Limbi quechua

Acest articol se referă la limba vorbită în America de Sud. Pentru alte utilizări, vedeți Quechua (dezambiguizare).

Quechua Qhichwa Simi / Runa Shimi / Runa Simi
Vorbită în	Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador și Peru
Regiuni	Anzii Cordilieri
Număr de vorbitori	circa 14 milioane, dintre care 10.5 milioane vorbitori nativi (locul 65)
Sistem de scriere	alfabetul latin
Clasificare
Quechuan Quechua
Statut oficial și codificare
Limbă oficială în	Peru și Bolivia
Organ de reglementare	Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua
ISO 639-1	qu
ISO 639-2	que
SIL	q
Răspândire în lume
Hartă a extinderii lumii quechuafone, indicând toate regiunile unde se vorbește.
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Quechua, în limba quechua, Qhichwa simi, sau Runa Simi, este o limbă nativ americană a Americii de Sud. A fost vorbită de-a lungul munților Anzii Cordilieri cu mult înainte de constituirea Imperiului Inca, care a folosit-o ca limbă oficială. Quecha este larg folosită astăzi în diferite regiuni ale Anzilor și a Altiplano, prezentând diferite varietăți, care sunt cunoscute sub numele colectiv de ‘dialecte quecha’, fiind astăzi vorbită de peste 14 milioane de oameni (dintre care cel puțin 10 milioane sunt vorbitori nativi) din America de Sud, incluzând Peru, sud-vestul și centrul Boliviei, sudul Columbiei și al Ecuador-ului, nord-vestul Argentinei și nordul Chile. Este cea mai răspândită limbă vorbită de locuitorii nativi ai celor două Americi.

Deși a fost tratată la modul general ca o singură limbă, cei mai mulți dintre lingviști consideră că ceea ce se află în denominarea quecha este o familie de limbi limbi de tip quecha, având aproximativ 46 de dialecte, care pot fi grupate în cel puțin șapte limbi.

Quechua este o limbă regulată aglutinantă, spre deosebire de limbile de fuziune. Ordinea normală într-o propoziți este SOV (subiect - obiect - verb). Numărul său larg de sufixe schimbă semnificația cuvintelor conferind nuanțe subtile de înțeles. Printre cele mai notabile aspecte gramaticale se numără conjugarea bipersonală (verbele trebuie să fie conjugate simultan în relație cu subiectul și obiectul), evidenţialitatea (indicarea sursei și a gradului de cunoaștere al afirmațiilor), particule indicând topicul, precum și sufixe indicând cine este beneficiarul unei acțiuni, respectiv atitudinea vorbitorului față de acțiune.

Distribuție geografică

Astăzi există patru grupuri mari:

• Quecha I or Waywash is spoken in Peru's central highlands. It is the most diverse branch of Quechua, such that its dialects have often been considered different languages.

• Quechua II or Wanp'una (Traveler) is divided into three branches:
• II-A: Yunkay Quechua is spoken sporadically in Peru's occidental highlands;
• II-B: Northern Quechua (also known as Runashimi or, especially in Ecuador, Kichwa) is mainly spoken in Colombia and Ecuador. It is also spoken in the Amazonian lowlands in Ecuador and Peru;
• II-C: Southern Quechua, spoken in Peru's southern highlands, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile, is today's most important branch because it has the largest number of speakers and because of its cultural and literary legacy.

This traditional classification, though still a helpful guide, has been increasingly challenged in recent years, since a number of regional varieties of Quechua seem to be intermediate between the two branches.

Număr de vorbitori

The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The most reliable figures are to be found in the census results of Peru (1993) and Bolivia (2001), though they are probably altogether too low due to underreporting. The 2001 Ecuador census seems to be a prominent example of underreporting, as it comes up with only 499,292 speakers of the two varieties Quichua and Kichwa combined, where other sources estimate between 1.5 and 2.2 million speakers.

• Argentina: 100,000
• Bolivia: 2,100,000 (2001 census)
• Brazil: unknown
• Chile: very few, spoken in pockets in the Chilean Altiplano (Ethnologue)
• Colombia: 9,000 (Ethnologue)
• Ecuador: 500,000 to 1,000,000
• Peru: 3,200,000 (1993 census)

Additionally, there may be hundreds of thousands of speakers outside the traditionally Quechua speaking territories, in immigrant communities.

Vocabular

A number of Quechua loanwords have entered English via Spanish, including coca, cóndor, guano, jerky, llama, pampa, puma, quinine, quinoa, vicuña and possibly gaucho. The word lagniappe comes from the Quechua word yapay ("to increase; to add") with the Spanish article la in front of it, la yapa or la ñapa in Spanish.

The influence on Latin American Spanish includes such borrowings as papa for "potato", chuchaqui for "hangover" in Ecuador, and diverse borrowings for "altitude sickness", in Bolivia from Quechua suruqch'i to Bolivian sorojchi, in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru soroche.

Quechua has borrowed a large number of Spanish words, such as pero (from pero, but), bwenu (from bueno, good), and burru (from burro, donkey).

Fonologie

Descriere de mai jos se aplică dialectului Cusco ; există diferențe mari pentru alte varietăți de quechua.

Vocale

Quechua folosește doar trei vocale: /a/ /i/ și /u/, asemănător cu limba aimara. Vorbitorii monolingvi pronunță aceste vocale [æ] [ɪ] și respectiv [ʊ], deși vocalele spaniole /a/ /i/ și /u/ pot fi folosite. Când vocalele apar lângă consoanele uvulare /q/, /qʼ/ și /qʰ/, sunt pronunțate [ɑ], [ɛ] și [ɔ].

Consoane

	labială	alveolară	postalveolară	palatală	velară	uvulară	glotală
oclusivă / africată	p	t	tʃ		k	q
oclusivă sau africată aspirată	pʰ	tʰ	tʃʰ		kʰ	qʰ
ejective	p’	t’	tʃ’		k’	q’
fricative		s					h
nazală	m	n		ɲ
laterală		l		ʎ
bătută		ɾ
sonantă				j	w

Niciuna dintre oclusive și fricative nu sunt sonore; sonorizarea nu este fonemică în vocabularul nativ quechua al varietății moderne Cusco.

Aproximativ 30% din vocabularul prezent în quechua modernă este preluat din limba spaniolă și este posibil ca unele sunete spaniole (cum ar fi f, b, d, g) să fi devenit fonemice, chiar și pentru vorbitorii monolingvi de quechua.

Sistemul de scriere

Articol principal: Quechua alphabet.

Quechua has been written using the Roman alphabet since the Spanish conquest of Peru. However, written Quechua is not utilized by the Quechua-speaking people at large due to the lack of printed referential material in Quechua.

Until the 20th century, Quechua was written with a Spanish-based orthography. Examples: Inca, Huayna Cápac, Collasuyo, Mama Ocllo, Viracocha, quipu, tambo, condor. This orthography is the most familiar to Spanish speakers, and as a corollary, has been used for most borrowings into English.

In 1975, the Peruvian government of Juan Velasco adopted a new orthography for Quechua. This is the writing system preferred by the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua. Examples: Inka, Wayna Qapaq, Qollasuyu, Mama Oqllo, Wiraqocha, khipu, tampu, kuntur. This orthography:

• uses w instead of hu for the /w/ sound.
• distinguishes velar k from uvular q, where both were spelled c or qu in the traditional system.
• distinguishes simple, ejective, and aspirated stops in dialects (such as that of Cuzco) which have them — thus khipu above.
• continues to use the Spanish five-vowel system.

In 1985, a variation of this system was adopted by the Peruvian government; it uses the Quechua three-vowel system. Examples: Inka, Wayna Qapaq, Qullasuyu, Mama Uqllu, Wiraqucha, khipu, tampu, kuntur.

The different orthographies are still highly controversial in Peru. Advocates of the traditional system believe that the new orthographies look too foreign, and suggest that it makes Quechua harder to learn for people who have first been exposed to written Spanish. Those who prefer the new system maintain that it better matches the phonology of Quechua, and point to studies showing that teaching the five-vowel system to children causes reading difficulties in Spanish later on.

For more on this, see Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift.

Writers differ in the treatment of Spanish loanwords. Sometimes these are adapted to the modern orthography, and sometimes they are left in Spanish. For instance, "I am Robert" could be written Robertom kani or Ruwirtum kani. (The -m is not part of the name; it is an evidential suffix.)

Peruvian linguist Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino has proposed an orthographic norm for all Quechua, called Southern Quechua. This norm, el Quechua estándar or Hanan Runasimi, which is accepted by many institutions in Peru, has been made by combining conservative features of two common dialects: Ayacucho Quechua and Qusqu-Qullaw Quechua (spoken in Cusco, Puno, Bolivia, and Argentina). For instance:

Ayacucho	Cusco	Southern Quechua	Translation
upyay	uhyay	upyay	"to drink"
utqa	usqha	utqha	"fast"
llamkay	llank'ay	llamk'ay	"to work"
ñuqanchik	nuqanchis	ñuqanchik	"we (inclusive)"
-chka-	-sha-	-chka-	(progressive suffix)
punchaw	p'unchay	p'unchaw	"day"

To listen to recordings of these and many other words as pronounced in many different Quechua-speaking regions, see the external website The Sounds of the Andean Languages. There is also a full section on the new Quechua and Aymara Spelling.

Gramatică

Pronumele personale

		Number
		Singular	Plural
Persoană	Întâi	Ñuqa	Ñuqanchik (inclusiv) Ñuqayku (exclusiv)
	A doua	Qam	Qamkuna
	A treia	Pay	Paykuna

În quechua, există șapte pronume personale, șase dintre ele sunt cele comune multor limbi, eu, tu, el / ea, respectiv noi, voi și ei /ele, dar persoana întâi plural (noi) este nuanțată, existând două forme, cea care semnifică "noi cu tine/voi", numită inclusivă, respectiv cea care semnifică "noi fără tine / voi", numită exclusivă. Quechua adaugă, de asemenea, sufixul -kuna la persoanele a doua și a treia singular, qam și pay pentru a crea formele de plural qam-kuna și pay-kuna.

Adjective

Adjectives in Quechua are always placed before nouns. They lack gender and number, and are not declined to agree with substantives.

Numerale

• Cardinal numbers. ch'usaq (0), huk (1), iskay (2), kimsa (3), tawa (4), pichqa (5), suqta (6), qanchis (7), pusaq (8), isqun (9), chunka (10), chunka hukniyuq (11), chunka iskayniyuq (12), iskay chunka (20), pachak (100), waranqa (1,000), hunu (1,000,000), lluna (1,000,000,000,000).
• Ordinal numbers. To form ordinal numbers, the word ñiqin is put after the appropriate cardinal number (e.g., iskay ñiqin = "second"). The only exception is that, in addition to huk ñiqin ("first"), the phrase ñawpaq is also used in the somewhat more restricted sense of "the initial, primordial, the oldest".

Substantive

Noun roots accept suffixes which indicate person (defining of possession, not identity), number, and case. In general, the personal suffix precedes that of number - in the Santiago del Estero variety, however, the order is reversed. From variety to variety, suffixes may change.

Examples using the word wasi (house)

Function		Suffix	Example	(translation)
suffix indicating number	plural	-kuna	wasikuna	houses
possessive suffix	1.person singular	-y, -:	wasiy, wasii	my house
	2.person singular	-yki	wasiyki	your house
	3.person singular	-n	wasin	his/her/its house
	1.person plural (incl)	-nchik	wasinchik	our house (incl.)
	1.person plural (excl)	-y-ku	wasiyku	our house (excl.)
	2.person plural	-yki-chik	wasiykichik	your (pl.) house
	3.person plural	-n-ku	wasinku	their house
suffixes indicating case	nominative	-	wasi	the house (subj.)
	accusative	-(k)ta	wasita	the house (obj.)
	comitative (instrumental)	-wan	wasiwan	with the house
	abessive	-naq	wasinaq	without the house
	dative	-paq	wasipaq	to the house
	genitive	-p(a)	wasip(a)	of the house
	causative	-rayku	wasirayku	because of the house
	benefactive	-paq	wasipaq	for the house
	locative	-pi	wasipi	at the house
	directional	-man	wasiman	towards the house
	inclusive	-piwan, puwan	wasipiwan, wasipuwan	including the house
	terminative	-kama, -yaq	wasikama, wasiyaq	up to the house
	transitive	-(rin)ta	wasinta	through the house
	ablative	-manta, -piqta	wasimanta, wasipiqta	off/from the house
	adessive	-(ni)ntin	wasintin	the house (obj.)
	immediate	-raq	wasiraq	first the house
	interactive	-pura	wasipura	among the houses
	exclusive	-lla(m)	wasilla(m)	only the house
	comparative	-naw, -hina	wasinaw, wasihina	than the house

Adverbe

Adverbs can be formed by adding -ta or, in some cases, -lla to an adjective: allin - allinta ("good - well"), utqay - utqaylla ("quick - quickly"). They are also formed by adding suffixes to demonstratives: chay ("that") - chaypi ("there"), kay ("this") - kayman ("hither").

There are several original adverbs. For Europeans, it is striking that the adverb qhipa means both "behind" and "future", whereas ñawpa means "ahead, in front" and "past". This means that local and temporal concepts of adverbs in Quechua (as well as in Aymara) are associated to each other reversely compared to European languages. For the speakers of Quechua, we are moving backwards into the future (we cannot see it - ie. it is unknown), facing the past (we can see it - ie. we remember it).

Verbe

The infinitive forms (unconjugated) have the suffix -y (much'a= "kiss"; much'a-y = "to kiss"). The endings for the indicative are:

	Present	Past	Future	Pluperfect
Ñuqa	-ni	-rqa-ni	-saq	-sqa-ni
Qam	-nki	-rqa-nki	-nki	-sqa-nki
Pay	-n	-rqa(-n)	-nqa	-sqa
Ñuqanchik	-nchik	-rqa-nchik	-su-nchik	-sqa-nchik
Ñuqayku	-yku	-rqa-yku	-saq-ku	-sqa-yku
Qamkuna	-nki-chik	-rqa-nki-chik	-nki-chik	-sqa-nki-chik
Paykuna	-n-ku	-rqa-(n)ku	-nqa-ku	-sqa-ku

To these are added various suffixes to change the meaning. For example, -chi is a causative and -ku is a reflexive (example: wañuy = "to die"; wañuchiy = to kill wañuchikuy = "to commit suicide"); -naku is used for mutual action (example: marq'ay= "to hug"; marq'anakuy= "to hug each other"), and -chka is a progressive, used for an ongoing action (e.g., mikhuy = "to eat"; mikhuchkay = "to be eating").

Particule gramaticale

Particles are indeclinable, that is, they do not accept suffixes. They are relatively rare. The most common are arí ("yes") and mana ("no"), although mana can take some suffixes, such as -n/-m (manan/manam), -raq (manaraq, not yet) and -chu (manachu?, or not?), to intensify the meaning. Also used are yaw ("hey", "hi"), and certain loan words from Spanish, such as piru (from Spanish pero "but") and sinuqa (from sino "rather").

Evidentiațialitate

Nearly every Quechua sentence is marked by an evidential suffix, indicating how certain the speaker is about a statement. -mi expresses personal knowledge (Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirmi, "Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver-- I know it for a fact"); -si expresses hearsay knowledge (Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirsi, "Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver, or so I've heard"); -chá expresses probability (Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirchá, "Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver, most likely"). These become -m, -s, -ch after a vowel, although -ch is rarely used, and the majority of speakers usually employ -chá, even after a vowel (Mariochá, "He's Mario, most likely").

The evidential suffixes are not restricted to nouns; they can attach to any word in the sentence, typically the comment (that is, new information, as opposed to the topic).

În cultura populară

• The fictional Huttese language in the Star Wars movies is largely based upon Quechua. According to Jim Wilce, Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Northern Arizona University, George Lucas contacted a colleague of his, Allen Sonafrank, to record the dialogue. Wilce and Sonafrank discussed the matter, and felt it might be demeaning to have an alien represent Quechuans, especially in light of Erich von Daniken's popular publications that claimed Inca monuments were created by aliens because "primitives" like the Incas could never have produced them. Sonafrank declined, but a grad student, who could pronounce but did not speak Quechua, recorded Jabba's dialogue. There are reports that the dialogue was played backwards or remixed, possibly to avoid offending Quechuans.
• The president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, speaks fluent Quechua.
• The sport retailer Decathlon Group brands their mountain equipment range as Quechua.
• In "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull" Indy has a dialogue in Quechua with Peruvians. He explains he learned the language with Pancho Villa.

Vezi și

• Limba aimara
• Anzi

Referințe

• Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo. Lingüística Quechua, Centro de Estudios Rurales Andinos 'Bartolomé de las Casas', 2nd ed. 2003
• Cole, Peter. "Imbabura Quechua", North-Holland (Lingua Descriptive Studies 5), Amsterdam 1982.
• Cusihuamán, Antonio, Diccionario Quechua Cuzco-Collao, Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, ISBN 9972691365
• Cusihuamán, Antonio, Gramática Quechua Cuzco-Collao, Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, ISBN 9972691373
• Mannheim, Bruce, The Language of the Inka since the European Invasion, University of Texas Press, 1991, ISBN 0292746636
• Rodríguez Champi, Albino. (2006). Quechua de Cusco. Ilustraciones fonéticas de lenguas amerindias, ed. Stephen A. Marlett. Lima: SIL International y Universidad Ricardo Palma. [1]

Bibliografie

• Adelaar, Willem F. H. Tarma Quechua: Grammar, Texts, Dictionary. Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press, 1977.
• Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Vallejo C., and Rudolph C. Troike. An Introduction to Spoken Bolivian Quechua. Special publication of the Institute of Latin American Studies, the University of Texas at Austin. Austin: Published for the Institute of Latin American Studies by the University of Texas Press, 1969. ISBN 0292700199
• Curl, John, Ancient American Poets. Tempe AZ: Bilingual Press, 2005.ISBN 1-931010-21-8 http://red-coral.net/Pach.html
• Gifford, Douglas. Time Metaphors in Aymara and Quechua. St. Andrews: University of St. Andrews, 1986.
• Harrison, Regina. Signs, Songs, and Memory in the Andes: Translating Quechua Language and Culture. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989. ISBN 0292776276
• Jake, Janice L. Grammatical Relations in Imbabura Quechua. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Garland Pub, 1985. ISBN 082405475X
• King, Kendall A. Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the Ecuadorian Andes. Bilingual education and bilingualism, 24. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters LTD, 2001. ISBN 1853594954
• King, Kendall A., and Nancy H. Hornberger. Quechua Sociolinguistics. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004.
• Lara, Jesús, Maria A. Proser, and James Scully. Quechua Peoples Poetry. Willimantic, Conn: Curbstone Press, 1976. ISBN 0915306093
• Lefebvre, Claire, and Pieter Muysken. Mixed Categories: Nominalizations in Quechua. Studies in natural language and linguistic theory, [v. 11]. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988. ISBN 1556080506
• Lefebvre, Claire, and Pieter Muysken. Relative Clauses in Cuzco Quechua: Interactions between Core and Periphery. Bloomington, Ind: Indiana University Linguistics Club, 1982.
• Muysken, Pieter. Syntactic Developments in the Verb Phrase of Ecuadorian Quechua. Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press, 1977. ISBN 9031601519
• Nuckolls, Janis B. Sounds Like Life: Sound-Symbolic Grammar, Performance, and Cognition in Pastaza Quechua. Oxford studies in anthropological linguistics, 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN
• Parker, Gary John. Ayacucho Quechua Grammar and Dictionary. Janua linguarum. Series practica, 82. The Hague: Mouton, 1969.
• Sánchez, Liliana. Quechua-Spanish Bilingualism: Interference and Convergence in Functional Categories. Language acquisition & language disorders, v. 35. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub, 2003. ISBN 1588114716
• Weber, David. A Grammar of Huallaga (Huánuco) Quechua. University of California publications in linguistics, v. 112. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN 0520097327
• Wright, Ronald, and Nilda Callañaupa. Quechua Phrasebook. Hawthorn, Vic., Australia: Lonely Planet, 1989. ISBN 0864420390

Legături externe

• El Quechua de Santiago del Estero, extensive site covering the grammar of Argentinian Quechua (in Spanish)
• runasimi.de Multilingual Quechua website with online dictionary (xls) Quechua - German - English - Spanish.
• Quechua Language and Linguistics an extensive site.
  • The Sounds of the Andean Languages listen online to pronunciations of Quechua words, see photos of speakers and their home regions, learn about the origins and varieties of Quechua.
• CyberQuechua, by the Quechua-speaking linguist Serafín Coronel Molina.
• Multilingual Dictionary: Spanish - Quechua (Cusco, Ayacucho, Junín, Ancash) - Aymara
• Toponimos del Quechua de Yungay, Peru
• Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec
• Quechua Network's Dictionary a very good one.
• Quechua lessons (www.andes.org) in Spanish and English
• Quechua course in Spanish, by Demetrio Tupah Yupanki (Red Científica Peruana)
• Detailed map of the varieties of Quechua according to SIL (fedepi.org)
• Quechua - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition.
• Ecuadorian Quechua - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition.
• Google Quechua
• 5 Quechua dictionaries online