពារជាតិ[កែប្រែ]
នៅឆ្នាំ២០០៧ ថវិកាការពារជាតិឡើងដល់ ៣៦,២៥ពាន់លានអឺរ៉ូ គឹស្មើនឹង២,០២%នៃ ផលិតផល ក្នុងស្រុកសរុប និងថវិកាជាតិ១០,៨២%។
ច្បាប់ស្ដីពីការរៀបចំកម្មវិធីផ្នែកយោធាឆ្នាំ២០០៣-២០០៨កំនត់ពីមធ្យោបាយ និងចំនួនទ័ព ដើម្បី ឆានាទៅ សំរេចគោលបំណងរបស់ប្រធានាធិបតី និងរដ្ឋាភិបាលក្នុងការផ្ដល់អោយ ប្រទេសបារាំងការ ការពារមួយ ដោយស្របទៅតាមតំរូវការរបស់ខ្លួន។ច្បាប់នេះមានគោលដៅបង្កើតកិច្ចខំប្រឹងប្រែងក្នុងការធ្វើអោយឧបករណ៍ការពារជាតិ របស់យើងអាចឆ្លើយ តបទៅនឹងបញ្ហាចំពោះមុខនានា។
កិច្ចខំប្រឹងប្រែងខាងលើស្ដែងអោយឃើញតាមរយៈ ៖
- ការពង្រឹងមធ្យោបាយប្រយុទ្ធប្រឆាំង នឹងភេវរកម្ម។
- សុវត្ថិភាព និងភាពទុកចិត្ដនៃការទប់ស្កាត់អាវុធនុយក្លេអ៊ែររបស់ប្រទេសបារាំង។
- ការចូលរួមរបស់ប្រទេសបារាំងក្នុងការបង្ការ និងដោះស្រាយជលោះផ្សេងៗ (ចំនួនទ័ព ប្រមាណពី១៥ ទៅ២០ ០០០នាក់ត្រូវបានដាក់ពង្រាយក្នុងប្រតិបត្ដិការ )។
- សហប្រតិបត្ដិការយោធាក្នុងអង្គការអូតង់ និងសហគមអឺរ៉ុប។
នៅឆ្នាំ២០០៦ ទ័ពកងកំលាំងប្រដាប់អាវុធកើនឡើងដល់៣៤៧ ៩០៣នាក់ គិតទាំងយោធា និងជន ស៊ីវិល ហើយបែងចែកដូចខាងក្រោម ៖
- កងទ័ពជើងគោកមាន ១៣៣ ៦២៧នាក់
- កងទ័ពអាកាសមាន ៥៩ ១១៨នាក់
- កងទ័ពជើងទឹកមាន ៤២ ៧៥២នាក់
- កងអាវុធហត្ថមាន ៩៧ ៧២៣នាក់
- ក្នុងសេវាសាធារណៈ (សុខភាព ការងារសង្គមកិច្ច)មាន១៤ ៦៨៣នាក់
សេដ្ឋកិច្ច[កែប្រែ]
បារាំងជាប្រទេសមានអនុភាពសេដ្ឋកិច្ចពិភពលោកលំដាប់ទី៦បន្ទាប់ពី សហរដ្ឋអាមេរិក ជប៉ុន អាលឺម៉ង់ ចិន និង អង់គ្លេស។
A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it is ranked as the world's seventh largest and the EU's second largest economy by purchasing power parity.[១២] With 39 of the 500 biggest companies in the world in 2010, France ranks fourth in the Fortune Global 500, ahead of Germany and the UK.[៣២៧] France joined 11 other EU members to launch the euro in 1999, with euro coins and banknotes completely replacing the French franc (₣) in 2002.[៣២៨]
France has a mixed economy which combines extensive private enterprise[៣៣០][៣៣១] with substantial state enterprise and government intervention. The government retains considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, nuclear power and telecommunications.[៣] It has been relaxing its control over these sectors since the early 1990s.[៣] The government is slowly corporatising the state sector and selling off holdings in France Télécom, Air France, as well as in the insurance, banking, and defence industries.[៣] France has an important aerospace industry led by the European consortium Airbus, and has its own national spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.
According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), in 2009 France was the world's sixth largest exporter and the fourth largest importer of manufactured goods.[៣៣២] In 2008, France was the third largest recipient of foreign direct investment among OECD countries at $118 billion, ranking behind Luxembourg (where foreign direct investment was essentially monetary transfers to banks located there) and the US ($316 billion), but above the UK ($96.9 billion), Germany ($25 billion), or Japan ($24 billion).[៣៣៣][៣៣៤]
In the same year, French companies invested $220 billion outside France, ranking France as the second largest outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the US ($311 billion), and ahead of the UK ($111 billion), Japan ($128 billion) and Germany ($157 billion).[៣៣៣][៣៣៤]
Financial services, banking and the insurance sector are an important part of the economy. The Paris stock exchange (បារាំង: La Bourse de Paris) is an old institution, created by Louis XV in 1724.[៣៣៥] In 2000, the stock exchanges of Paris, Amsterdam and Bruxelles merged into Euronext.[៣៣៦] In 2007, Euronext merged with the New York stock exchange to form NYSE Euronext, the world's largest stock exchange.[៣៣៦] Euronext Paris, the French branch of the NYSE Euronext group is Europe's 2nd largest stock exchange market, behind the London Stock Exchange.
French companies have maintained key positions in the insurance and banking industries: AXA is the world's largest insurance company. The leading French banks are BNP Paribas and the Crédit Agricole, ranking as the world's first and sixth largest banks in 2010[៣៣៧] (by assets), while the Société Générale group was ranked the world's eighth largest in 2009.
France is the smallest emitter of carbon dioxide among the G8, due to its heavy investment in nuclear power.[៣៣៨] As a result of large investments in nuclear technology, most electricity produced by France is generated by 59 nuclear power plants (75% in 2012).[៣៣៩] In this context, renewable energies are having difficulty taking off.
Agriculture[កែប្រែ]
France has historically been a large producer of agricultural products.[៣៤០] Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe[៣៤១] (representing 20% of the EU's agricultural production[៣៤២]) and the world's third biggest exporter of agricultural products.[៣៤៣]
Wheat, poultry, dairy, beef, and pork, as well as internationally recognized processed foods are the primary French agricultural exports. Rosé wines are primarily consumed within the country, but champagne and Bordeaux wines are major exports, being known worldwide. EU agriculture subsidies to France have decreased in recent years, but still amounted to $8 billion in 2007.[៣៤៤] That same year, France sold 33.4 billion euros of transformed agricultural products.[៣៤៥]
Agriculture is thus an important sector of France's economy: 3.8% of the active population is employed in agriculture, whereas the total agri-food industry made up 4.2% of French GDP in 2005.[៣៤២]
Labour market[កែប្រែ]
French GDP per capita is similar to comparable European countries such as Germany and the UK.[៣៤៦] GDP per capita is determined by (i) productivity per hour worked, (ii) the number of hours worked, which is one of the lowest of developed countries,[៣៤៧] and (iii) the employment rate.
France has one of the lowest 15–64 years employment rates of the OECD countries: in 2012, only 71% of the French population aged 15–64 years were in employment, compared to 74% in Japan, 77% in the UK, 73% in the US and 77% in Germany.[៣៤៨] This gap is due to the low employment rate for 15–24 years old: 38% in 2012, compared to 47% in the OECD. This low rate is explained by the high minimum wages which prevent low productivity workers – such as young people – from easily entering the labour market,[៣៤៩] ineffective university curricula that fail to prepare students adequately for the labour market.[៣៥០] It has been argued that French laws that protect full-time workers have the effect of trapping highly educated youth into temporary and informal employment, because of the difficulty and expense of dealing with formal full-time employees.[៣៥១]
In July 2013, the unemployment rate for France was 11%.[៣៥២] Shorter working hours and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentioned as weak spots of the French economy in the view of right-wing commentators, whilst the left claims lack of government policies fostering social justice. Liberal economists have stated repeatedly that the main problem in the French economy is the issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the working population in the overall population, reduce the taxation level and the administrative burden.
Keynesian economists have different answers to the unemployment issue, and their theories led to the 35-hour workweek law in the 2000s (decade), which turned out to be a failure in reducing unemployment. Afterwards, between 2004 and 2008, the government made some supply-side reforms to combat unemployment but met with fierce resistance,[៣៥៣] especially with the contrat nouvelle embauche and the contrat première embauche which both were eventually repealed.[៣៥៤] The Sarkozy government used the revenu de solidarité active to redress the negative effect of the revenu minimum d'insertion on the incentive to work.[៣៥៥]
Tourism[កែប្រែ]
With 83 million foreign tourists in 2012,[៧] France is ranked as the first tourist destination in the world, ahead of the US (67 million) and China (58 million). This 83 million figure excludes people staying less than 24 hours, such as North Europeans crossing France on their way to Spain or Italy. It is third in income from tourism due to shorter duration of visits.[៣៥៦]
France has 37 sites inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage List and features cities of high cultural interest, beaches and seaside resorts, ski resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism). Small and picturesque French villages are promoted through the association Les Plus Beaux Villages de France (litt. "The Most Beautiful Villages of France").
The "Remarkable Gardens" label is a list of the over 200 gardens classified by the French Ministry of Culture. This label is intended to protect and promote remarkable gardens and parks. France attracts many religious pilgrims on their way to St. James, or to Lourdes, a town in the Hautes-Pyrénées that hosts several million visitors a year.
France, especially Paris, has some of the world's largest and renowned museums, including the Louvre, which is the most visited art museum in the world, the Musée d'Orsay, mostly devoted to impressionism, and Beaubourg, dedicated to Contemporary art.
Disneyland Paris is Europe's most popular theme park, with 15 million combined visitors to the resort's Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park in 2009.[៣៥៧]
With more than 10 millions tourists a year, the French Riviera (or Côte d'Azur), in south-east France, is the second leading tourist destination in the country, after the Paris region.[៣៥៨] It benefits from 300 days of sunshine per year, ១១៥ សហាតិមាត្រ (៧១ ម៉ៃ.) of coastline and beaches, 18 golf courses, 14 ski resorts and 3,000 restaurants.[៣៥៩] Each year the Côte d'Azur hosts 50% of the world's superyacht fleet.[៣៦០]
Another major destination are the Châteaux of the Loire Valley, this World Heritage Site is noteworthy for its architectural heritage, in its historic towns but in particular its castles (châteaux), such as the Châteaux d'Amboise, de Chambord, d'Ussé, de Villandry and Chenonceau.
The most popular tourist sites include: (according to a 2003 ranking[៣៦១] visitors per year): Eiffel Tower (6.2 million), Louvre Museum (5.7 million), Palace of Versailles (2.8 million), Musée d'Orsay (2.1 million), Arc de Triomphe (1.2 million), Centre Pompidou (1.2 million), Mont Saint-Michel (1 million), Château de Chambord (711,000), Sainte-Chapelle (683,000), Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg (549,000), Puy de Dôme (500,000), Musée Picasso (441,000), Carcassonne (362,000).
Transport[កែប្រែ]
The railway network of France, which កាលពី 2008[update] stretches ២៩៤៧៣ សហាតិមាត្រ (១៨៣១៤ ម៉ៃ.)[៣៦២] is the second most extensive in Western Europe after the German one.[៣៦៣] It is operated by the SNCF, and high-speed trains include the Thalys, the Eurostar and TGV, which travels at ៣២០ km/h (១៩៩ mph) in commercial use.[៣៦៤][៣៦៥] The Eurostar, along with the Eurotunnel Shuttle, connects with the United Kingdom through the Channel Tunnel. Rail connections exist to all other neighbouring countries in Europe, except Andorra. Intra-urban connections are also well developed with both underground services and tramway services complementing bus services.
There are approximately ១០២៧១៨៣ សហាតិមាត្រ (៦៣៨២៦២ ម៉ៃ.) of serviceable roadway in France, ranking it the most extensive network of the European continent.[៣៦៦] The Paris region is enveloped with the most dense network of roads and highways that connect it with virtually all parts of the country. French roads also handle substantial international traffic, connecting with cities in neighbouring Belgium, Spain, Andorra, Monaco, Switzerland, Germany and Italy. There is no annual registration fee or road tax; however, motorway usage is through tolls except in the vicinity of large communes. The new car market is dominated by domestic brands such as Renault (27% of cars sold in France in 2003), Peugeot (20.1%) and Citroën (13.5%).[៣៦៧] Over 70% of new cars sold in 2004 had diesel engines, far more than contained petrol or LPG engines.[៣៦៨] France possesses the Millau Viaduct, the world's tallest bridge,[៣៦៩] and has built many important bridges such as the Pont de Normandie.
There are 475 airports in France.[៣] Charles de Gaulle Airport, located in the vicinity of Paris, is the largest and busiest airport in the country, handling the vast majority of popular and commercial traffic and connecting Paris with virtually all major cities across the world. Air France is the national carrier airline, although numerous private airline companies provide domestic and international travel services. There are ten major ports in France, the largest of which is in Marseille,[៣៧០] which also is the largest bordering the Mediterranean Sea.[៣៧១][៣៧២] ១២២៦១ សហាតិមាត្រ (៧៦១៩ ម៉ៃ.) of waterways traverse France including the Canal du Midi which connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean through the Garonne river.[៣]
កសិកម្ម[កែប្រែ]
នៅក្នុងចំនោមប្រទេសក្នុងសហភាពអឺរ៉ុប បារាំងនាំមុខគេក្នុងផលិតផលកសិកម្ម។ ផលិតផលសំខាន់ៗមាន គ្រាប់ធុញ្ញជាតិ (ស្រូវសាឡី ពោត) ស្ករ ស្រា ផលិតផលពីទឹកដោះគោ បន្លែផ្លែឈើ និង សាច់សត្វ។
Culture[កែប្រែ]
France has been a center of Western cultural development for centuries. Many French artists have been among the most renowned of their time, and France is still recognized in the world for its rich cultural tradition.
The successive political regimes have always promoted artistic creation, and the creation of the Ministry of Culture in 1959 helped preserve the cultural heritage of the country and make it available to the public. The Ministry of Culture has been very active since its creation, granting subsidies to artists, promoting French culture in the world, supporting festivals and cultural events, protecting historical monuments. The French government also succeeded in maintaining a cultural exception to defend audiovisual products made in the country.
France receives the highest number of tourists per year, largely thanks to the numerous cultural establishments and historical buildings implanted all over the territory. It counts 1,200 museums welcoming more than 50 million people annually.[៣៧៣] The most important cultural sites are run by the government, for instance through the public agency Centre des monuments nationaux, which is responsible for approximately 85 national historical monuments.
The 43,180 buildings protected as historical monuments include mainly residences (many castles, or châteaux in French) and religious buildings (cathedrals, basilicas, churches, etc.), but also statutes, memorials and gardens. The UNESCO inscribed 38 sites in France on the World Heritage List.[៣៧៤]
Art[កែប្រែ]
The origins of French art were very much influenced by Flemish art and by Italian art at the time of the Renaissance. Jean Fouquet, the most famous medieval French painter, is said to have been the first to travel to Italy and experience the Early Renaissance at first hand. The Renaissance painting School of Fontainebleau was directly inspired by Italian painters such as Primaticcio and Rosso Fiorentino, who both worked in France. Two of the most famous French artists of the time of Baroque era, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, lived in Italy.
The 17th century was the period when French painting became prominent and individualized itself through classicism. Louis XIV's prime minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert founded in 1648 the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture to protect these artists, and in 1666 he created the still-active French Academy in Rome to have direct relations with Italian artists.
French artists developed the rococo style in the 18th century, as a more intimate imitation of old baroque style, the works of the court-endorsed artists Antoine Watteau, François Boucher and Jean-Honoré Fragonard being the most representative in the country. The French Revolution brought great changes, as Napoleon favoured artists of neoclassic style such as Jacques-Louis David and the highly influential Académie des Beaux-Arts defined the style known as Academism. At this time France had become a centre of artistic creation, the first half of the 19th century being dominated by two successive movements, at first Romanticism with Théodore Géricault and Eugène Delacroix, and Realism with Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet and Jean-François Millet, a style that eventually evolved into Naturalism.
In the second part of the 19th century, France's influence over painting became even more important, with the development of new styles of painting such as Impressionism and Symbolism. The most famous impressionist painters of the period were Camille Pissarro, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet and Auguste Renoir.[៣៧៥] The second generation of impressionist-style painters, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec and Georges Seurat, were also at the avant-garde of artistic evolutions,[៣៧៦] as well as the fauvist artists Henri Matisse, André Derain and Maurice de Vlaminck.[៣៧៧][៣៧៨]
At the beginning of 20th century, Cubism was developed by Georges Braque and the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso, living in Paris. Other foreign artists also settled and worked in or near Paris, such as Vincent van Gogh, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani and Wassily Kandinsky.
Many museums in France are entirely or partly devoted to sculptures and painting works. A huge collection of old masterpieces created before or during the 18th century are displayed in the state-owned Musée du Louvre, such as Mona Lisa, also known as La Joconde. While the Louvre Palace has been for a long time a museum, the Musée d'Orsay was inaugurated in 1986 in the old railway station Gare d'Orsay, in a major reorganization of national art collections, to gather French paintings from the second part of the 19th century (mainly Impressionism and Fauvism movements).[៣៧៩][៣៨០]
Modern works are presented in the Musée National d'Art Moderne, which moved in 1976 to the Centre Georges Pompidou. These three state-owned museums welcome close to 17 million people a year.[១៥៥] Other national museums hosting paintings include the Grand Palais (1.3 million visitors in 2008), but there are also many museums owned by cities, the most visited being the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris (0.8 million entries in 2008), which hosts contemporary works.[១៥៥]
Outside Paris, all the large cities have a Museum of Fine Arts with a section dedicated to European and French painting. Some of the finest collections are in Lyon, Lille, Rouen, Dijon, Rennes and Grenoble.
Architecture[កែប្រែ]
During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by feudal nobles to mark their powers. Some French castles that survived are Chinon, Château d'Angers, the massive Château de Vincennes and the so-called Cathar castles. During this era, France had been using Romanesque architecture like most of Western Europe. Some of the greatest examples of Romanesque churches in France are the Saint Sernin Basilica in Toulouse, the largest romanesque church in Europe,[៣៨២] and the remains of the Cluniac Abbey.
The Gothic architecture, originally named Opus Francigenum meaning « French work »,[៣៨៣] was born in Île-de-France and was the first French style of architecture to be copied in all Europe.[៣៨៤] Northern France is the home of some of the most important Gothic cathedrals and basilicas, the first of these being the Saint Denis Basilica (used as the royal necropolis); other important French Gothic cathedrals are Notre-Dame de Chartres and Notre-Dame d'Amiens. The kings were crowned in another important Gothic church: Notre-Dame de Reims.[៣៨៥] Aside from churches, Gothic Architecture had been used for many religious palaces, the most important one being the Palais des Papes in Avignon.
The final victory in the Hundred Years' War marked an important stage in the evolution of French architecture. It was the time of the French Renaissance and several artists from Italy were invited to the French court; many residential palaces were built in the Loire Valley. Such residential castles were the Château de Chambord, the Château de Chenonceau, or the Château d'Amboise.
Following the renaissance and the end of the Middle Ages, Baroque architecture replaced the traditional Gothic style. However, in France, baroque architecture found a greater success in the secular domain than in a religious one.[៣៨៦] In the secular domain, the Palace of Versailles has many baroque features. Jules Hardouin Mansart, who designed the extensions to Versailles, was one of the most influential French architect of the baroque era; he is famous for his dome at Les Invalides.[៣៨៧] Some of the most impressive provincial baroque architecture is found in places that were not yet French such as the Place Stanislas in Nancy. On the military architectural side, Vauban designed some of the most efficient fortresses in Europe and became an influential military architect; as a result, imitations of his works can be found all over Europe, the Americas, Russia and Turkey.[៣៨៨][៣៨៩]
After the Revolution, the Republicans favoured Neoclassicism although neoclassicism was introduced in France prior to the revolution with such building as the Parisian Pantheon or the Capitole de Toulouse. Built during the first French Empire, the Arc de Triomphe and Sainte Marie-Madeleine represent the best example of Empire style architecture.[៣៩០]
Under Napoleon III, a new wave of urbanism and architecture was given birth; extravagant buildings such as the neo-baroque Palais Garnier were built. The urban planning of the time was very organised and rigorous; for example, Haussmann's renovation of Paris. The architecture associated to this era is named Second Empire in English, the term being taken from the Second French Empire. At this time there was a strong Gothic resurgence across Europe and in France; the associated architect was Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. In the late 19th century, Gustave Eiffel designed many bridges, such as Garabit viaduct, and remains one of the most influential bridge designers of his time, although he is best remembered for the iconic Eiffel Tower.
In the 20th century, French-Swiss architect Le Corbusier designed several buildings in France. More recently, French architects have combined both modern and old architectural styles. The Louvre Pyramid is an example of modern architecture added to an older building. The most difficult buildings to integrate within French cities are skyscrapers, as they are visible from afar. For instance, in Paris, since 1977, new buildings had to be under 37 meters, or 121 feet.[៣៩១] France's largest financial district is La Defense, where a significant number of skyscrapers are located.[៣៩២] Other massive buildings that are a challenge to integrate into their environment are large bridges; an example of the way this has been done is the Millau Viaduct. Some famous modern French architects include Jean Nouvel, Dominique Perrault, Christian de Portzamparc or Paul Andreu.
Literature[កែប្រែ]
The earliest French literature dates from the Middle Ages, when what is now known as modern France did not have a single, uniform language. There were several languages and dialects and writers used their own spelling and grammar. Some authors of French mediaeval texts are unknown, such as Tristan and Iseult and Lancelot-Grail. Other authors are known, for example Chrétien de Troyes and Duke William IX of Aquitaine, who wrote in Occitan.
Much mediaeval French poetry and literature were inspired by the legends of the Matter of France, such as The Song of Roland and the various chansons de geste. The Roman de Renart, written in 1175 by Perrout de Saint Cloude, tells the story of the mediaeval character Reynard ('the Fox') and is another example of early French writing.
An important 16th-century writer was François Rabelais, whose novel Gargantua and Pantagruel has remained famous and appreciated until now. Michel de Montaigne was the other major figure of the French literature during that century. His most famous work, Essais, created the literary genre of the essay.[៣៩៤] French poetry during that century was embodied by Pierre de Ronsard and Joachim du Bellay. Both writers founded the La Pléiade literary movement.
During the 17th century, Madame de La Fayette published anonymously La Princesse de Clèves, a novel that is considered to be one of the very first psychological novels of all times.[៣៩៥] Jean de La Fontaine is one of the most famous fabulist of that time, as he wrote hundreds of fables, some being far more famous than others, such as The Ant and the Grasshopper. Generations of French pupils had to learn his fables, that were seen as helping teaching wisdom and common sense to the young people. Some of his verses have entered the popular language to become proverbs.[៣៩៦]
Jean Racine, whose incredible mastery of the alexandrine and of the French language has been praised for centuries, created plays such as Phèdre or Britannicus. He is, along with Pierre Corneille (Le Cid) and Molière, considered as one of the three great dramatists of the France's golden age. Molière, who is deemed to be one of the greatest masters of comedy of the Western literature,[៣៩៧] wrote dozens of plays, including Le Misanthrope, L'Avare, Le Malade imaginaire, and Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. His plays have been so popular around the world that French language is sometimes dubbed as "the language of Molière" (la langue de Molière),[៣៩៨] just like English is considered as "the language of Shakespeare".
French literature and poetry flourished even more in the 18th and 19th centuries. Denis Diderot's best-known works are Jacques the Fatalist and Rameau's Nephew. He is however best known for being the main redactor of the Encyclopédie, whose aim was to sum up all the knowledge of his century (in fields such as arts, sciences, languages, philosophy) and to present them to the people, in order to fight ignorance and obscurantism. During that same century, Charles Perrault was a prolific writer of famous children's fairy tales including Puss in Boots, Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty and Bluebeard. At the start of the 19th century, symbolist poetry was an important movement in French literature, with poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé.[៣៩៩]
The 19th century saw the writings of many renowned French authors. Victor Hugo is sometimes seen as "the greatest French writer of all times"[១៦៩] for excelling in all literary genres. The preface of his play Cromwell is considered to be the manifesto of the Romantic movement. Les Contemplations and La Légende des siècles are considered as "poetic masterpieces",[១៧៦] Hugo's verse having been compared to that of Shakespeare, Dante and Homer.[១៧៦] His novel Les Misérables is widely seen as one of the greatest novel ever written[៤០០] and The Hunchback of Notre Dame has remained immensely popular.
Other major authors of that century include Alexandre Dumas (The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte-Cristo), Jules Verne (Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea), Émile Zola (Les Rougon-Macquart), Honoré de Balzac (La Comédie humaine), Guy de Maupassant, Théophile Gautier and Stendhal (The Red and the Black, The Charterhouse of Parma), whose works are amongst the most well known in France and the world.
The Prix Goncourt is a French literary prize first awarded in 1903.[៤០១] Important writers of the 20th century include Marcel Proust, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Albert Camus, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Antoine de Saint Exupéry wrote Little Prince which has remained popular for decades with children and adults around the world.[៤០២] As of 2010, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation.[៤០៣]
Philosophy[កែប្រែ]
Medieval philosophy was dominated by Scholasticism until the emergence of Humanism in the Renaissance. Modern philosophy began in France in the 17th century with the philosophy of René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, and Nicolas Malebranche. Descartes revitalised Western philosophy, which had been declined after the Greek and Roman eras.[៤០៤] His Meditations on First Philosophy changed the primary object of philosophical thought and raised some of the most fundamental problems for foreigners such as Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Berkeley, and Kant.
During the 18th century, French philosophers produced one of the most important works of the Age of Enlightenment. In The Spirit of the Laws, Baron de Montesquieu theorized the principle of separation of powers, which has been implemented in all liberal democracies since it was first applied in the United States. In The Social Contract, Jean-Jacques Rousseau openly criticized the European divine right monarchies and strongly affirmed the principle of the sovereignty of the people. Voltaire came to embody the Enlightenment with his defence of civil liberties, such as the right to a free trial and freedom of religion.
19th-century French thought was targeted at responding to the social malaise following the French Revolution. Rationalist philosophers such as Victor Cousin and Auguste Comte, who called for a new social doctrine, were opposed by reactionnary thinkers such as Joseph de Maistre, Louis de Bonald and Lamennais, who blamed the rationalist rejection of traditional order. De Maistre is considered, together with the Englishman Edmund Burke, one of the founders of European conservatism, while Comte is regarded as the founder of positivism and sociology.
In the early 20th century, French spiritualist thinkers such as Maine de Biran, Henri Bergson and Louis Lavelle influenced Anglo-Saxon thought, including the Americans Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, and the Englishman Alfred North Whitehead. In the late 20th century, partly influenced by German phenomenology and existentialism, postmodern philosophy began in France, with notable post-structuralist thinkers including Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze.
Sciences[កែប្រែ]
France has been since the Middle Ages a major focus of knowledge and discoveries. Around the beginning of the 11th century Pope Sylvester II reintroduced the abacus and armillary sphere, and introduced Arabic numerals and clocks to northern and western Europe.[៤០៥] The University of Paris, founded in the mid-12th century, is still one of the most important universities of the Western world.[៤០៦]
In the 17th century, René Descartes defined a method for the acquisition of scientific knowledge, while Blaise Pascal became famous for his work on probability and fluid mechanics. They were both key figures of the Scientific revolution which erupted in Europe during this period. The Academy of Sciences was founded by Louis XIV to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest academies of sciences.
The Age of Enlightenment was marked by the work of biologist Buffon and chemist Lavoisier, who discovered the role of oxygen in combustion, while Diderot and D'Alembert published the Encyclopédie which aimed to give access to "useful knowledge" to the people, a knowledge that they can apply to their everyday life.[៤០៧]
With the Industrial Revolution, the 19th century saw spectacular scientific developments in France with scientists such as Augustin Fresnel, founder of modern optics, Sadi Carnot who laid the foundations of thermodynamics, or Louis Pasteur, a pioneer of microbiology. Other eminent French scientists of the 19th century have their names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.
Famous French scientists of the 20th century include the mathematician and physicist Henri Poincaré, physicists Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie, remained famous for their work on radioactivity, the physicist Paul Langevin or virologist Luc Montagnier, co-discoverer of HIV AIDS.
As of 2012, 65 French people have been awarded a Nobel Prize[៤០៨] and 11 have received the Fields Medal.[៤០៩]
Music[កែប្រែ]
France has a long and varied musical history. It experienced a golden age in the 17th century thanks to Louis XIV, who employed several musicians and composers in the royal court. The most renowned composers of this period include Marc-Antoine Charpentier, François Couperin, Michel-Richard Delalande, Jean-Baptiste Lully and Marin Marais, all of them composers at the court. After the death of the "Roi Soleil", French musical creation lost dynamism, but in the next century the music of Jean-Philippe Rameau reached some prestige, and today he is still one of the most renowned French composers.
French classical music knew a revival in the 19th and 20th century, at the end of the romantic movement, at first with opera composers Hector Berlioz, Georges Bizet, Gabriel Fauré, Charles Gounod, Jacques Offenbach, Édouard Lalo, Jules Massenet and Camille Saint-Saëns. This period was a golden age for operas, being popular in the country the opéra bouffon, the opera-ballet and the opéra comique genres. Later came precursors of modern classical music Érik Satie, Francis Poulenc, and above all Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy, who invented new musical forms.[៤១១][៤១២][៤១៣][៤១៤] More recently, at the middle of the 20th century, Maurice Ohana, Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Boulez contributed to the evolutions of contemporary classical music.[៤១៥]
French music then followed the rapid emergence of pop and rock music at the middle of the 20th century. Although English-speaking creations achieved popularity in the country, French pop music, known as chanson française, has also remained very popular. Among the most important French artists of the century are Édith Piaf, Georges Brassens, Léo Ferré, Charles Aznavour and Serge Gainsbourg. Although there are very few rock bands in France compared to English-speaking countries,[៤១៦] bands such as Noir Désir, Mano Negra, Niagara, Les Rita Mitsouko and more recently Superbus, Phoenix and Gojira[១៩៤] have reached worldwide popularity.
Other French artists with international careers have been popular in several countries, for example female singers Dalida, Mireille Mathieu and Mylène Farmer,[១៩៤] electronic music pioneers Jean-Michel Jarre, Laurent Garnier and Bob Sinclar, and later Martin Solveig and David Guetta. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), electronic duos Daft Punk, Justice and Air also reached worldwide popularity and contributed to the reputation of modern electronic music in the world.[១៩៤][៤១៧][៤១៨]
Among current musical events and institutions in France, many are dedicated to classical music and operas. The most prestigious institutions are the state-owned Paris National Opera (with its two sites Palais Garnier and Opéra Bastille), the Opéra National de Lyon, the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, the Théâtre du Capitole in Toulouse and the Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux. As for music festivals, there are several events organized, the most popular being the Eurockéennes and Rock en Seine. The Fête de la Musique, imitated by many foreign cities, was first launched by the French government in 1982.[៤១៩][៤២០] Major music halls and venues in France include Le Zénith sites present in many cities and other places in Paris (Paris Olympia, Théâtre Mogador, Élysée Montmartre, etc.).
Cinema[កែប្រែ]
France has historical and strong links with cinema, with two Frenchmen, Auguste and Louis Lumière (known as the Lumière Brothers) having created cinema in 1895.[៤២៤] France remains a leader in filmmaking, as of 2006 producing more films than any other European country.[៤២៥] The nation also hosts the Cannes Festival, one of the most important and famous film festivals in the world.[៤២៦][៤២៧]
Although the French film market is dominated by Hollywood, France is the only nation in the world where American films make up the smallest share of total film revenues, at 50%, compared with 77% in Germany and 69% in Japan.[២០៦] French films account for 35% of the total film revenues of France, which is the highest percentage of national film revenues in the developed world outside the United States, compared to 14% in Spain and 8% in the UK.[២០៦]
Until recently, France had for centuries been the cultural center of the world,[១០៥] although its dominant position has been surpassed by the United States. Subsequently, France takes steps in protecting and promoting its culture, becoming a leading advocate of the cultural exception.[៤២៨] The nation succeeded in convincing all EU members to refuse to include culture and audiovisuals in the list of liberalized sectors of the WTO in 1993.[៤២៩]
Moreover, this decision was confirmed in a voting in the UNESCO in 2005, and the principle of "cultural exception" won an overwhelming victory: 198 countries voted for it, only 2 countries, the U.S and Israel, voted against it.[៤៣០]
Fashion[កែប្រែ]
Fashion has been an important industry and cultural export of France since the 17th century, and modern "haute couture" originated in Paris in the 1860s. Today, Paris, along with London, Milan, and New York City, is considered one of the world's fashion capitals, and the city is home or headquarters to many of the premier fashion houses. The expression Haute couture is, in France, a legally protected name, guaranteeing certain quality standards.
The association of France with fashion and style (បារាំង: la mode) dates largely to the reign of Louis XIV[៤៣១] when the luxury goods industries in France came increasingly under royal control and the French royal court became, arguably, the arbiter of taste and style in Europe. But France renewed its dominance of the high fashion (បារាំង: couture or haute couture) industry in the years 1860–1960 through the establishing of the great couturier houses such as Chanel, Dior, and Givenchy. The French perfume industry is world leader in its sector and is centered around the town of Grasse.[៤៣២]
In the 1960s, the elitist "Haute couture" came under criticism from France's youth culture. In 1966, the designer Yves Saint Laurent broke with established Haute Couture norms by launching a prêt-à-porter ("ready to wear") line and expanding French fashion into mass manufacturing. With a greater focus on marketing and manufacturing, new trends were established by Sonia Rykiel, Thierry Mugler, Claude Montana, Jean-Paul Gaultier and Christian Lacroix in the 1970s and 1980s. The 1990s saw a conglomeration of many French couture houses under luxury giants and multinationals such as LVMH.
Media[កែប្រែ]
Compared to other developed countries, the French do not spend much time reading newspapers, due to the popularity of broadcast media. Best-selling daily national newspapers in France are Le Monde and Le Figaro, with around 300,000 copies sold daily, but also L'Équipe, dedicated to sports coverage.[៤៣៣] In the past years, free dailies made a breakthrough, with Metro, 20 Minutes and Direct Plus distributed at more than 650,000 copies respectively.[៤៣៤] However, the widest circulations are reached by regional daily Ouest France with more than 750,000 copies sold, and the 50 other regional papers have also high sales.[៤៣៥][៤៣៦] The sector of weekly magazines is stronger and diversified with more than 400 specialized weekly magazines published in the country.[៤៣៧]
The most influential news magazine are left-wing Le Nouvel Observateur, centrist L'Express and right-wing Le Point (more than 400.000 copies),[៤៣៨] but the highest circulation for weeklies is reached by TV magazines and by women’s magazines, among them Marie Claire and ELLE, which have foreign versions. Influential weeklies also include investigative and satirical papers Le Canard Enchaîné and Charlie Hebdo, as well as Paris Match. Like in most industrialized nations, the print media have been affected by a severe crisis in the past decade. In 2008, the government have launched a major initiative to help the sector reform to be financially independent,[៤៣៩][៤៤០] but in 2009 it had to give 600.000 euros to help the print media cope with the economic crisis, in addition to existing subsidies.[៤៤១]
In 1974, after years of centralized monopoly on radio and television, the governmental agency ORTF was split into several national institutions, but the three already-existing TV channels and four national radio stations[៤៤២][២២២] remained under state-control. It was only in 1981 that the government allowed free broadcasting in the territory, ending state monopoly on radio.[២២២] French television was partly liberalized in the next two decade with the creation of several commercial channels, mainly thanks to cable and satellite television. In 2005 the national service Télévision Numérique Terrestre introduced digital television all over the territory, allowing the creation of other channels.
The four existing national channels are now owned by state-owned consortium France Télévisions, while public broadcasting group Radio France run five national radio stations. Among these public media are Radio France Internationale, which broadcasts programs in French all over the world, and Franco-German TV channel TV5 Monde. In 2006, the government created global news channel France 24. Long-established TV channels TF1 (privatized in 1987), France 2 and France 3 have the highest shares, while radio stations RTL, Europe 1 and state-owned France Inter are the least listened to.
Society[កែប្រែ]
According to a BBC poll in 2010, based on 29,977 responses in 28 countries, France is globally seen as a positive influence in the world's affairs: 49% have a positive view of the country's influence, whereas 19% have a negative view.[៤៤៣][៤៤៤] The Nation Brand Index of 2008 suggested that France has the second best international reputation, only behind Germany.[៤៤៥]
According to a poll in 2011, the French were found to have the highest level of religious tolerance and to be the country where the highest proportion of the population defines its identity primarily in term of nationality and not religion.[២២៦] 69% of French have a favourable view of the US, making France one of the most pro-American countries in the world.[៤៤៦]
In January 2010, the magazine International Living ranked France as "best country to live in", ahead of 193 other countries, for the fifth year running.[៤៤៧][២២៩]
The four official symbols of the Republic, as stated by the Constitution,[៤៤៨] all commemorate events from the French Revolution. Bastille Day, the national holiday, commemorates the Fête de la Fédération, held on 14 July 1790 to celebrate the storming of the Bastille.[៤៤៩] The origins of the Tricolour flag date to the Revolution, as the cockade was the symbols adopted by the revolutionaries in 1789.[៤៥០]
The national anthem, La Marseillaise, was written in 1792 as a war song for the French Army.[៤៥១][៤៥២] The official motto of the French Republic, "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" (Liberty, equality, brotherhood), also appeared during the Revolution.[៤៥៣] Marianne, an unofficial symbol, is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic, and appeared at the time of the Revolution.[៤៥៤]
A common and traditional symbol of the French people is the Gallic rooster. Its origins date back to Antiquity, since the Latin word Gallus meant both "rooster" and "inhabitant of Gaul". Then this figure gradually became the most widely shared representation of the French, used by French monarchs, then by the Revolution and under the successive republican regimes as representation of the national identity, used for some stamps and coins.[៤៥៥]
Gastronomy[កែប្រែ]
French cuisine is renowned for being one of the finest in the world.[៤៥៧][៤៥៨][៤៥៩][៤៦០][៤៦១][៤៦២] French cuisine is extremely diverse and has exerted a major influence on other western cuisines.[២៤៥] According to the regions, traditional recipes are different, the North of the country prefers to use butter as the preferred fat for cooking, whereas olive oil is more commonly used in the South.[៤៦៣]
Moreover, each region of France has iconic traditional specialities : Cassoulet in the Southwest, Choucroute in Alsace, Quiche in the Lorraine region, Beef bourguignon in the Bourgogne, provençal Tapenade, etc. France's most renowned products are wines,[៤៦៤] including Champagne, Bordeaux, Bourgogne, and Beaujolais as well as a large variety of different cheeses, such as Camembert, Roquefort and Brie. There are more than 400 different varieties.[៤៦៥][៤៦៦]
French cuisine is also regarded as a key element of the quality of life and the attractiveness of France.[២២៩] A French publication, the Michelin guide, had by 2006 awarded 620 stars to French restaurants, at that time more than any other country, although the guide also inspects more restaurants in France than in any other country (by 2010, Japan was awarded as many Michelin stars as France, despite having half the number of Michelin inspectors working there).[៤៦៧][៤៦៨]
Sports[កែប្រែ]
Popular sports played in France include football, judo, tennis[៤៧០] and basketball.[៤៧១] France has hosted events such as the 1938 and 1998 FIFA World Cups,[៤៧២] and the 2007 Rugby World Cup.[៤៧៣] Stade de France in Saint-Denis is France's largest stadium and was the venue for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and 2007 Rugby World Cup finals. France hosts the annual Tour de France, the most famous road bicycle race in the world.[៤៧៤][៤៧៥] France is famous for its 24 Hours of Le Mans sports car endurance race.[៤៧៦] Several major tennis tournaments take place in France, including the Paris Masters and the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments. French martial arts include Savate and Fencing.
France has a close association with the Modern Olympic Games; it was a French aristocrat, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, who suggested the Games' revival, at the end of the 19th century.[៤៧៧][២៦១] After Athens was awarded the first Games, in reference to the Olympics' Greek origins, Paris hosted the second Games in 1900.[៤៧៨] Paris was the first home of the International Olympic Committee, before it moved to Lausanne.[៤៧៩] Since 1900, France has hosted the Olympics on 4 further occasions: the 1924 Summer Olympics, again in Paris[២៦១] and three Winter Games (1924 in Chamonix, 1968 in Grenoble and 1992 in Albertville).[២៦១]
Both the national football team and the national rugby union team are nicknamed “Les Bleus” in reference to the team’s shirt color as well as the national French tricolor flag. Football is the most popular sport in France, with over 1,800,000 registered players, and over 18,000 registered clubs.[៤៨០] The football team is among the most successful in the world, particularly at the start of the 21st century, with one FIFA World Cup victory in 1998,[៤៨១] one FIFA World Cup second place in 2006,[៤៨២] and two UEFA European Championships in 1984[៤៨៣] and 2000.[៤៨៤] The top national football club competition is Ligue 1. France has produced some of the greatest players in the world, including three time FIFA World Player of the Year Zinedine Zidane, three time Ballon d'Or recipient Michel Platini, record holder for most goals scored at a World Cup Just Fontaine, first football player to receive the Légion d'honneur Raymond Kopa, and the all-time leading goalscorer for the French national team Thierry Henry.
Rugby union is popular, particularly in Paris and the southwest of France.[៤៨៥] The national rugby union team has competed at every Rugby World Cup, and takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship. Stemming from a strong domestic league, the French rugby team has won 16 Six Nations Championships, including 8 grand slams; and has reached the semi-final of the Rugby World Cup 6 times and the final 3 times.
Rugby league in France is a sport that is most popular in the south, in cities such as Perpignan and Toulouse. The Catalans Dragons currently play in the Super League, which is the top tier rugby league competition in Europe. The Elite One Championship is the professional competition for rugby league clubs in France.
In recent decades, France has produced world-elite basketball players, most notably Tony Parker. The French National Basketball Team won gold at the FIBA EuroBasket 2013. The national team has won two Olympic Silver Medals: in 2000 and 1948.
Footnotes[កែប្រែ]
- ↑ French is an official language throughout the French Republic. For information about the official and unofficial regional languages also spoken see Languages of France.
- ↑ ២,០ ២,១ Including all the overseas departments but excluding overseas territories and the French territory of Terre Adélie in Antarctica where sovereignty is suspended since the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959.
- ↑ French National Geographic Institute data, which includes bodies of water.
- ↑ French Land Register data, which exclude lakes, ponds and glaciers larger than 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) as well as the estuaries of rivers.
- ↑ Metropolitan France only. The population density for the whole territory of the French Republic (including overseas departments and territories) is ទំព័រគំរូ:Pop density.
- ↑ Whole of the French Republic except the overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean.
- ↑ French overseas territories in the Pacific Ocean only.
- ↑ CET applies to Metropolitan France only. Time Zones across the French Republic span from UTC-10 (PF) to UTC+12 (WF).
- ↑ CEST applies to Metropolitan France only. Not all overseas territories observe Daylight Saving Time.
- ↑ The overseas regions and collectivities form part of the French telephone numbering plan, but have their own country calling codes: Guadeloupe +590; Martinique +596; French Guiana +594, Réunion and Mayotte +262; Saint Pierre and Miquelon +508. The overseas territories are not part of the French telephone numbering plan; their country calling codes are: New Caledonia +687, French Polynesia +689; Wallis and Futuna +681.
- ↑ In addition to .fr, several other Internet TLDs are used in French overseas départements and territories: .re, .mq, .gp, .tf, .nc, .pf, .wf, .pm, .gf and .yt. France also uses .eu, shared with other members of the European Union. The .cat domain is used in Catalan-speaking territories.
- ↑ French Guiana is located in South America; Guadeloupe and Martinique are in the Caribbean; and Réunion and Mayotte are in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Africa. All five are considered integral parts of the republic.
References[កែប្រែ]
- ↑ (PDF) Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density។ United Nations Statistics Division។ 2010។ http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2009-2010/Table03.pdf។ http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm Area calculated by adding area of Metropolitan France with those of overseas departments
- ↑ (បារាំង) INSEE, Government of France។ "Population totale par sexe et âge au 1er janvier 2011, France métropolitaine"។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATnon02145។ បានយកមក January 2012។
- ↑ ៣,០០ ៣,០១ ៣,០២ ៣,០៣ ៣,០៤ ៣,០៥ ៣,០៦ ៣,០៧ ៣,០៨ ៣,០៩ ៣,១០ ៣,១១ "The World Factbook: France"។ Central Intelligence Agency។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/fr.html។ បានយកមក 23 January 2013។
- ↑ ៤,០ ៤,១ ៤,២ ៤,៣ "France"។ International Monetary Fund។ http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2013/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=72&pr.y=9&sy=2013&ey=2013&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=132&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=។ បានយកមក 27 October 2013។
- ↑ "CIA World Factbook"។ CIA។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html។ បានយកមក 16 April 2013។
- ↑ "Human Development Report 2013"។ UN។ 2013។ http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2013_CH.pdf។ បានយកមក 14 March 2013។
- ↑ ៧,០ ៧,១ "UNWTO Highlights" (PDF)។ United Nations World Tourism Organization។ http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_highlights13_en_lr.pdf។ បានយកមក 11 September 2013។
- ↑ "Great Powers – Encarta. MSN. 2008"។ Webcitation.org។ http://www.webcitation.org/5kwqEr8pe។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ ៩,០ ៩,១ "The 15 countries with the highest military spending worldwide in 2012 (in billion U.S. dollars)"។ Sipri.org។ http://www.statista.com/statistics/262742/countries-with-the-highest-military-spending/។ បានយកមក 25 September 2013។
- ↑ "Status of World Nuclear Forces"។ Federation of American Scientists - Fas.org។ 26 May 2013។ http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/nukes/nuclearweapons/nukestatus.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2013។ "France has around 290 active warheads កាលពី 2013[update]"
- ↑ "France-Diplomatie"។ Diplomatie.gouv.fr។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/ministry_158/embassies-and-consulates_2052/bilateral-embassies_1580.html។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ ១២,០ ១២,១ GDP, PPP (current international $) | Data | Table
- ↑ Credit Suisse 2010's Global Wealth Report "In euro and USD terms, the total wealth of French households is very sizeable. Although it has just 1% of the world's adults, France ranks fourth among nations in aggregate household wealth – behind China and just ahead of Germany. Europe as a whole accounts for 35% of the individuals in the global top 1%, but France itself contributes a quarter of the European contingent."
- ↑ "World Health Organization Assesses the World's Health Systems"។ Who.int។ 8 December 2010។ http://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ "World Population Prospects – The 2006 Revision" (PDF)។ UN។ http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2006/WPP2006_Highlights_rev.pdf។ បានយកមក 27 April 2010។
- ↑ ១៦,០ ១៦,១ France on Europa Official Site
- ↑ "History of France"។ Discoverfrance.net។ http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/History/DF_history.shtml។ បានយកមក 17 July 2011។
- ↑ Tarassuk, Leonid; Blair, Claude (1982)។ The Complete Encyclopedia of Arms and Weapons: the most comprehensive reference work ever published on arms and armor from prehistoric times to the present with over 1,250 illustrations។ Simon & Schuster។ ទំ. 186។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 0-671-42257-X។ http://books.google.com/?id=UJbyPwAACAAJ។ បានយកមក 5 July 2011។
- ↑ ១៩,០ ១៩,១ ១៩,២ ១៩,៣ Jean Carpentier (dir.), François Lebrun (dir.), Alain Tranoy, Élisabeth Carpentier et Jean-Marie Mayeur (préface de Jacques Le Goff), Histoire de France, Points Seuil, coll. « Histoire », Paris, 2000 (1re éd. 1987), p. 17 ISBN 2-02-010879-8
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, pp. 20–24
- ↑ The Cambridge ancient history។ Cambridge University Press។ 2000។ ទំ. 754។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 978-0-521-08691-2។ http://books.google.com/books?id=n1TmVvMwmo4C&pg=RA1-PA754។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ Claude Orrieux (1999)។ A history of ancient Greece។ John Wiley & Sons។ ទំ. 62។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 978-0-631-20309-4។ http://books.google.com/books?id=b8cA8hymTw8C&pg=PA62។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, p. 29
- ↑ Life magazine, 13 July 1953, p. 76។ Google Books។ 13 July 1953។ http://books.google.com/?id=ZEIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA76។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, p.44-45
- ↑ ២៦,០ ២៦,១ Carpentier et al 2000, pp. 53–55
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, pp. 76–77
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, pp. 79–82
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, p. 81
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, p. 84
- ↑ Carpentier et al 2000, pp. 84–88
- ↑ "Faith of the Eldest Daughter – Can France retain her Catholic heritage?"។ Wf-f.org។ http://www.wf-f.org/03-1-France.html។ បានយកមក 17 July 2011។
- ↑ "France"។ Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs។ http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france។ បានយកមក 14 December 2011។ See drop-down essay on "Religion and Politics until the French Revolution"
- ↑ "Treaty of Verdun"។ History.howstuffworks.com។ 27 February 2008។ http://history.howstuffworks.com/european-history/treaty-of-verdun.htm។ បានយកមក 17 July 2011។
- ↑ "History of France : The Capetian kings of France: AD 987–1328"។ Historyworld.net។ http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1008&HistoryID=ab03>rack=pthc។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Massacre of the Pure"។ Time (New York)។ 28 April 1961។ http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,897752-2,00.html។
- ↑ ៣៧,០ ៣៧,១ ៣៧,២ Albert Guerard, France: A Modern History (University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor, 1959) pp. 100, 101.
- ↑ "France VII"។ Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009។ Webcitation.org។ http://www.webcitation.org/5kwcLOXgw។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ Don O'Reilly. "Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans". TheHistoryNet.com.
- ↑ Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1987). "The French peasantry, 1450–1660". University of California Press. p. 32. ISBN 0-520-05523-3
- ↑ Peter Turchin (2003). "Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall". Princeton University Press. p. 179. ISBN 0-691-11669-5
- ↑ "Massacre of Saint Bartholomew’s Day"។ Britannica.com។ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/516821/Massacre-of-Saint-Bartholomews-Day។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ ៤៣,០ ៤៣,១ "Language and Diplomacy"។ Nakedtranslations.com។ http://www.nakedtranslations.com/en/2004/language-and-diplomacy/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "BBC History : Louis XV (1710–1774)"។ BBC។ http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/louis_xv.shtml។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Scholarly bibliography by Colin Jones (2002)" (PDF)។ http://webspace.qmul.ac.uk/cdhjones/documents/gn_pdf.pdf។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ Censer, Jack R. and Hunt, Lynn. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2004.
- ↑ Doyle, William. The Oxford History of The French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. pp 191–192.
- ↑ Dr Linton, Marisa។ "The Terror in the French Revolution"។ Kingston University។ http://www.port.ac.uk/special/france1815to2003/chapter1/interviews/filetodownload,20545,en.pdf។
- ↑ Jacques Hussenet (dir.), « Détruisez la Vendée ! » Regards croisés sur les victimes et destructions de la guerre de Vendée, La Roche-sur-Yon, Centre vendéen de recherches historiques, 2007
- ↑ ៥០,០ ៥០,១ Blanning, Tim (April 1998)។ "Napoleon and German identity"។ History Today (London) 48។ http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001329960។
- ↑ "France's oldest WWI veteran dies"។ BBC News (London)។ 20 January 2008។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7199127.stm។
- ↑ Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2005). "Encyclopedia Of World War I: A Political, Social, And Military History". ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1851094202
- ↑ "Vichy France and the Jews". Michael Robert Marrus, Robert O. Paxton (1995). Stanford University Press. p. 368. ISBN 0-8047-2499-7
- ↑ Kimmelman, Michael (4 March 2009)។ "In France, a War of Memories Over Memories of War"។ The New York Times។ http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/05/arts/design/05abroad.html?_r=1។
- ↑ From Fourth to Fifth Republic[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – University of Sunderland
- ↑ "Declaration by the Franco-German Defense and Security Council"។ Elysee.fr។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[១] នៅថ្ងៃ 25 October 2005។ https://web.archive.org/web/20051025215249/http://www.elysee.fr/elysee/anglais/speeches_and_documents/2004/declaration_by_the_franco-german_defence_and_security_council.1096.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Mont Blanc shrinks by ៤៥ cm (១៧,៧២ in) in two years"។ Sydney Morning Herald។ 6 November 2009។ http://www.smh.com.au/environment/mont-blanc-shrinks-by-45cm-in-two-years-20091106-i0kk.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Méditerranée : la France prend le contrôle en créant une zone économique exclusive
- ↑ According to a different calculation cited by the Pew Research Center, the EEZ of France would be ១០០៨៤២០១ គ.ម២ (៣៨៩៣៥៣២ ម៉ាយ ក.), still behind the US (ទំព័រគំរូ:Convert/LoffAonDorSoff), and still ahead of Australia (ទំព័រគំរូ:Convert/LoffAonDorSoff) and Russia (ទំព័រគំរូ:Convert/LoffAonDorSoff).
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005)។ "Discovering France: Geography"។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/discovering-france_2005/france-from-to-z_1978/country_2004/geography_4405/geography_1507.html។ បានយកមក 29 December 2006។
- ↑ Protection of the Environment on the Official Site of the French Ambassy in Canada
- ↑ "Nuclear Power in France"។ World-nuclear.org។ http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf40.html។ បានយកមក 17 July 2011។
- ↑ "Energy profile of France"។ Eoearth.org។ http://www.eoearth.org/article/Energy_profile_of_France។ បានយកមក 17 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) CO2 : la France mois pollueuse grâce au nucléaire
- ↑ (បារាំង) L'énergie nucléaire en France – Ambassade française en Chine
- ↑ Ian Traynor and David Gow in Brussels (21 February 2007)។ "EU promises 20% reduction in carbon emissions by 2020"។ The Guardian (London)។ http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/feb/21/climatechange.climatechangeenvironment។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les quatres enjeux de Copenhague – La Croix
- ↑ Kanter, James (1 July 2010)។ "Per-Capita Emissions Rising in China"។ Beijing (China);China;Copenhagen (Denmark);France;India;Russia;United States: Green.blogs.nytimes.com។ http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/07/01/emissions-soar-in-china-and-india/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ By Reuters (10 September 2009)។ "France Sets Carbon Tax at 17 Euros a Ton"។ The New York Times (France)។ http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/11/business/global/11carbon.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "France set to impose carbon tax"។ BBC News។ 10 September 2009។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8248392.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ Saltmarsh, Matthew (23 March 2010)។ "France Abandons Plan for Carbon Tax"។ The New York Times (France)។ http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/24/business/global/24iht-carbon.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Country Profiles -starts at Switzerland, click for France"។ Epi.yale.edu។ http://epi.yale.edu/dataexplorer/countryprofiles។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La France au 7ème rang mondial pour l'environnement. Le Monde. 30 May 2010
- ↑ "Forest area by country"។ Nationmaster.com។ http://www.nationmaster.com/red/graph/env_for_are_of_lan_are-environment-forest-area-of-land&date=2005&b_map=1។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Evolution of the French forest from 1984 to 1996 – French National Forest Inventory
- ↑ (បារាំង) Une situation privilégiée en France et en Europe – Papier, bois et forêt
- ↑ Parks, Reserves, and Other Protected Areas in France – The portal about parks in Italy
- ↑ (បារាំង) Fédération des parcs naturels régionaux de France
- ↑ (បារាំង) La France veut créer une Zone Économique Exclusive en Méditérannée – Actu-Environnement
- ↑ Yazid Sabeg et Laurence Méhaignerie, Les oubliés de l'égalité des chances, Institut Montaigne, January 2004
- ↑ "France's ethnic minorities: To count or not to count"។ The Economist។ 26 March 2009។ http://www.economist.com/node/13377324។ បានយកមក 25 April 2013។
- ↑ ៨២,០ ៨២,១ (បារាំង) INSEE, Government of France។ "Évolution générale de la situation démographique, France"។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=bilan-demo&page=donnees-detaillees/bilan-demo/pop_age3.htm#evol-gen-sit-demo-fe។ បានយកមក 20 January 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) INSEE, Government of France។ "Bilan démographique 2010"។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?ref_id=ip1332។ បានយកមក 20 January 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) INSEE, Government of France។ "Tableau 44 – Taux de fécondité générale par âge de la mère"។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/ppp/bases-de-donnees/irweb/sd2008/dd/excel/sd2008_t44_fe.xls។ បានយកមក 20 January 2011។
- ↑ "Naissances selon le pays de naissance des parents 2010"។ Insee.fr។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/detail.asp?ref_id=ir-sd20101។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ Être né en France d’un parent immigré, Insee Première, n°1287, mars 2010, Catherine Borrel et Bertrand Lhommeau, Insee
- ↑ Répartition des immigrés par pays de naissance 2008, Insee, October 2011
- ↑ (បារាំង) INSEE (25 January 2005)។ "Enquêtes annuelles de recensement 2004 et 2005"។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[២] នៅថ្ងៃ 12 December 2006។ https://web.archive.org/web/20061212212050/http%3A//www.insee.fr/fr/ffc/ipweb/ip1098/ip1098.html#encadre1។ បានយកមក 14 December 2006។
- ↑ Swalec, Andrea (6 July 2010)។ "Turks and Moroccans top list of new EU citizens"។ Reuters។ http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/07/06/idINIndia-49921620100706។
- ↑ "TRAJECTORIES AND ORIGINS" Survey on population diversity in France, Insee 2008
- ↑ Oppenheimer, David B. (2008)។ "Why France needs to collect data on racial identity...in a French way"។ Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 31 (2): 735–752។ http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1236362។
- ↑ ៩២,០ ៩២,១ Roben Cohen The Cambridge survey of world Migration 24 November 1995
- ↑ "France's crisis of national identity"។ The Independent (London)។ 25 November 2009។ http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/frances-crisis-of-national-identity-1826942.html។
- ↑ "Les personnes d'origine maghrébine y sont également au nombre de 5 à 6 millions; 3,5 millions ont la nationalité française (dont 500 000 harkis)", Évelyne Perrin, Identité Nationale, Amer Ministère, L'Harmattan, 2010, p. 112 ISBN 2-296-10839-3
- ↑ Falila Gbadamassi។ "Les personnes originaires d'Afrique, des Dom-Tom et de la Turquie sont 5,5 millions dans l'Hexagone"។ Afrik.com។ http://www.afrik.com/article16248.html។ បានយកមក 30 September 2013។
- ↑ Richburg, Keith B. (24 April 2005)។ "Europe's Minority Politicians in Short Supply"។ The Washington Post។ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12396-2005Apr23.html។
- ↑ Sachs, Susan (12 January 2007)។ "In officially colorblind France, blacks have a dream – and now a lobby"។ The Christian Science Monitor (Boston, MA)។ http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0112/p01s04-woeu.html។
- ↑ "Paris Riots in Perspective"។ ABC News (New York)។ 4 November 2005។ http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=1280843។
- ↑ "Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. III. French Government and the Refugees". American Philosophical Society, James E. Hassell (1991). p. 22. ISBN 0-87169-817-X
- ↑ Markham, James M. (6 April 1988)។ "For Pieds-Noirs, the Anger Endures"។ The New York Times។ http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEFDE1539F935A35757C0A96E948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all។
- ↑ Raimondo Cagiano De Azevedo (1994). "Migration and development co-operation.". p. 25.
- ↑ Statistiques détaillées sur les flux d'immigration[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច], Ined, 2011
- ↑ "UNHCR Global Report 2005: Western Europe" (PDF)។ UNHCR។ 2006។ http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4492677f0.pdf។ បានយកមក 14 December 2006។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Constitution- La Constitution du 4 Octobre 1958 – Légifrance
- ↑ ១០៥,០ ១០៥,១ ១០៥,២ Joffre Agnes ls the French obsession with "cultural exception" declining?. France in London. 5 October 2008
- ↑ "Language and Diplomacy – Translation and Interpretation"។ Diplomacy.edu។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៣] នៅថ្ងៃ 19 July 2011។ https://web.archive.org/web/20110719183516/http://www.diplomacy.edu/language/Translation/default.htm។ បានយកមក 10 September 2010។
- ↑ "Why Is French Considered the Language of Diplomacy?"។ Legallanguage.com។ http://www.legallanguage.com/legal-articles/language-of-diplomacy/។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ Rapport Grégoire an II[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ "The International Education Site"។ Intstudy.com។ http://www.intstudy.com/articles/practicalfrench.htm។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ "French: one of the world's main languages"។ About-france.com។ http://about-france.com/french/french-language.htm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Qu'est-ce que la Francophonie ? – Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- ↑ The last sacre was that of Charles X, 29 May 1825.
- ↑ "Observatoire du patrimoine religieux"។ 1 February 2012។ http://www.patrimoine-religieux.fr/rubriques/gauche/actualites/actualites-de-la-base-de-donnees។ "94 % des édifices sont catholiques (dont 50 % églises paroissiales, 25 % chapelles, 25 % édifices appartenant au clergé régulier)"
- ↑ ១១៤,០ ១១៤,១ (បារាំង) La France reste catholique mais moins pratiquante – La Croix. 29 December 2009
- ↑ Robert Marquand (12 July 2012)។ "In a France suspicious of religion, evangelicalism's message strikes a chord"។ Christian Science Monitor។ http://www.csmonitor.com/World/2012/0712/In-a-France-suspicious-of-religion-evangelicalism-s-message-strikes-a-chord។ បានយកមក 25 April 2013។
- ↑ "France"។ Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs។ http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/france។ បានយកមក 14 December 2011។
- ↑ Catholic World News (2003)។ "France is no longer Catholic, survey shows"។ http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=48547។ បានយកមក 19 December 2009។
- ↑ (ប៊ុលហ្គារី) Franţa nu mai e o ţară catolică, Cotidianul 11 January 2007
- ↑ La Vie, issue 3209, 1 March 2007 (បារាំង)
- ↑ "" Sur la religion, les Français restent dubitatifs " – A la Une"។ La Croix។ France។ 14 August 2009។ http://www.la-croix.com.prd-jsp.bayardweb.com/documents/doc.jsp?docId=2389007&rubId=786។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ France to train imams in 'French Islam', The Guardian
- ↑ "France – International Religious Freedom Report 2005"។ State.gov។ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51552.htm។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ "Global Restrictions on Religion. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. Washington. 2009" (PDF)។ http://pewforum.org/uploadedFiles/Topics/Issues/Government/restrictions-fullreport.pdf។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ Joy of Sects, Sam Jordison, 2006, p. 166
- ↑ "Commission d’enquête sur les sectes"។ Assemblee-nationale.fr។ http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-enq/r2468.asp។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ "Society2 ; religion in France ; beliefs ; secularism (laicité)"។ Understandfrance.org។ http://www.understandfrance.org/France/Society2.html។ បានយកមក 20 September 2009។
- ↑ How to conduct European clinical trials from the Paris Region ? Clinical Trials. Paris. February 2003
- ↑ The ranking, see spreadsheet details for a whole analysis photius.com
- ↑ "Measuring Overall Health System Performance for 191 Countries" (PDF)។ http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper30.pdf។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Espérance de vie, taux de mortalité et taux de mortalité infantile dans le monde, Evolution de l'espérance de vie à divers âges – INSEE
- ↑ (បារាំង) Nombre de médecins pour 1000 habitants – Statistiques mondiales
- ↑ (បារាំង) Dépenses de santé par habitants – Statistiques mondiales
- ↑ ១៣៣,០ ១៣៣,១ Even the French are fighting obesity – The NY Times
- ↑ ១៣៤,០ ១៣៤,១ ១៣៤,២ Wahlgren, Eric (14 November 2009)។ "France's obesity crisis: All those croissants really do add up, after all"។ Dailyfinance.com។ http://www.dailyfinance.com/2009/11/14/frances-obesity-crisis-all-those-croissants-really-do-add-up/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ Lambert, Victoria (8 March 2008)។ "The French children learning to fight obesity"។ The Daily Telegraph (London)។ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/dietandfitness/3353715/The-French-children-learning-to-fight-obesity.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ ១៣៦,០ ១៣៦,១ Why So Few French Are Fat – Bloomberg Businessweek
- ↑ Mimi Spencer (7 November 2004)។ "Let them eat cake"។ The Guardian (London)។ http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2004/nov/07/foodanddrink.features11។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "The French diet : Eat, Drink, and be Thin"។ Streetdirectory.com។ http://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/24041/e_diet/the_french_diet___eat_drink_and_be_thin.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ ១៣៩,០ ១៣៩,១ France heading for US obesity levels says study – Food Navigator
- ↑ "New French food guidelines aimes at tabkling obesity"។ Nutraingredients.com។ 14 September 2006។ http://www.nutraingredients.com/Regulation/New-French-food-guidelines-aimed-at-tackling-obesity។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Petah Marian (23 May 2008)។ "France urged to get tough on child obesity"។ Just-food.com។ http://www.just-food.com/analysis/france-urged-to-get-tough-on-child-obesity_id102509.aspx។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "Lycée"។ Britannica.com។ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/352505/lycee។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) 1881–1882 : Lois Ferry École publique gratuite, laïque et obligatoire. Assemblé Nationale
- ↑ (បារាំង) II. L'évolution du contenu de l'obligation scolaire. Sénat.fr
- ↑ "Range of rank on the PISA 2006 science scale" (PDF)។ http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/8/39700724.pdf។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les grandes écoles dans la tourmente – Le Figaro
- ↑ Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, "Cultura statistics", Key figures
- ↑ "Official properties inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in France"។ Whc.unesco.org។ http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/fr។ បានយកមក 31 December 2012។
- ↑ "Guide to Impressionism"។ Nationalgallery.org.uk។ http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/learn-about-art/guide-to-impressionism/guide-to-impressionism។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) RFI, Le néo-impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee 15 March 2005
- ↑ National Gallery of Art (United States), The Fauves (dossier)
- ↑ (បារាំង) RFI, Vlaminck, version fauve, 25 February 2008
- ↑ Musée d'Orsay (official website), History of the museum – From station to museum
- ↑ "History of the painting collection"។ Musee-orsay.fr។ 31 July 2007។ http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/history-of-the-collections/painting.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ ១៥៥,០ ១៥៥,១ ១៥៥,២ ១៥៥,៣ (បារាំង) Ministry of Tourism, Sites touristiques en France page 2 "Palmarès des 30 premiers sites culturels (entrées comptabilisées)" [Ranking of 30 most visited cultural sites in France]
- ↑ (បារាំង) Tour Eiffel et souvenirs de Paris
- ↑ "Toulouse’s Saint Sernin, Largest Romanesque Church in Europe"។ Europeupclose.com។ 22 February 1999។ http://www.europeupclose.com/article/toulouses-saint-sernin-largest-romanesque-church-in-europe/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Opus Francigenum"។ Answers.com។ http://www.answers.com/topic/opus-francigenum-art។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "The Gothic Period"។ Justfrance.org។ http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Histoire et Architecture – Site officiel de la Cathedrale de Notre-Dame de Reims
- ↑ (បារាំង) Claude Lébedel – Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France: Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France page 9: “Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots ‘art baroque en France’, on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!”
- ↑ Hills, Helen (2003)។ Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe។ Ashgate Publishing។ ទំ. 86។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 9780754603092។ http://books.google.com/?id=jLmFbEdqBDUC&pg=PA86&dq=Mansart+influential#v=onepage&q=influential&f=false។
- ↑ "Fortifications of Vauban"។ Whc.unesco.org។ 8 July 2008។ http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1283។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "Official site of the UNESCO"។ Unesco.org។ http://en.unesco.org/។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Paris: City Guide។ Lonely Planet។ 2008។ ទំ. 48។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 1-74059-850-4។ http://books.google.com/?id=OtabdzMdbboC&pg=PA48។
- ↑ Des gratte-ciel à Paris : qu'en pensez-vous ? – LCI
- ↑ In the heart of the main European Business area – NCI Business Center
- ↑ (បារាំង) Auteurs et répertoires – Official site of the Comédie Française
- ↑ ១៦៩,០ ១៦៩,១ ១៦៩,២ ១៦៩,៣ "Victor Hugo est le plus grand écrivain français" (PDF)។ http://www.lecavalierbleu.com/images/30/extrait_75.pdf។ បានយកមក 29 September 2013។
- ↑ "Montaigne"។ Humanistictexts.org។ http://www.humanistictexts.org/montaigne.htm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "La Princesse de Cleves by Madame de Lafayette, adapted by Jo Clifford"។ Radiodramareviews.com។ 28 February 2010។ http://www.radiodramareviews.com/id438.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Jean de la Fontaine"។ Newworldencyclopedia.org។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៤] នៅថ្ងៃ 18 June 2009។ https://web.archive.org/web/20090618002516/http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jean_de_La_Fontaine។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Author of some of the finest comedies in the history of the theater." Hartnoll, Phyllis (ed.). The Oxford Companion to the Theatre, 1983, Oxford University Press, p. 554
- ↑ Randall, Colin (25 October 2004)។ "France looks to the law to save the language of Molière"។ The Daily Telegraph (London)។ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1475046/France-looks-to-the-law-to-save-the-language-of-Moliere.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Le symbolisme français
- ↑ ១៧៦,០ ១៧៦,១ ១៧៦,២ ១៧៦,៣ "Victor Hugo 1802–1885"។ Enotes.com។ http://www.enotes.com/victor-hugo-criticism/hugo-victor។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ "All-Time 100 Best Novels List"។ Adherents.com។ http://www.adherents.com/people/100_novel.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La première Académie Goncourt – Site officiel de l'Académie Goncourt
- ↑ "The Little Prince"។ Completelynovel.com។ http://www.completelynovel.com/books/50599។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ National Literature Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth. From J. Schmidhuber (2010), Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th century at arXiv:1009.2634v1
- ↑ "The Beginning of Modern Sciences"។ Friesian.com។ http://www.friesian.com/hist-2.htm។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ William Godwin (1876)។ "Lives of the Necromancers"។ p. 232។ https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog។
- ↑ André Thuilier, Histoire de l’université de Paris et de la Sorbonne, Paris, Nouvelle librairie de France, 1994
- ↑ Burke, Peter, A social history of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, p.17
- ↑ "All Nobel Prizes"។ Nobel Media។ http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all/។ បានយកមក 10 October 2012។
- ↑ "List of Fields Medallists"។ International Mathematical Union។ http://www.mathunion.org/general/prizes/fields/prizewinners/។ បានយកមក 10 October 2012។
- ↑ 2003年4月21日 (月)។ "The 100 Greatest Artists – No. 62"។ Hmv.co.jp។ http://www.hmv.co.jp/news/newsDetail.asp?newsnum=304080038។ បានយកមក 25 January 2011។
- ↑ Huizenga, Tom (14 October 2005)។ "Debussy's 'La Mer' Marks 100th Birthday"។ Npr.org។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4957580។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Debussy's Musical Game of Deception"។ Npr.org។ 12 July 2008។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92338564។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Biography of Claude Debussy"។ Classicfm.co.uk។ http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/c-g/claude-debussy/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Biography of Maurice Ravel"។ Classicfm.co.uk។ http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/n-r/maurice-ravel/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Boulez, Pierre។ "Composer-Conductor Pierre Boulez At 85"។ Npr.org។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126668117។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ RFI Musique, Biography of Noir Désir, March 2009 : “Rock music doesn't come naturally to the French. A Latin country, with more affinity to poetry and melody, France has very rarely produced talented rock musicians. Rock music has other, more Anglo-Saxon ingredients”
- ↑ ១៩៤,០ ១៩៤,១ ១៩៤,២ ១៩៤,៣ ១៩៤,៤ ១៩៤,៥ France Diplomatie, French music has the whole planet singing, June 2009
- ↑ The Telegraph, Daft Punk: Behind the robot masks, 17 November 2007 : "Daft Punk were in many ways responsible for turning the spotlight on a new, cool underground of French music in the late 1990s, including bestselling acts such as Air, and have been a huge influence on the current generation of international star DJs"
- ↑ "The return of French pop music"។ BBC News។ 20 December 2001។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1721450.stm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Ministry of Culture of France, About « Fête de la Musique »
- ↑ France Diplomatie, June 2007_9392.html Fête de la Musique, 21 June 2007
- ↑ Dargis, Manohla។ "Cannes International Film Festival"។ New York Times។ http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cannes_international_film_festival/index.html។
- ↑ Lim, Dennis។ "They'll Always Have Cannes"។ New York Times។ http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/16/arts/16iht-lim16.html?_r=1&ref=movies។
- ↑ Woolsey, Matt។ "In Pictures: Chic Cannes Hideaways"។ Forbes។ http://www.forbes.com/2008/05/14/cannes-properties-luxury-forbeslife-cx_mw_0514realestate_slide.html?thisSpeed=15000។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les frères Lumière
- ↑ "Cinema: production of feature films"។ Stats.uis.unesco.org។ http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cannes – a festival virgin's guide"។ Cannesguide.com។ 15 Februatype_item=ART_ARCH_30Jry 2007។ http://www.cannesguide.com/basics/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cannes Film Festival | Palais des Festivals, Cannes, France"។ Whatsonwhen.com។ http://www.whatsonwhen.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=21731។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ ២០៦,០ ២០៦,១ ២០៦,២ ២០៦,៣ (បារាំង) Damien Rousselière Cinéma et diversité culturelle: le cinéma indépendant face à la mondialisation des industries culturelles. Horizons philosophiques Vol. 15 No. 2 2005
- ↑ Joëlle Farchy (1999) La Fin de l'exception culturelle ? CNRS ISBN 978-2-271-05633-7
- ↑ The cultural exception is not negotiable by Catherine Trautmann – Ministry of Culture
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Convention UNESCO pour la diversité culturelle : vers un droit international culturel contraignant ? – www.fnsac-cgt.com
- ↑ Kelly, 181. DeJean, chapters 2–4.
- ↑ http://about-france.com/tourism/french-perfume.htm
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, "Observatoire de la Presse", Presse Quotidienne Nationale
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, Presse Gratuite d'Information. November 2011
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse Quotidienne Régionale et Départementale
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, "Bureau Presse Payante Grand Public", Presse Quotidienne Régionale et Départementale
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse Magazine – Synthèse
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse News
- ↑ The Telegraph, Nicolas Sarkozy: French media faces 'death' without reform 2 October 2008
- ↑ French government portal, Lancement des états généraux de la presse 2 October 2008 [Launching of General State of written media]
- ↑ Angelique Chrisafis in Paris។ "Sarkozy pledges €600m to newspapers"។ Guardian។ http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/jan/23/sarkozy-pledges-state-aid-to-newspapers។ បានយកមក 21 June 2012។
- ↑ Radio France, "L'entreprise", Repères. Landmarks of Radio France company
- ↑ ២២២,០ ២២២,១ ២២២,២ ២២២,៣ (បារាំង) Vie Publique, Chronologie de la politique de l’audiovisuel 20 August 2004 [Chronology of policy for audiovisual]
- ↑ "World warming to US under Obama, BBC poll suggests"។ BBC News។ 19 April 2010។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8626041.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Global Views of United States Improve While Other Countries Decline" (PDF)។ BBC News។ 18 April 2010។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/160410bbcwspoll.pdf។ បានយកមក 26 December 2011។
- ↑ "Germany on Top, U.S. Seventh in Nation Brands IndexSM"។ Gfk.com។ http://www.gfk.com/group/press_information/press_releases/003055/index.en.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ ២២៦,០ ២២៦,១ "Muslim-Western tensions persist" (PDF)។ Pew Research Center។ http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2011/07/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Muslim-Western-Relations-FINAL-FOR-PRINT-July-21-2011.pdf។ បានយកមក 17 November 2011។
- ↑ "Opinion of the United States"។ Pew Research Center។ 2012។ http://www.pewglobal.org/database/?indicator=1។
- ↑ Peter Allen (7 January 2010)។ "Britain falls to 25th best place to live in the world... behind Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Hungary"។ Dailymail.co.uk។ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1240988/France-tops-list-best-places-live-world-fifth-year-row--Britain-languishes-25th.html។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ ២២៩,០ ២២៩,១ ២២៩,២ ២២៩,៣ By Daniela Deane for CNN។ "Why France is best place to live in world"។ Edition.cnn.com។ http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/02/11/france.quality.life/index.html។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ Conseil Constitutionnel, Constitution of 4 October 1958 (page 4) "Title I – Of Sovereignty"
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The 14th of July: Bastille day
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The French Flag
- ↑ Assemblée Nationale, "History and heritage : La Marseillaise, Rouget de Lisle (1760–1836) and La Marseillaise
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The national anthem : The Marseillaise
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
- ↑ "The Symbols of the Republic : Marianne on the Official Site of the Foreign Affairs Ministry of France"។ Diplomatie.gouv.fr។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/institutions-and-politics_6814/the-symbols-of-the-republic_2002/marianne_1506.html?var_recherche=Marianne។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ (បារាំង) French Presidency, "Les symboles de la République française", Le coq[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ French rural code L654-27-1[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ (បារាំង) Cuisine : sommes-nous les meilleurs du monde ?. La Dépêche. 24 February 2008
- ↑ French Cuisine – Discover France
- ↑ Top 10 Most Tasty Cuisines in the World – Hotel Club Travel Blog
- ↑ (បារាំង) Ateliers de cuisine française – Art de vivre à Paris
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Gastronomie Française – Chinese Lovers of France
- ↑ About our vacations in France -Cooking Vacations to France
- ↑ ២៤៥,០ ២៤៥,១ (បារាំង) "Recettes françaises"។ http://www.delices-du-monde.fr/recettes-francaise.html។ – Delices du Monde
- ↑ (បារាំង) La France du beurre et celle de l'huile d'olive maintiennent leurs positions – Agence France Presse
- ↑ "Wines of France"។ Userweb.cs.utexas.edu។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៥] នៅថ្ងៃ 11 February 2010។ https://web.archive.org/web/20100211145428/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/walter/wine/france.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "French Cheese"។ Goodcooking.com។ http://www.goodcooking.com/frcheese.htm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ French Cheese on Traditional French Food
- ↑ "Michelin 3 Star Restaurants around the world"។ 3starrestaurants.com។ 14 December 2006។ http://www.3starrestaurants.com/michelin-restaurants-star-guide.asp។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ Japan overtakes France with more Michelin-starred restaurants, Gilles Campion | Agence France-Presse | Thu 25 November 2010
- ↑ http://www.uciprotour.com/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTcxNw&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=34028&LangId=1
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les licences sportives en France – Insee
- ↑ "All you need to know about sport in France"។ http://www.france-pub.com/esport.htm។ បានយកមក 11 February 2012។
- ↑ "History of the World Cup Final Draw" (PDF)។ http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/mcwc/ip-201_10e_fwcdraw-history_8842.pdf។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ France wins right to host the 2007 rugby world cup. Associated Press. 11 April 2003
- ↑ "The Tour De France: The Most Famous Bicycle Race In The World"។ Weightlossdietinformation.com។ 3 January 2010។ http://www.weightlossdietinformation.com/the-tour-de-france-the-most-famous-bicycle-race-in-the-world.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cycling: Tour de France"។ Faqs.org។ http://www.faqs.org/sports-science/Ce-Do/Cycling-Tour-de-France.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Une course légendaire[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Site officiel du 24 heures du Mans
- ↑ Hill, Christopher R. (1996)។ Olympic Politics។ Manchester University Press ND។ ទំ. 5។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 0-7190-4451-0។ http://books.google.com/?id=0o-9AAAAIAAJ។ បានយកមក 5 July 2011។
- ↑ ២៦១,០ ២៦១,១ ២៦១,២ ២៦១,៣ ២៦១,៤ ២៦១,៥ Olympic History – World Atlas of Travel
- ↑ "Paris 1900 Summer Olympics. Official Site of the Olympic Movement"។ Olympic.org។ http://www.olympic.org/paris-1900-summer-olympics។ បានយកមក 30 September 2013។
- ↑ Lausanne, olympic capital[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Tourism in Lausanne
- ↑ Licenses of the French Football Federation
- ↑ "CNN/SI – World Cup"។ Sports Illustrated។ 1 December 1998។ http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/world/events/1998/worldcup/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Stevenson, Jonathan (9 July 2006)។ "Zidane off as Italy win World Cup"។ BBC News។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991652.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ 1984: Platini shines for flamboyant France[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]. UEFA
- ↑ 2000: Trezeguet strikes gold for France[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]. UEFA
- ↑ Rugby. 123 Voyage
- ↑ "Departments of France" (ជា(បារាំង))។ Myfrenchproperty.com។ http://www.myfrenchproperty.com/departments/departments.php។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Currency and Exchange Rate"។ Thetahititraveler.com។ http://www.thetahititraveler.com/touristinfo/moneycurr.asp។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook"។ Cia.gov។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr®ionCode=eu&rank=7#fr។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ "Comparative studies in Freedom – France"។ Democracy Web។ http://www.democracyweb.org/limits/france.php។ បានយកមក 30 September 2013។
- ↑ France: Fifth Republic[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Flags of the World
- ↑ (បារាំង) Le quinquennat : le référendum du 24 Septembre 2000
- ↑ The National Assembly and the Senate – General Characteristics of the Parliament. Official Site of the French National Assembly
- ↑ Election of deputies. Official Site of the National Assembly
- ↑ The senatorial elections. Official Site of the Senate
- ↑ (បារាំង) Le role du Sénat
- ↑ (បារាំង) Grunberg, Gérard (2007)។ La France vers le bipartisme ? : La présidentialisation du PS et de l'UMP។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 2-7246-1010-5។ http://www.pressesdesciencespo.fr/fr/livre/?GCOI=27246100617740។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La lutte contre le racisme et l'antisémintisme en France. AmbaFrance
- ↑ Kenneth Roth Executive Director (26 February 2004)។ "Human Rights Watch"។ Hrw.org។ http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/02/26/france7666.htm។ បានយកមក 31 January 2009។
- ↑ "France votes to ban full-face veils"។ Amnesty International។ 13 July 2010។ http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/france-votes-ban-full-face-veils-2010-07-13។
- ↑ Dumoulin, Frederic (14 September 2010)។ "French parliament adopts ban on full-face veil"។ Google News។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៦] នៅថ្ងៃ 18 May 2013។ http://web.archive.org/web/20130518083647/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gNCFdNZ4r-9aDEBG0G_OUSMKoASw។ បានយកមក 14 September 2010។
- ↑ "François Hollande signs same-sex marriage into law"។ France 24។ 18 May 2013។ http://www.france24.com/en/20130518-france-gay-marriage-law-adoption។ បានយកមក 27 June 2013។
- ↑ Membership of the Security Councils of the UN[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] on the Official Site of the UN
- ↑ "Understanding the WTO – Members"។ Wto.org។ http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org6_e.htm។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ History on the Official Site of the SPC
- ↑ (បារាំង) Pays membres[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Site officiel de la COI[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ "About the Association of Caribbean States"។ Acs-aec.org។ 24 July 1994។ http://www.acs-aec.org/index.php?q=about-the-acs។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ (បារាំង) États et gouvernements : le monde de la Francophonie – Site officiel de l'OIF
- ↑ History of the Château de la Muette, OECD headquarters, Paris – Official Site of the OECD[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ Paris Headquarters on the Official Site of UNESCO
- ↑ Interpol។ "Official Site of Interpol"។ Interpol.int។ http://www.interpol.int/។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) "Alliance Base" existe bien – L'Express
- ↑ "Home page of the IBWM"។ Bipm.org។ http://www.bipm.org/en/home/។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Embassies and consulates on the Official Site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France
- ↑ (បារាំង) Le faisceau de licteur[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Présidence de la République
- ↑ (បារាំង) L'alliance franco-allemande au coeur de la puissance européenne
- ↑ "De Gaulle says 'non' to Britain – again"។ BBC News។ 27 November 1967។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/27/newsid_4187000/4187714.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Quand Mitterrand, déjà, négociait le retour de la France dans l'OTAN – Le Figaro
- ↑ "China adds voice to Iraq war doubts"។ CNN។ 23 January 2003។ http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/23/sprj.irq.china/index.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "EU allies unite against Iraq war"។ BBC News។ 22 January 2003។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2683409.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Foreign Policy Implications of the Iraq War"។ Usforeignpolicy.about.com។ 11 March 2004។ http://usforeignpolicy.about.com/od/newsiss3/tp/iraqwarrelations.htm។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Sean Loughlin CNN Washington Bureau (12 March 2003)។ "House cafeterias change names for 'french' fries and 'french' toast"។ CNN។ http://edition.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/03/11/sprj.irq.fries/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) France-Diplomatie : Royaume-Uni – Ministère des Affaires Étrangères
- ↑ "France ends four-decade Nato rift"។ BBC News។ 12 March 2009។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7937666.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Roger, Patrick (11 March 2009)។ "Le retour de la France dans l'OTAN suscite un malaise dans les rangs de la Droite"។ Le Monde (Paris)។ http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2009/03/11/le-retour-de-la-france-dans-l-otan-suscite-un-malaise-dans-les-rangs-de-la-droite_1166352_823448.html។
- ↑ "Fifth French nuclear test sparks international outrage"។ CNN។ 28 December 1995។ http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/9512/france_nuclear/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) L'empire colonial français
- ↑ "France involvement in peace-keeping operations"។ Delegfrance-onu-geneve.org។ http://www.delegfrance-onu-geneve.org/spip.php?article417។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ Net Official Development Assistance 2009 OECD
- ↑ "Development assistance and humanitarian action"។ Diplomatie.gouv.fr។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/france-in-the-world_6820/development-assistance-and-humanitarian-action_6908/index.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ ៣១៤,០ ៣១៤,១ France priorities – France Diplomatie
- ↑ (បារាំង) La fin du service militaire obligatoire – La documentation française
- ↑ "Status of signature and ratification: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"។ CTBTO Preparatory Commission។ 26 May 2010។ http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/status-of-signature-and-ratification/។ បានយកមក 27 May 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Centre de Documentation et de Recherche sur la Paix et les Conflits, Etat des forces nucléaires françaises au 15 août 2004
- ↑ "90.07.06: The Aerospace Industry: Its History and How it Affects the U.S. Economy"។ Yale.edu។ http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1990/7/90.07.06.x.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Aerospace industry of France"។ Bbfrenchtranslation.com។ http://www.bbfrenchtranslation.com/aerospace-industry-of-france.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ "En 2001, la France a vendu pour 1,288 milliard de dollars d'équipements militaires, ce qui la met au troisième rang mondial des exportateurs derrière les États-Unis et la Russie." " In 2001, France sold $1,288 billion of military equipment, ranking 3rd in the world for arms exportations behind the USA and Russia" La France demeure un fournisseur d'armes de premier plan (France stays one of the biggest arms supplier) – L'express. 13 June 2002
- ↑ "La France est au 4ème rang mondial des exportateurs d'armes, derrière les Etats-Unis, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, et devant Israël, selon un rapport du ministère de la Défense publié l'an dernier." "France is 4th biggest arms exportator, behind the USA, the UK and Russia, and ahead of Israel, according to a report of the Ministry of Defense published a year ago" Arms sellings explode in 2009 – 20 minutes
- ↑ Mail Online, Harrowing loss of Afghanistan troops overshadows France's Bastille Day military parade, 14 July 2011. [៧]. Retrieved 5 January 2012
- ↑ Bloomberg (2012) French government bond interest rates (graph)
- ↑ Bloomberg (2012) German government bond interest rates (graph)
- ↑ "The World Factbook"។ Cia.gov។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2186rank.html។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ John, Mark។ "Analysis: Low French borrowing costs risk negative reappraisal"។ Reuters។ http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/10/26/us-france-debt-idUSBRE89P0SO20121026។ បានយកមក 27 November 2012។
- ↑ "Global 500 by Country"។ CNN។ 26 July 2010។ http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/France.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "History of the Euro"។ BBC News។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/business/2001/euro_cash/history/។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ EnerPub (8 June 2007)។ "France: Energy profile"។ Spero News។ http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?idarticle=9839&t=France%3A+Energy+profile។ បានយកមក 25 August 2007។
- ↑ (បារាំង) "Entreprises selon le nombre de salariés et l'activité"។ INSEE។ July 2008។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATTEF09203។
- ↑ (បារាំង) "Entreprises publiques selon l'activité économique"។ INSEE។ March 2009។ http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=NATTEF9303។
- ↑ "International Trade Statistics 2008"។ World Trade Organization (WTO)។ 2009។ p. 12។ http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2008_e/its2008_e.pdf។ បានយកមក 5 July 2011។
- ↑ ៣៣៣,០ ៣៣៣,១ "Country fact sheet: France" (PDF)។ World Investment Report 2009។ United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)។ http://www.unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir09_fs_fr_en.pdf។ បានយកមក 7 October 2010។
- ↑ ៣៣៤,០ ៣៣៤,១ "Country fact sheet: Japan" (PDF)។ World Investment Report 2009។ UNCTAD។ http://www.unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir09_fs_jp_en.pdf។ បានយកមក 7 October 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Bourse de Paris : une institution depuis 1724
- ↑ ៣៣៦,០ ៣៣៦,១ Embassy of France។ "Embassy of France in Washington: Economy of France"។ Ambafrance-us.org។ http://www.ambafrance-us.org/spip.php?article511។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ "The 10 Largest Banks in the World"។ Doughroller.net។ 15 June 2010។ http://www.doughroller.net/banking/largest-banks-in-the-world/។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ "Greenhouse Gas Emissions"។ Environmental Indicators។ United Nations។ August 2009។ http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/air_co2_emissions.htm។
- ↑ "Nuclear shares of electricity generation"។ World-nuclear.org។ http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Facts-and-Figures/Nuclear-generation-by-country/#.UkrawYakrOM។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ France – Agriculture – Encyclopedia of the Nations
- ↑ "Key figures of the French economy"។ French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/economy_6815/overview-of-the-french-economy_6831/key-figures-of-the-french-economy_1402.html#sommaire_1។ "France is the world’s fifth largest exporter of goods (mainly durables). The country ranks fourth in services and third in agriculture (especially in cereals and the agri-food sector). It is the leading producer and exporter of farm products in Europe."
- ↑ ៣៤២,០ ៣៤២,១ A panorama of the agriculture and agri-food industries – Ministère de l'Alimentation, de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche
- ↑ (បារាំង) Un ministère au service de votre alimentation – Ministère de l'Alimentation, de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche
- ↑ "Financial year 2007" (PDF)។ Distribution of direct aid to farmers។ European Commission។ 22 April 2009។ http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/fin/directaid/2007/annex1_en.pdf។ បានយកមក 7 October 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les enjeux des industries agroalimentaires françaises – Panorama des Industries Agroalimentaires
- ↑ "Rank Order – GDP – per capita (PPP)"។ The World Factbook។ 2012។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html។ បានយកមក 5 July 2013។
- ↑ "France is at 1480 hours, compared to an average of 1650 in European countries"។ Conference-board.org។ http://www.conference-board.org/data/economydatabase/#GDP_perHourWorked។ បានយកមក 30 September 2013។
- ↑ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012)។ "OECD Employment Outlook 2012 – Statistical Annex" (PDF)។ http://www.oecd.org/els/emp/employmentoutlookstatisticalannex.htm។ បានយកមក 29 June 2013។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Philippe Aghion; Gilbert Cette, Élie Cohen and Jean Pisani-Ferry (2007) (PDF)។ Les leviers de la croissance française។ Paris: Conseil d'analyse économique។ ទំ. 55។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 978-2-11-006946-7។ http://www.cae.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/072.pdf។ បានយកមក 1 September 2008។
- ↑ "Enhancing Incentives to Improve Performances in the Education System in France" (PDF)។ OECD។ 1 August 2007។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៨] នៅថ្ងៃ 10 March 2009។ https://web.archive.org/web/20090310212706/http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2007doc.nsf/LinkTo/NT00002ECA/$FILE/JT03230693.PDF។ បានយកមក 26 December 2011។ "Initial education, especially secondary education and the universities, along with labour market policies themselves, do not always succeed in improving labour market entry for a significant proportion of young people."
- ↑ "Young, Educated and Jobless in France."
- ↑ "Harmonised unemployment rate by gender – total – % (SA)"។ Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu។ 11 March 2011។ http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "More than 1 million protest French jobs law"។ CNN។ http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/04/04/france.jobslaw/index.html។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Q&A: French labour law row"។ BBC News។ 11 April 2006។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4816306.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Le Revenu de Solidarité active"។ Rsa.gouv.fr។ http://www.rsa.gouv.fr/-English-version-.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Dilorenzo, Sarah (20 July 2013)។ "France learns to welcome, to speak 'touriste'"។ The Burlington Free Press (Burlington, Vermont): pp. 5A។ http://bigstory.ap.org/article/france-learns-speak-touriste-0។ បានយកមក 20 July 2013។
- ↑ "2009 Theme Index. The Global Attractions Attendance Report, 2009" (PDF)។ Themed Entertainment Association។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[៩] នៅថ្ងៃ 2 June 2010។ https://web.archive.org/web/20100602032710/http://www.themeit.com/etea/2009report.pdf។ បានយកមក 7 October 2010។
- ↑ "The French Riviera Tourist Board"។ Frenchriviera-tourism.com។ http://www.frenchriviera-tourism.com/regional-tourism-organization/the-french-riviera-tourist-board-06_191.html។ បានយកមក 23 January 2011។
- ↑ Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency. p. 31 CRDP-Nice.net[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency, p. 66[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ (បារាំង) "Fréquentation des musées et des bâtiments historiques"។ http://www2.culture.gouv.fr/deps/mini_chiff_03/fr/musee.htm។
- ↑ (បារាំង) "Chiffres clés du transport 2010" (PDF)។ http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Chiffres_transport-pdf.pdf។ បានយកមក 7 October 2010។ – Site officiel du Ministère de l'Écologie, de l'Énergie, du Développement Durable et de la Mer
- ↑ "Country comparison : railways – The World Factbook"។ Cia.gov។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2121rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr®ionCode=eu&rank=9#fr។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ "TGV High-Speed Rail Network, France"។ Railway-technology.com។ http://www.railway-technology.com/projects/frenchtgv/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "h2g2 – TGV – The French High-speed Train Service"។ BBC។ http://h2g2.com/dna/h2g2/A711785។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Country Comparison : roadways – The World Factbook"។ Cia.gov។ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2085rank.html?countryName=France&countryCode=fr®ionCode=eu&rank=7#fr។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ (បារាំង) L'automobile magazine, hors-série 2003/2004 page 294
- ↑ "Guide pratique de l' ADEME, la voiture"។ Ademe.fr។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[១០] នៅថ្ងៃ 6 October 2008។ https://web.archive.org/web/20081006095330/http://www.ademe.fr/particuliers/fiches/voiture/rub3.htm។ បានយកមក 22 October 2008។
- ↑ Bockman, Chris (4 November 2003)។ "France builds world's tallest bridge"។ BBC News។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3237329.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ Strikes block French ports. The Journal of Commerce Online (via BDP International). 23 April 2008
- ↑ (បារាំង) Marseille : un grand port maritime qui ne demande qu'à se montrer – La Provence
- ↑ "Marseille – A French Pearl in the Mediterranean Sea"។ Blog.hotelclub.com។ 22 February 2010។ http://blog.hotelclub.com/marseille/។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication, "Cultura statistics", Key figures
- ↑ "Official properties inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in France"។ Whc.unesco.org។ http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/fr។ បានយកមក 31 December 2012។
- ↑ "Guide to Impressionism"។ Nationalgallery.org.uk។ http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/learn-about-art/guide-to-impressionism/guide-to-impressionism។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) RFI, Le néo-impressionnisme de Seurat à Paul Klee 15 March 2005
- ↑ National Gallery of Art (United States), The Fauves (dossier)
- ↑ (បារាំង) RFI, Vlaminck, version fauve, 25 February 2008
- ↑ Musée d'Orsay (official website), History of the museum – From station to museum
- ↑ "History of the painting collection"។ Musee-orsay.fr។ 31 July 2007។ http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/history-of-the-collections/painting.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Tour Eiffel et souvenirs de Paris
- ↑ "Toulouse’s Saint Sernin, Largest Romanesque Church in Europe"។ Europeupclose.com។ 22 February 1999។ http://www.europeupclose.com/article/toulouses-saint-sernin-largest-romanesque-church-in-europe/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Opus Francigenum"។ Answers.com។ http://www.answers.com/topic/opus-francigenum-art។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "The Gothic Period"។ Justfrance.org។ http://www.justfrance.org/france/architecture/001.asp។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Histoire et Architecture – Site officiel de la Cathedrale de Notre-Dame de Reims
- ↑ (បារាំង) Claude Lébedel – Les Splendeurs du Baroque en France: Histoire et splendeurs du baroque en France page 9: “Si en allant plus loin, on prononce les mots ‘art baroque en France’, on provoque alors le plus souvent une moue interrogative, parfois seulement étonnée, parfois franchement réprobatrice: Mais voyons, l'art baroque n'existe pas en France!”
- ↑ Hills, Helen (2003)។ Architecture and the Politics of Gender in Early Modern Europe។ Ashgate Publishing។ ទំ. 86។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 9780754603092។ http://books.google.com/?id=jLmFbEdqBDUC&pg=PA86&dq=Mansart+influential#v=onepage&q=influential&f=false។
- ↑ "Fortifications of Vauban"។ Whc.unesco.org។ 8 July 2008។ http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1283។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "Official site of the UNESCO"។ Unesco.org។ http://en.unesco.org/។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ Paris: City Guide។ Lonely Planet។ 2008។ ទំ. 48។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 1-74059-850-4។ http://books.google.com/?id=OtabdzMdbboC&pg=PA48។
- ↑ Des gratte-ciel à Paris : qu'en pensez-vous ? – LCI
- ↑ In the heart of the main European Business area – NCI Business Center
- ↑ (បារាំង) Auteurs et répertoires – Official site of the Comédie Française
- ↑ "Montaigne"។ Humanistictexts.org។ http://www.humanistictexts.org/montaigne.htm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "La Princesse de Cleves by Madame de Lafayette, adapted by Jo Clifford"។ Radiodramareviews.com។ 28 February 2010។ http://www.radiodramareviews.com/id438.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Jean de la Fontaine"។ Newworldencyclopedia.org។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[១១] នៅថ្ងៃ 18 June 2009។ https://web.archive.org/web/20090618002516/http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jean_de_La_Fontaine។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Author of some of the finest comedies in the history of the theater." Hartnoll, Phyllis (ed.). The Oxford Companion to the Theatre, 1983, Oxford University Press, p. 554
- ↑ Randall, Colin (25 October 2004)។ "France looks to the law to save the language of Molière"។ The Daily Telegraph (London)។ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/1475046/France-looks-to-the-law-to-save-the-language-of-Moliere.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Le symbolisme français
- ↑ "All-Time 100 Best Novels List"។ Adherents.com។ http://www.adherents.com/people/100_novel.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ (បារាំង) La première Académie Goncourt – Site officiel de l'Académie Goncourt
- ↑ "The Little Prince"។ Completelynovel.com។ http://www.completelynovel.com/books/50599។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ National Literature Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth. From J. Schmidhuber (2010), Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th century at arXiv:1009.2634v1
- ↑ "The Beginning of Modern Sciences"។ Friesian.com។ http://www.friesian.com/hist-2.htm។ បានយកមក 16 July 2011។
- ↑ William Godwin (1876)។ "Lives of the Necromancers"។ p. 232។ https://archive.org/details/livesnecromance04godwgoog។
- ↑ André Thuilier, Histoire de l’université de Paris et de la Sorbonne, Paris, Nouvelle librairie de France, 1994
- ↑ Burke, Peter, A social history of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot, Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, p.17
- ↑ "All Nobel Prizes"។ Nobel Media។ http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/lists/all/។ បានយកមក 10 October 2012។
- ↑ "List of Fields Medallists"។ International Mathematical Union។ http://www.mathunion.org/general/prizes/fields/prizewinners/។ បានយកមក 10 October 2012។
- ↑ 2003年4月21日 (月)។ "The 100 Greatest Artists – No. 62"។ Hmv.co.jp។ http://www.hmv.co.jp/news/newsDetail.asp?newsnum=304080038។ បានយកមក 25 January 2011។
- ↑ Huizenga, Tom (14 October 2005)។ "Debussy's 'La Mer' Marks 100th Birthday"។ Npr.org។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4957580។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Debussy's Musical Game of Deception"។ Npr.org។ 12 July 2008។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92338564។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Biography of Claude Debussy"។ Classicfm.co.uk។ http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/c-g/claude-debussy/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Biography of Maurice Ravel"។ Classicfm.co.uk។ http://www.classicfm.co.uk/music/composers/n-r/maurice-ravel/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Boulez, Pierre។ "Composer-Conductor Pierre Boulez At 85"។ Npr.org។ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126668117។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ RFI Musique, Biography of Noir Désir, March 2009 : “Rock music doesn't come naturally to the French. A Latin country, with more affinity to poetry and melody, France has very rarely produced talented rock musicians. Rock music has other, more Anglo-Saxon ingredients”
- ↑ The Telegraph, Daft Punk: Behind the robot masks, 17 November 2007 : "Daft Punk were in many ways responsible for turning the spotlight on a new, cool underground of French music in the late 1990s, including bestselling acts such as Air, and have been a huge influence on the current generation of international star DJs"
- ↑ "The return of French pop music"។ BBC News។ 20 December 2001។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1721450.stm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Ministry of Culture of France, About « Fête de la Musique »
- ↑ France Diplomatie, June 2007_9392.html Fête de la Musique, 21 June 2007
- ↑ Dargis, Manohla។ "Cannes International Film Festival"។ New York Times។ http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cannes_international_film_festival/index.html។
- ↑ Lim, Dennis។ "They'll Always Have Cannes"។ New York Times។ http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/16/arts/16iht-lim16.html?_r=1&ref=movies។
- ↑ Woolsey, Matt។ "In Pictures: Chic Cannes Hideaways"។ Forbes។ http://www.forbes.com/2008/05/14/cannes-properties-luxury-forbeslife-cx_mw_0514realestate_slide.html?thisSpeed=15000។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les frères Lumière
- ↑ "Cinema: production of feature films"។ Stats.uis.unesco.org។ http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cannes – a festival virgin's guide"។ Cannesguide.com។ 15 Februatype_item=ART_ARCH_30Jry 2007។ http://www.cannesguide.com/basics/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cannes Film Festival | Palais des Festivals, Cannes, France"។ Whatsonwhen.com។ http://www.whatsonwhen.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=21731។ បានយកមក 22 June 2012។
- ↑ Joëlle Farchy (1999) La Fin de l'exception culturelle ? CNRS ISBN 978-2-271-05633-7
- ↑ The cultural exception is not negotiable by Catherine Trautmann – Ministry of Culture
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Convention UNESCO pour la diversité culturelle : vers un droit international culturel contraignant ? – www.fnsac-cgt.com
- ↑ Kelly, 181. DeJean, chapters 2–4.
- ↑ http://about-france.com/tourism/french-perfume.htm
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, "Observatoire de la Presse", Presse Quotidienne Nationale
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, Presse Gratuite d'Information. November 2011
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse Quotidienne Régionale et Départementale
- ↑ (បារាំង) OJD, "Bureau Presse Payante Grand Public", Presse Quotidienne Régionale et Départementale
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse Magazine – Synthèse
- ↑ (បារាំង) Observatoire de la Presse, Presse News
- ↑ The Telegraph, Nicolas Sarkozy: French media faces 'death' without reform 2 October 2008
- ↑ French government portal, Lancement des états généraux de la presse 2 October 2008 [Launching of General State of written media]
- ↑ Angelique Chrisafis in Paris។ "Sarkozy pledges €600m to newspapers"។ Guardian។ http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/jan/23/sarkozy-pledges-state-aid-to-newspapers។ បានយកមក 21 June 2012។
- ↑ Radio France, "L'entreprise", Repères. Landmarks of Radio France company
- ↑ "World warming to US under Obama, BBC poll suggests"។ BBC News។ 19 April 2010។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8626041.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ "Global Views of United States Improve While Other Countries Decline" (PDF)។ BBC News។ 18 April 2010។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/160410bbcwspoll.pdf។ បានយកមក 26 December 2011។
- ↑ "Germany on Top, U.S. Seventh in Nation Brands IndexSM"។ Gfk.com។ http://www.gfk.com/group/press_information/press_releases/003055/index.en.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "Opinion of the United States"។ Pew Research Center។ 2012។ http://www.pewglobal.org/database/?indicator=1។
- ↑ Peter Allen (7 January 2010)។ "Britain falls to 25th best place to live in the world... behind Lithuania, the Czech Republic and Hungary"។ Dailymail.co.uk។ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1240988/France-tops-list-best-places-live-world-fifth-year-row--Britain-languishes-25th.html។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ Conseil Constitutionnel, Constitution of 4 October 1958 (page 4) "Title I – Of Sovereignty"
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The 14th of July: Bastille day
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The French Flag
- ↑ Assemblée Nationale, "History and heritage : La Marseillaise, Rouget de Lisle (1760–1836) and La Marseillaise
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", The national anthem : The Marseillaise
- ↑ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, "The symbols of the Republic", Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
- ↑ "The Symbols of the Republic : Marianne on the Official Site of the Foreign Affairs Ministry of France"។ Diplomatie.gouv.fr។ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france_159/institutions-and-politics_6814/the-symbols-of-the-republic_2002/marianne_1506.html?var_recherche=Marianne។ បានយកមក 1 October 2013។
- ↑ (បារាំង) French Presidency, "Les symboles de la République française", Le coq[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ French rural code L654-27-1[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]
- ↑ (បារាំង) Cuisine : sommes-nous les meilleurs du monde ?. La Dépêche. 24 February 2008
- ↑ French Cuisine – Discover France
- ↑ Top 10 Most Tasty Cuisines in the World – Hotel Club Travel Blog
- ↑ (បារាំង) Ateliers de cuisine française – Art de vivre à Paris
- ↑ (បារាំង) La Gastronomie Française – Chinese Lovers of France
- ↑ About our vacations in France -Cooking Vacations to France
- ↑ (បារាំង) La France du beurre et celle de l'huile d'olive maintiennent leurs positions – Agence France Presse
- ↑ "Wines of France"។ Userweb.cs.utexas.edu។ បានដាក់ទុកឯកសារ ពី[១២] នៅថ្ងៃ 11 February 2010។ https://web.archive.org/web/20100211145428/http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/walter/wine/france.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ "French Cheese"។ Goodcooking.com។ http://www.goodcooking.com/frcheese.htm។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ French Cheese on Traditional French Food
- ↑ "Michelin 3 Star Restaurants around the world"។ 3starrestaurants.com។ 14 December 2006។ http://www.3starrestaurants.com/michelin-restaurants-star-guide.asp។ បានយកមក 30 October 2010។
- ↑ Japan overtakes France with more Michelin-starred restaurants, Gilles Campion | Agence France-Presse | Thu 25 November 2010
- ↑ http://www.uciprotour.com/Modules/BUILTIN/getObject.asp?MenuId=MTcxNw&ObjTypeCode=FILE&type=FILE&id=34028&LangId=1
- ↑ (បារាំង) Les licences sportives en France – Insee
- ↑ "All you need to know about sport in France"។ http://www.france-pub.com/esport.htm។ បានយកមក 11 February 2012។
- ↑ "History of the World Cup Final Draw" (PDF)។ http://www.fifa.com/mm/document/fifafacts/mcwc/ip-201_10e_fwcdraw-history_8842.pdf។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ France wins right to host the 2007 rugby world cup. Associated Press. 11 April 2003
- ↑ "The Tour De France: The Most Famous Bicycle Race In The World"។ Weightlossdietinformation.com។ 3 January 2010។ http://www.weightlossdietinformation.com/the-tour-de-france-the-most-famous-bicycle-race-in-the-world.html។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ "Cycling: Tour de France"។ Faqs.org។ http://www.faqs.org/sports-science/Ce-Do/Cycling-Tour-de-France.html។ បានយកមក 9 August 2010។
- ↑ (បារាំង) Une course légendaire[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Site officiel du 24 heures du Mans
- ↑ Hill, Christopher R. (1996)។ Olympic Politics។ Manchester University Press ND។ ទំ. 5។ ល.ស.ប.អ. 0-7190-4451-0។ http://books.google.com/?id=0o-9AAAAIAAJ។ បានយកមក 5 July 2011។
- ↑ "Paris 1900 Summer Olympics. Official Site of the Olympic Movement"។ Olympic.org។ http://www.olympic.org/paris-1900-summer-olympics។ បានយកមក 30 September 2013។
- ↑ Lausanne, olympic capital[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច] – Tourism in Lausanne
- ↑ Licenses of the French Football Federation
- ↑ "CNN/SI – World Cup"។ Sports Illustrated។ 1 December 1998។ http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/world/events/1998/worldcup/។ បានយកមក 22 July 2011។
- ↑ Stevenson, Jonathan (9 July 2006)។ "Zidane off as Italy win World Cup"។ BBC News។ http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991652.stm។ បានយកមក 21 July 2011។
- ↑ 1984: Platini shines for flamboyant France[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]. UEFA
- ↑ 2000: Trezeguet strikes gold for France[តំណភ្ជាប់ខូច]. UEFA
- ↑ Rugby. 123 Voyage
External links[កែប្រែ]
 |
The Wikibook Wikijunior:Countries A-Z មាន a page បន្ថែមអំពី |
| ស្វែងយល់បន្ថែមអំពីFranceលើ គម្រោងបងប្អូនរបស់វិគីភីឌា: | |
 |
និយមន័យនិងបំណកប្រែពីវិគីនានុក្រម |
 |
រូបភាពនិងមីឌាពី Wikimedia Commons |
 |
ប្រភពរៀនសូត្រពីវិគីសាកលវិទ្យាល័យ |
 |
រឿងរ៉ាវព័ត៌មានពីវិគីព័ត៌មាន |
 |
សម្រង់ពាក្យសម្ដីពីវិគីសម្រង់ពាក្យ |
 |
អត្ថបទប្រភពដើមពីវិគីប្រភព |
 |
សៀវភៅពុម្ពពីវិគីសៀវភៅ |
- France from the BBC News
- France at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- បារាំង នៅគម្រោងបញ្ជីរាយឈ្មោះបើកទូលាយ
- France Encyclopædia Britannica entry
- France at the EU
- សៀវភៅផែនទីវិគីមីឌាFrance
Geographic data related to បារាំង at OpenStreetMap- Key Development Forecasts for France from International Futures
Geographic data related to - Economy
- Government
- France.fr (in English) Official French tourism website
- (បារាំង) Official Site of the Government
- Official site of the French public service – Links to various administrations and institutions
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members on The World Factbook
- Official site of the National Assembly
- Culture
- ទំព័រគំរូ:En-icon Contemporary French Civilization, journal, University of Illinois.
- FranceGuide – Official website of the French Government Tourist Office
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
កូអរដោនេ: 47°N 2°E / 47°N 2°E
ប្រភពពត៌មាន[កែប្រែ]
សូមមើលផងដែរ[កែប្រែ]
|
||||||||||||||||
- Pages using duplicate arguments in template calls
- អត្ថបទដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅភាសាបារាំង
- អត្ថបទមានការថ្លែងចុះកាលបរិច្ឆេទមានសក្ដានុពលពី2013
- អត្ថបទដែលមានបរាមាត្រកាលបរិច្ឆេទអសុពលភាពក្នុងទំព័រគំរូ
- អត្ថបទទាំងឡាយមានការថ្លែងចុះកាលបរិច្ឆេទមានសក្ដានុពល
- អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូច
- អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូចពីSeptember 2013
- អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅខូចពីApril 2013
- អត្ថបទដែលមានតំណភ្ជាប់ក្រៅភាសាប៊ុលហ្គារី
- ប្រើប្រាស់កាលបរិច្ឆេទថ្ងៃ-ខែ-ឆ្នាំ-ពីNovember 2013
- ទំព័រវិគីភីឌាជាមួយទំព័រគំរូការពារមិនត្រឹមត្រូវ
- អត្ថបទដែលមានអត្ថាក្សរមិនមែនភាសាខ្មែរ
- អត្ថបទទាំងអស់ជាមួយការថ្លែងគ្មានប្រភព
- អត្ថបទជាមួយការថ្លែងគ្មានប្រភពពីOctober 2013
- ទំព័រទាំងឡាយដែលដាច់តំណភ្ជាប់
- អត្ថបទមានការថ្លែងចុះកាលបរិច្ឆេទមានសក្ដានុពលពី2008
- កូអរដោនេពីវិគីទិន្នន័យ
- France
- Alpine countries
- Countries in Europe
- French-speaking countries and territories
- G8 nations
- G20 nations
- Liberal democracies
- Member states of La Francophonie
- Member states of NATO
- Member states of the Council of Europe
- Member states of the European Union
- Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean
- Member states of the United Nations
- Republics
- Romance countries and territories
- Western Europe
- ប្រទេសបារាំង
