Alternative title: Mongol Uls

Mongolia, also called (historically) Outer Mongolia,  country located in north-central Asia. It is roughly oval in shape, measuring 1,486 miles (2,392 km) from west to east and, at its maximum, 782 miles (1,259 km) from north to south. Mongolia’s land area is roughly equivalent to that of the the countries of western and central Europe, and it lies in a similar latitude range. The national capital, Ulaanbaatar (Mongolian: Ulan Bator) is in the north-central part of the country.

Bactrian camel [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]Bactrian camelBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateLandlocked Mongolia is located between Russia to the north and China to the south, deep within the interior of eastern Asia far from any ocean. The country has a marked continental climate, with long cold winters and short cool-to-hot summers. Its remarkable variety of scenery consists largely of upland steppes, semideserts, and deserts, although in the west and north forested high mountain ranges alternate with lake-dotted basins. Mongolia is largely a plateau, with an average elevation of about 5,180 feet (1,580 metres) above sea level. The highest peaks are in the Mongolian Altai Mountains (Mongol Altain Nuruu) in the southwest, a branch of the Altai Mountains system.

Mongolia: livestock grazing in a pasture [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]Mongolia: livestock grazing in a pastureBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateSome three-fourths of Mongolia’s area consists of pasturelands, which support the immense herds of grazing livestock for which the country is known. The remaining area is about equally divided between forests and barren deserts, with only a tiny fraction of the land under crops. With a total population of fewer than three million, Mongolia has one of the lowest average population densities of any country in the world.

The Mongols have a long prehistory and a most remarkable history. The Huns, a people who lived in Central Asia from the 3rd to the 1st century bce, may have been their ancestors. A united Mongolian state of nomadic tribes was formed in the early 13th century ce by Genghis Khan, and his successors controlled a vast empire that included much of China, Russia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. The Mongol empire eventually collapsed and split up, and from 1691 northern Mongolia was colonized by Qing (Manchu) China. With the collapse of Qing rule in Mongolia in 1911/12, the Bogd Gegeen (or Javzandamba), Mongolia’s religious leader, was proclaimed Bogd Khan, or head of state. He declared Mongolia’s independence, but only autonomy under China’s suzerainty was achieved. From 1919, nationalist revolutionaries, with Soviet assistance, drove out Chinese troops attempting to reoccupy Mongolia, and in 1921 they expelled the invading White Russian cavalry. July 11, 1921, then became celebrated as the anniversary of the revolution. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed in November 1924, and the Mongolian capital, centred on the main monastery of the Bogd Gegeen, was renamed Ulaanbaatar (“Red Hero”).

From 1921 until the end of the 1980s, Mongolia was a one-party state closely tied to the Soviet Union. It received technical, economic, and military assistance from the Soviet Union and generally followed Soviet guidance in political and economic matters and in the building of a socialist society. However, beginning in 1990, forces for change in Mongolia ended the monopoly of political power by the communists in favour of free multiparty elections, coalition government, a new constitution, greater cultural and religious freedom with more emphasis on Mongol national traditions, a neutral position in international relations, and a transition to a market economy.

Land

Relief

Mongolia: physical features [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]Mongolia: physical featuresEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Mongolia can be divided into three major topographic zones: the mountain chains that dominate the northern and western areas, the basin areas situated between and around them, and the enormous upland plateau belt that lies across the southern and eastern sectors. The entire country is prone to seismic movements, and some earthquakes are extremely severe. Their effects, however, are limited by the low population density.

The mountains

Gobi Altai Mountains [Credit: © Brian A. Vikander]Gobi Altai Mountains© Brian A. VikanderThere are three major mountain chains in Mongolia: the Mongolian Altai Mountains, the Khangai Mountains (Khangain [or Hangayn] Nuruu), and the Khentii Mountains (Khentiin [or Hentiyn] Nuruu). The Mongolian Altai in the west and southwest constitute the highest and the longest of these chains. Branching southeastward from the main Altai range at the northwestern border with Russia, the Mongolian Altai stretch southeastward for some 250 miles (400 km) along the Chinese border before turning slightly more eastward for another 450 miles (725 km) in southwestern Mongolia. The range—the only one in the country where contemporary glaciation has developed—reaches an elevation of 14,350 feet (4,374 metres) at Khüiten Peak (Nayramadlyn Orgil) at the western tip of the country, Mongolia’s highest point. Extending eastward from the Mongolian Altai are the Gobi Altai Mountains (Govi Altain Nuruu), a lesser range of denuded hills that lose themselves in the expanses of the Gobi.

The Khangai Mountains, also lying from northwest to southeast, form a solid mountain mass near the centre of the country. The range’s peaks reach some 12,000 feet (3,700 metres), with Otgontenger, the highest, rising to some 13,200 feet (4,025 metres) in the northwest. Characteristic of the Khangai are gentle slopes covered with fine pastureland. To the north the Eastern Sayan Mountains of Siberia lie along the border with Russia.

The alignment of the third mountain chain, the Khentii range of northeastern Mongolia, is southwest to northeast, extending into Siberia. The highest peak is Asraltkhairkhan, which reaches about 9,200 feet (2,800 metres), but, in general, maximum elevations are about 7,000 feet (2,130 metres). Ulaanbaatar lies at the southwestern edge of the range. The Da Hinggan (Greater Khingan) Range rises along and beyond the eastern frontier with China.

The northern intermontane basins

nomadism: Orkhon River valley, Mongolia [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]nomadism: Orkhon River valley, MongoliaBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateAround and between the main ranges lie an important series of basins. The Great Lakes region, with more than 300 lakes, is tucked between the Mongolian Altai, the Khangai, and the mountains along the border with Siberia. Another basin lies between the eastern slopes of the Khangai Mountains and the western foothills of the Khentii range. The southern part of it—the basins of the Tuul and Orkhon (Orhon) rivers—is a fertile region important in Mongolian history as the cradle of settled ways of life.

The remarkable Khorgo region, on the northern flanks of the Khangai Mountains, has a dozen extinct volcanoes and numerous volcanic lakes. Swift and turbulent rivers have cut jagged gorges. The source stream of the Orkhon River is in another volcanic region, with deep volcanic vents and hot springs. Near the northern border, Lake Khövsgöl (Hövsgöl) is the focus of another rugged region that is noted for its marshlands.

The plateau and desert belt

Eastern Gobi [Credit: © Philippa Scott/NHPA]Eastern Gobi© Philippa Scott/NHPAThe eastern part of Mongolia has a rolling topography of hilly steppe plains. Here and there, small, stubby massifs contain the clearly discernible cones of extinct volcanoes. The Dariganga area of far eastern Mongolia contains some 220 such extinct volcanoes. Most of the southern part of the country is a vast plain, with occasional oases, forming the northern fringe of the Eastern (Mongolian) Gobi. The flat relief is occasionally broken by low, heavily eroded ranges. Several spectacular natural features are found in the Gobi region. Huge six-sided basalt columns, arranged in clusters resembling bundles of pencils, are found in the eastern and central regions. The southern Gobi contains a mountain range, the Gurvan Saikhan (“Three Beauties”), that is known for its dinosaur fossil finds at Bayanzag and Nemegt. In addition, the range’s scenic Yolyn Am (Lammergeier Valley)—now a national park, with a deep gorge containing a small perennial glacier—is surrounded by towering rocky cliffs where lammergeiers (bearded vultures) roost.

Drainage

Orhon River [Credit: M. Koene/H. Armstrong Roberts]Orhon RiverM. Koene/H. Armstrong RobertsMongolia lies on a continental divide: rivers in the north flow northward into the Arctic Ocean, and those in the northeast flow eastward into the Pacific. The western and southern two-thirds of the country consist of interior drainage basins, in which seasonal or intermittent streams end in salt lakes or disappear into the stones and sands of the desert. In the northern regions, mountain torrents and streams merge into deep, well-developed rivers. In the southern areas—where there are only a few constantly flowing rivers—lakes, saltwater and freshwater springs, and wells draw on subterranean water supplies. The watershed that separates rivers that flow into the oceans and those that flow into the interior basins runs along the crest of the Khangai Mountains.

Northern Mongolia’s drainage pattern is dominated by two river systems: the Orkhon and the Selenge (Russian: Selenga). The Orkhon, some 700 miles (1,130 km) long, is Mongolia’s longest river and lies wholly within the country. It flows generally northward, joining the Selenge just before the Russian border. The Selenge drains northwest-central Mongolia before flowing northward into Russia and ultimately into Lake Baikal. Mongolia’s third longest river, the Kherlen (Kerulen), runs south from its source in the Khentii Mountains before turning eastward and flowing across eastern Mongolia and into Lake Hulun (Mongolian: Dalai Nuur) in northeastern Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China. The largest rivers draining into the Great Lakes region of the Mongolian interior are the Khovd (Hovd), which rises from the glaciers of the Mongolian Altai Mountains, and the Zavkhan (Dzavhan), which runs off the southern slopes of the Khangai Mountains. Other rivers east of the Zavkhan end in salt lakes or disappear in the Gobi. Generally, Mongolian rivers are swift with a steep gradient or are slow and meandering and prone to flooding in summer. For these reasons, as well as the unpredictability of precipitation, hydroelectric potential has proved difficult to exploit.

Hövsgöl Lake [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]Hövsgöl LakeBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateMany of Mongolia’s lakes are salty, impermanent, highly variable in area, and without outlets. The largest and deepest freshwater body, Lake Khövsgöl, in the north, occupies a structural depression. Its only outlet, the Eg River (Egiin Gol), joins the Selenge. Other large lakes—all in the west—include the saline Lake Uvs, which is some 1,290 square miles (3,350 square km) in area, and the freshwater Lake Khar Us (Har Us), which drains into the saline Lake Khyargas (Hyargas). Lake Khökh (Höh), in far northeastern Mongolia and lying at an elevation of 1,837 feet (560 metres), is the country’s lowest point.

Climate and soils

Situated at high latitudes (between 41° and 52° N) and high elevations (averaging about 5,180 feet [1,580 metres]), Mongolia is far from the moderating influences of the ocean—at its nearest point some 435 miles (700 km) west of the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli). Consequently, it experiences a pronounced continental climate with very cold winters (dominated by anticyclones centred over Siberia), cool to hot summers, large annual and diurnal ranges in temperature, and generally scanty precipitation. The difference between the mean temperatures of January and July can reach 80 °F (44 °C), and temperature variations of as much as 55 °F (30 °C) can occur in a single day. Mean temperatures in the north generally are cooler than those in the south: the mean January and July temperatures for the Ulaanbaatar area are −7 °F (−22 °C) and 63 °F (17 °C), respectively, while the corresponding temperatures for the Gobi area are 5 °F (−15 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C).

Precipitation increases with elevation and latitude, with annual amounts ranging from less than 4 inches (100 mm) in some of the low-lying desert areas of the south and west to about 14 inches (350 mm) in the northern mountains; Ulaanbaatar receives about 10 inches (250 mm) annually. The precipitation, which typically occurs as thunderstorms during the summer months, is highly variable in amount and timing and fluctuates considerably from year to year.

A remarkable feature of Mongolia’s climate is the number of clear, sunny days, averaging between 220 and 260 each year, yet the weather may also be severe and unpredictable. Sandstorms or hailstorms can develop quite suddenly. Heavy snow occurs mainly in the mountain regions, but fierce blizzards sweep across the steppes. Even a thin coating of ice or icy snow can prevent animals from getting to their pasture.

Soils are predominantly of the chestnut or brown type, but with considerable salinization in desert and semidesert areas. The Gobi is a typical rock-floored desert, with large areas of gravel cover and occasional sand dunes.

Plant and animal life

Vegetation zones

Mongolia: steppe landscape, central Mongolia [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]Mongolia: steppe landscape, central MongoliaBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateThere are four basic vegetation zones in Mongolia. These run in latitude from north to south and in elevation from the mountains to the basins and plains: forest-steppe, steppe, semidesert, and desert. In addition, the higher mountains have bands of coniferous forest (taiga) and, higher yet, an alpine zone. The steppes (grasslands) predominate, covering more than three-fourths of the national territory.

The mountain forest-steppe zone exhibits the richest diversity of plant and animal life. Forests grow thicker on the northern slopes, the most widely distributed trees being Siberian larches, followed by Siberian cedars, with a varying admixture of spruces, pines, and firs. Deciduous trees include birches, aspens, and poplars. Steppe vegetation is found in the intermontane basins and wide river valleys and on the southern flanks of the mountains. These huge expanses of pastureland are covered with feather grass, couch grass, wormwood, and many fodder plant species. In summer the steppes are carpeted with brightly coloured wildflowers. On the highest mountain slopes the taiga gives way to the thin grasses and occasional flowers of the alpine zone, merging into the bare rocks and rugged glaciers of the summit zone.

Semideserts are found in the Great Lakes intermontane depression in the west and across the Gobi in the south, giving way to occasional areas of true desert. Vegetation is scanty there but sufficient to feed camels, goats, and sheep. Tracts of saxaul (xerophytic [drought-tolerant] vegetation) provide firewood. Groves of elms and poplars cluster around springs or other underground water sources. Green belts of trees have been planted in areas of habitation and cultivation threatened by encroaching desertification. Dust storms are common in areas where human activity has broken up the surface of the steppes.

Animal life

Bactrian camel [Credit: Art Wolfe—The Image Bank/Getty Images]Bactrian camelArt Wolfe—The Image Bank/Getty ImagesThe varied natural conditions, the interior location, and the sparse human population of Mongolia all contribute to a rich and diverse wildlife that has attracted international attention and has commercial importance. Lying on the borders of several distinct zoogeographic regions (the Tibetan, the Afghano-Turkistani, the Siberian, and the North-Chinese-Manchurian), the country has a fauna combining species from each of them. The northern forests harbour lynx, maral (a subspecies of elk), roe deer, and musk deer, in addition to brown bears, wolverines, wild boars, squirrels, and sables. The steppes are the home of the marmot—once widely hunted for its pelt but now somewhat protected by restrictions on hunting—and the Mongolian gazelle. The Mongolian Altai Mountains are the haunt of wild sheep known as argal and snow leopards. Clustering around water holes in the semidesert and desert region may be found kulans (Asiatic wild asses; Equus hemionus kulan), wild camels (called khavtgais in Mongolia), and Gobi bears (mazaalais), all of which are extremely rare. The wild Przewalski’s horse, known to Mongolians as takhi, was reintroduced into the country from European and North American stock after having become extinct in its former habitat.

Domesticated animals of economic significance—which, collectively, vastly outnumber Mongolia’s human population—are sheep, camels, cattle (including yaks), goats, and horses. Birdlife includes larks, partridges, cranes, pheasants, bustards, and falcons in the steppes; geese, ducks, gulls, pelicans, swans, and cormorants in the rivers and lakes; and snowy owls, golden eagles, and lammergeiers, which frequent some areas. The rivers and freshwater lakes contain some 70 fish species, including Asian species of salmon, trout, grayling, perch, and pike. Hunting and fishing, for sport and for commercial purposes, are still of some importance, but the government has introduced stringent hunting regulations and other conservationist measures, including establishing national parks and nature reserves.

People

Ethnic background and languages

Khalkha: young Khalkha girl in western Mongolia [Credit: Gavriel Jecan/Corbis]Khalkha: young Khalkha girl in western MongoliaGavriel Jecan/CorbisArchaeological remains dating to the earliest days of prehistory have attracted the attention of Mongolian and foreign scholars. The Mongols are quite homogeneous, ethnically. Within Mongolia, Khalkh (or Khalkha) Mongols constitute some four-fifths of the population. Other Mongolian groups—including Dörvöd (Dörbed), Buryat, Bayad, and Dariganga—account for nearly half of the rest of the population. Much of the remainder consists of Turkic-speaking peoples—mainly Kazakhs, some Tuvans (Mongolian: Uriankhai), and a few Tsaatans (Dhukha)—who live mostly in the western part of the country. There are small numbers of Russians and Chinese, who are found mainly in the towns. The government has given increased attention to respecting and protecting the languages and cultural rights of Kazakhs, Tuvans, and other minorities.

The vast majority of the population speaks Mongolian, and nearly all those who speak another language understand Mongolian. In the 1940s the traditional Mongolian vertical script was replaced by a Cyrillic script based on the Russian alphabet. (This was the origin of the transliteration Ulaanbaatar for Ulan Bator, the traditional spelling.) In the 1990s the traditional script was once again taught in schools, and store signs appeared in both Cyrillic and traditional forms.

Religions

Buddhism: Buddhist worshippers in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia [Credit: Alain le Garsmeur/Corbis]Buddhism: Buddhist worshippers in Ulaanbaatar, MongoliaAlain le Garsmeur/CorbisThe Mongols originally followed shamanistic practices, but they broadly adopted Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism)—with an admixture of shamanistic elements—during the Qing period. On the fall of the Qing in the early 20th century, control of Mongolia lay in the hands of the incarnation (khutagt) of the Tibetan Javzandamba (spiritual leader) and of the higher clergy, together with various local khans, princes, and noblemen. The new regime installed in 1921 sought to replace feudal and religious structures with socialist and secular forms. During the 1930s the ruling revolutionary party, which espoused atheism, destroyed or closed monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, induced large numbers of monks (lamas) to renounce religious life, and killed those who resisted.

In the mid-1940s the Gandan monastery in Ulaanbaatar was reopened, and the communist government began encouraging small numbers of lamas to attend international Buddhist conferences—especially in Southeast Asia—as political promotion for Mongolia. The end of one-party rule in 1990 allowed for the popular resurgence of Tibetan Buddhism, the rebuilding of ruined monasteries and temples, and the rebirth of the religious vocation. Buddhists, predominently of the Dge-lugs-pa (Gelugspa; Yellow Hat) school headed by the Dalai Lama, constitute the largest group of Mongolians in the country who actively profess religious beliefs. A relatively small number of Muslims, who are found mostly in the western part of the country, are nearly all Kazakhs, and a much smaller community of Christians of various denominations live mainly in the capital. A significant proportion of the people are atheistic or nonreligious, and a few are shamanic.

Settlement patterns

Mongolia: population density [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]Mongolia: population densityEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Settlement in contemporary Mongolia is characterized by sharp regional contrasts: in the better-watered northern basins of the Orkhon and Selenge rivers, densities of population may reach 10 persons per square mile (4 per square km), but some desert areas are uninhabited. The population is concentrated in the north-central region of the country, which contains the richest pasturelands, the main crop area, the most industrial establishments, and the best transportation infrastructure.

Rural patterns

yurt [Credit: Bruno Morandi—age fotostock/Imagestate]yurtBruno Morandi—age fotostock/ImagestateThe distinctive feature of the countryside is the ger (yurt), the traditional Mongolian dwelling still used widely by herders, which provides warmth in winter and coolness in summer. It is a circular wooden lattice-walled structure with felt insulation and a broad conical roof resting on poles, the whole covered with white canvas. It is light, strong, and easy to assemble, transport, and reerect. During the socialist period the nomadic population was encouraged to adopt a settled way of life, and clusters of gers along with more permanent buildings surrounded the centres of livestock cooperatives and state farms. After 1990 rural unemployment and hardships among herders drew an increasing number of families to Ulaanbaatar and other towns, each of which is surrounded by ger encampments.

Urban patterns

Tsetserleg [Credit: © Jarax/Shutterstock.com]Tsetserleg© Jarax/Shutterstock.comThe first Buddhist monastic establishments were nomadic, but gradually permanent monasteries grew in importance. During the period of Qing rule, the Manchu built fortified administrative centres and garrison towns, like Khovd (Hovd) and Uliastai. After 1920 many small settlements developed to meet the administrative needs of the socialist regime. It is in the towns, however, that Mongolia presents its modern aspect. Towns grew rapidly in the second half of the 20th century, increasing their proportion of the total population from about one-fourth in 1950 to more than half by the early 1980s.

The capital, Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator), by far the largest and most important urban centre, has grown dramatically into a sprawling city of more than one million people—some two-fifths of the population of the entire country. It lies on the banks of the Tuul River in the north-central portion of Mongolia. Formerly known among Europeans as Urga (from the Russified version of Örgöö, the nomadic residence of the Javzandambas, it became settled on the present site in 1778. The old town—which numbered some 60,000 people in 1921—consisted mainly of monasteries, a few timber buildings, and clusters of gers. By the late 20th century, however, the “city of felt” had been transformed into a modern metropolis with broad avenues, high-rise office towers in the central business district, apartment complexes, and massive governmental, cultural, and educational buildings. In spite of this development, a large majority of the city’s population lived in the outlying ger districts, many without water supply or sanitation facilities and some without electricity.

Two other important towns—Darkhan, between Ulaanbaatar and Mongolia’s northern border, and Erdenet, west of Darkhan—are examples of planned urbanization. Darkhan’s foundation stone was laid in 1961, and within 20 years the population exceeded 50,000, and it has continued to grow. The new city became the hub of a major industrial complex during the socialist period, second only to Ulaanbaatar itself. Erdenet grew up in the 1970s on the basis of a copper mine developed as a joint venture with the Soviet Union.

Demographic trends

After a period of stagnation, the population of Mongolia increased rapidly in the second half of the 20th century, as birth rates climbed and death rates dropped. Improved health, sanitation, and medical facilities played a major role in reducing mortality, especially infant mortality. Also important was the government policy of encouraging families to have more children. Mongolia’s rate of natural increase reached a peak in the 1960s and declined slowly thereafter. By the late 20th century Mongolia’s main demographic trend was toward a youthful, fast-growing population, a dynamic that continued into the early 21st century.

Mongolia Flag
Official nameMongol Uls (Mongolia)
Form of governmentunitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (State Great Hural [76])
Head of statePresident: Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
Head of governmentPrime Minister: Chimediin Saikhanbileg
CapitalUlaanbaatar (Ulan Bator)
Official languageKhalkha Mongolian
Official religionnone
Monetary unittugrik (Tug)
Population(2014 est.) 2,719,000
Expand
Total area (sq mi)603,908
Total area (sq km)1,564,116
Urban-rural populationUrban: (2010) 68.5%
Rural: (2011) 31.5%
Life expectancy at birthMale: (2010) 64.9 years
Female: (2010) 72.3 years
Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literateMale: (2009) 97.1%
Female: (2009) 97.9%
GNI per capita (U.S.$)(2013) 3,770
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