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This
is a 3-page paper on the role of Greek and Roman literature and the role it
plays in today’s society.
Over the years, literature of ancient
Alfred Whitehead, the famous British philosopher-mathematician, once commented that: “[A]ll philosophy is but a footnote to Plato” (Comptons Encyclopedia). A similar point can be made regarding Greek literature as a whole. The Greek world of thought was far ranging and ideas discussed today have been previously debated by ancient writers. In fact, until recently, in Western culture, an acquaintance with classical Latin (as well as Greek) literature was basic to a liberal education. Roman literature such as epic and lyric poetry, rhetoric, history, comic drama and satire (the last genre being the only literary form that the Romans invented) serve as today’s backbone for a basic understanding of expression and artistic creativity, as well as history.
Greek comedies such as those
of Naevius and Andronicus, as well as historical writings in epic poems
(First Punic War), tell the story of
Epic Greek poetry was exclusively in verse, but evolved from the folk
ballads of early people of
Tragedy in drama as we know it today is said to have been originated
in the 6th century B.C. by Attic poet Thespis, who is credited
with spoken passages for actors to complement the lyric utterances of the
chorus. Sophocles and Euripides,
Greek playwrights, used psychological insight into their characterizations.
Comedy, grouped in two divisions (Mid
Plato and Aristotle were two major Greek philosophical writers. Plato developed some aspects of Socrates’ philosophy and expressed, in written dialogues, the philosophy later called idealism. They are also literary masterpieces, having many qualities common to poetry and drama. Aristotle, a pupil of Plato, wrote a large number of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, rhetoric, and politics. These writings are read and analyzed by many people still today (encyclopedia.com).
Greek culture was very widespread in the Mediterranean world during
the Hellenistic Age, 4th century to 1st century BC.
Literary schools that came into being and the greatest library of
antiquity were located in
Theological writings after the fall of the
Ancient Greek and Roman literature has affected literally every phase of societal intelligence over the years. As noted, this is evident in areas such as medicine, history, geography, philosophy, science and mathematics, drama, poetry, and religion. Even today, mankind frequently refers to early Greek and Roman writings for knowledge and expertise in directing their creative talents in a more precise and meaningful manner.
References
Greek
Literature.
Greek Literature.
Greek
Literature.
Latin Literature. Encarta Encyclopedia. Online. Available at: http://encarta.msn.com/find/rint
Philosophy
of Aristotle: Aristotle’s Life and Heritage.
Monarch Notes Aristotle; 01-01-1963.
Encyclopedia.com
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This three-page undergraduate paper is a literary analysis about discrimination in the book To Kill a Mockingbird.
To
Kill a Mockingbird:
An
Analysis of Discrimination
As a result of this skillful literary portrayal by Harper Lee of the
psychological transition from innocence to experience to realization, To
Kill a Mockingbird succeeds admirably in portraying the very real threat
that hatred, prejudice, and ignorance have always posed to the innocent.
Simple, trusting, good-hearted characters such as Tom Robinson and
Boo Radley are tragically unprepared. They
are ill-equipped emotionally and psychologically to deal with the unexpected
depths of the prejudice they encounter -- and as a result, they are
destroyed. Even Jem is
victimized to a certain extent by his discovery of the evil of prejudice and
its hidden power over so many people during and after the controversial
trial (Bergman and Asimow).
In the end, Scout is able to maintain her basic faith in human nature
despite the shock and unfairness of Tom Robinson’s courtroom conviction.
However, on the other hand, Jem’s faith in truth, justice and
humanity is very badly damaged. He
does not understand why all of this is happening.
Prejudice and racism do not make any sense to Jem as they are so
foreign to his nature that he had assumed they did not exist.
When the shameful courtroom proceedings are over he retreats into a
troubled state of deep disillusionment.
In contrast, Atticus Finch has experienced and understood evil
throughout his life. He has been confronted with prejudice and racism, but
has not lost his faith in the human capacity for goodness. Atticus
understands from his own experiences and reflection that, rather than being
simply creatures of good or creatures of evil, most people have both good
and bad qualities. Jem and Scout only learn this after their troubling
experiences with racism and prejudice during the trial.
When they do, it is a revelation which eases some of the burden of
their discovery of prejudice.
One of the most powerful scenes in the novel is when Jem asks, “If
there’s just one kind of folks, why can’t they get along with each other
? If they’re all alike, why do
they go out of their way to despise each other ?”
He sadly declares, “Scout, I think I’m beginning to understand
something, I think I’m beginning to understand why Boo Radley’s stayed
shut up in the house all this time. It’s
because he wants to stay inside.” In Jem, the sadness is deep and lasting
(Lee 240).
Lee proceeds to demonstrate the range of prejudice and tolerance in
people by emphasizing the point very effectively through the sheriff’s
explanation that, “I’m not a very good man, sir, but I am sheriff of
Maycomb County. I’ve lived in this town all my life an’ I'm goin’ on
forty-three years old. Know everything that’s happened here since before I
was born. There’s a black boy dead for no reason, and the man responsible
for it’s dead. Let the dead bury the dead this time, Mr. Finch, let the
dead bury the dead” (Lee 290).
Lee goes on to say through Atticus that the important thing in life
is to appreciate the good qualities and understand the bad qualities by
treating others with sympathy and trying to see life from their perspective.
He tries to teach this ultimate moral lesson
In conclusion, in To Kill a
Mockingbird, author Harper Lee tenaciously explores
the moral nature of human beings, especially the struggle in every
human soul between discrimination and tolerance.
The novel is very effective in not only revealing prejudice, but in
examining the nature of prejudice, how it works, and its consequences.
Bibliography
Bergman, Paul, and Asimow, Michael. Reel
Justice. New
York: Andrews and McMeel, 1996.
Castleman, Tamara. Cliffsnotes’
Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird. New
York: Cliffsnotes, 2000.
Lee, Harper. To
Kill a Mockingbird. New
York: Harper Collins, 1999.
To Kill a Mockingbird.
Dir. Robert Mulligan. Perf.
Gregory Peck, Mary Badham,
Crahan
Denton, Philip Alford. Universal-International,
1962.
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This essay will analyze the themes of religion, slavery, and democracy in the book Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. By exploring these themes that lie behind the book’s veneer, we can see how Twain had an objective when he wrote this book. That is, he hoped to achieve a wide symbolic scope. By unveiling the themes that are present in the book, we can see what Twain stood for and why he wrote this novel in the period he lived in.
This essay will analyze the themes of religion, slavery, and democracy in the book Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. By exploring these themes that lie behind the book’s veneer, we can see how Twain had an objective when he wrote this book. That is, he hoped to achieve a wide symbolic scope. By unveiling the themes that are present in the book, we can see what Twain stood for and why he wrote this novel in the period he lived in.
Religion is sarcastically reflected in Huckleberry Finn by Twain’s sense of storyline and the way his characters talk. A predominant theme, and probably one of Twain's favorites, is the mockery of religion. Twain tended to attack organized religion at every opportunity and the sarcastic character of Huck Finn is perfectly situated to allow him to do so. The attack on religion can already be seen in the first chapter, when Huck indicates that hell sounds like a lot more fun than heaven. This will continue throughout the novel, with one prominent scene occurring when the "King" convinces a religious community to give him money so he can "convert" his pirate friends.
Twain’s skeptical take on religion can be elicited because superstition is a theme that both Huck and Jim bring up several times. Although both of these characters tend to be quite rational, they quickly become irrational when anything remotely superstitious happens to them. The role of superstition in this book is two-fold: First, it shows that Huck and Jim are child-like in spite of their otherwise extremely mature characters. Second, it serves to foreshadow the plot at several key junctions. For example, spilling salt leads to Pa returning for Huck, and later Jim gets bitten by a rattlesnake after Huck touches a snakeskin with his hands.
Another theme that is dealt with in this book is slavery. In fact, slavery is one of the main topics that has been frequently debated in regards to Huckleberry Finn since it was first published. Twain himself was vehemently anti-slavery and Huckleberry Finn can in many ways be seen as an allegory for why slavery is wrong. Twain uses Jim, a slave who is one of the main characters, as a way of showing the human side of a slave. Everything about Jim is presented through emotions: Jim runs away because Miss Watson was going to sell him South and separate him from his family; Jim is trying to become free so he can buy his family's freedom; and Jim takes care of Huck and protects him on their journey downriver in a very materialistic manner. Thus, Twain's purpose is to make the reader feel sympathy for Jim and outrage against the society that would harm him. However, at the same time that Twain is attacking slavery, he also pushes the issue into the background for most of the novel. Thus, slavery itself is never debated by Huck and Jim.
Moreover, the other slaves in the novel are noticeably minor characters. Only at the very end does Twain create the central conflict concerning slavery: Should Huck free Jim from slavery and therefore be condemned to go to hell? This moment is life altering for Huck because it forces him to reject everything that "civilization" has taught him. In the end, he makes the decision to free Jim based solely on his own experiences and not based on what he has been taught from books.
The themes of thievery and freedom also come up in the book, in that Huck and his gang are free to whatever they want. They are on the wrong side of the law and have no one to tell them what to do. Consequently, the themes of robbery and freedom are ones that permeate the novel. They are first introduced in the second chapter with respect to Tom Sawyer's band: Tom believes that “there is a great deal of freedom associated with being robbers.” This theme can be traced throughout the rest of the book. Huck and Jim encounter robbers on the shipwrecked boat and later they are forced to put up with the King and the Dauphin, both of whom "rob" everyone they meet and free to do as they wish. Tom's robber band is also paralleled by the fact that Tom and Huck both become literal robbers at the end of the novel. They both resolve to steal Jim out of slavery and have the freedom to do so.
In conclusion, many various themes run through this novel. Tom has an anti-slavery sentiment, which tells us what Twain thought of slavery. Also, skepticism of religion is demonstrated through all of the hysterical mockeries Twain makes of organized religion. Additionally, the element of freedom is also encompassed, as the main characters are free to roam as they please.
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This paper discusses
the ending of Jane Eyre, discussing whether it is a “good”
ending. The paper draws on three
criticisms of both the novel and Romantic literature in general to conclude
that, yes, it is indeed a good ending because it both fits the prevailing
realism of the main character’s worldview, and conforms to the predominant
literary trends of the period.
Does
Jane Eyre End Well?
This paper discusses the
ending of Jane Eyre, discussing whether it is a “good” ending.
The paper draws on three criticisms of both the novel and Romantic
literature in general to conclude that, yes, it is indeed a good ending
because it both fits the prevailing realism of the main character’s
worldview, and conforms to the predominant literary trends of the period.
The climate in which Charlotte Bronte wrote her magnum opus was one that had almost fully recovered from the rationalist excesses of the Enlightenment. The existing climate had replaced ‘scientific’ realism with Romanticism of the Byronic sort, drawing on the ancient ideals of chivalry and the new ideals of individual freedom to craft a literature in which suffering does not end with the last romantic sunset.
Ultimately,
concepts such as happiness cannot be guaranteed to skeptics like Jane Eyre
and “hideous” men like Rochester -- only the divine union of passion can
be guaranteed. Yet, for
Bronte’s characters, this is sufficient reward and an appropriate closure
for a love story about such atypical characters.
Below, I will use characterizations of the Romantic literary school,
as well as criticism of Jane Eyre, to explain how the ending of the
novel fits perfectly with the rest of the landmark novel.
Jane Eyre ends only after a succession of unlikely (and
frankly hideous) circumstances come to pass, transforming the lives and
psyches of Jane and Rochester beyond their stoic realism.
However, because Jane and Rochester are such believable characters,
the events that wrack their mortal lives are taken in stride by both the
characters and the reader, although the graphic manner in which the narrator
(Jane) tells of these events is intended to shock, and to convey Jane’s
ultimate stoicism (Penner, 1999:140). This
stoicism is also an indicator of control – as stoics are in complete
control of their emotions, so too is Jane in complete control of her life at
the end of the novel. The
survival instincts of both Jane and Rochester serve mainly to provide a
contrast to the bald melodrama that typifies their declarations of love to
each other.
Feminist criticism of Jane Eyre concentrates on this aspect of
control and the shifting power dynamic between Jane and Rochester throughout
the book. What starts out as a
retelling of the Electra story ends as an assertion of feminist agency over
the domestic fate of both Rochester and Jane.
By acquiring an inheritance and overcoming her lowly past as a
governess, Jane is able to get the upper hand in her relationship with
Rochester, who is not only male, but landed nobility, and thus controls
Jane’s health, happiness, and future to a great extent.
By the end of the novel, emotion has made the two equals, and rather
than Rochester taking Jane to the moon and feeding her manna, making her
dependent on him for all her needs (Bronte, 1987:234). Jane states
“Reader, I married him,” in an active declaration of possession out of
character for any Romantic heroine (Bronte, 1987: 387).
This is absolutely in tune with the rest of her character; Jane has
an un-Romantic attachment to truth, and a Romantic loathing of hypocrisy
that makes her as strong as any Byronic hero.
Bronte’s recounting of Jane’s childhood is peppered with
instances in which she sees through the hypocrisy of the adult world (Oates,
1997). She is not, as most
Romantic heroines are, an ‘innocent’ who still believes in the essential
goodness of humankind. Rather,
she is a realist, having experienced suffering firsthand, but unwilling to
sink to the level of those who made her suffer.
The ending of the novel also conforms to a number of conventions of
the gothic literary style. The
symbolism of the burnt estate as the beginning of a new life for the couple
in question is echoed in earlier and later narratives, notably Daphne du
Maurier’s Rebecca, written almost a century later (Mellor,
1993:202). Unlike the thoroughly
realist Rebecca, Bronte’s work retains the moralizing tendencies of
the Romantic era, using the tragedy as a transformative event.
That is, after losing a hand and his sight in the fire while trying
to save Bertha Mason (his mad wife), Rochester is docile, tame,
domesticated. The fire
accomplishes what not even strong, willful Jane Eyre could have done -- it
makes Rochester powerless before the random terror of Nature (Penner,
1999:135). Not woman, but fire,
has made Rochester a more moral person, able to see his own faults and be
more charitable to others. In
the Victorian era that followed, women would be seen as agents of
domestication and moral education, whose duty was to tame the wild male
passions.
The main character’s realism concerning human suffering may make the “happy ending” seem out of place, but the wedded bliss that Jane Eyre experiences is not an escape into a Romantic sunset honeymoon, but an attempt at real intimacy with a man whose body and soul have been traumatized. Even though Jane’s married life is described only in terms of abstract ecstasies of the spirit, the reader must discern that Rochester’s blindness, even if it is in the end reversible, is not part of an ideal life.
However, Bronte’s story is not a myth, and does not portray a
perfect, or even perfectible, life. For
a novel that explores the depths of human suffering, the only happy ending
is one that treats that suffering responsibly, without sweeping it under the
rug or magically disregarding it (Oates, 1997).
The reader is not convinced that Jane and her new husband are really
having an easy time of it at Ferndean. However,
Bronte’s model couple are not drowning themselves in the blindness of new
love, and are both well aware of each other’s human fallibility, which is
probably a better ending than these two characters might expect otherwise
(Mellor, 1993:118).
In conclusion, Jane Eyre ends both well and appropriately for
the story and the author’s setting. The
characters are Romantic caricatures only to a point, and when they return
from “the heights of bliss,” they do deal with the realities of their
relatively painful lives. The
novel ends well in that it is not a pat or hurried ending, and was clearly
planned out in great detail and to great effect, to the point that one might
imagine Emily Bronte betting Charlotte that she could not write a novel that
ended with man and woman being absolute equals in marriage, and Charlotte
producing Jane Eyre to satisfy the bargain.
However, in a more realistic vein, the novel’s ending is able to
adhere to some prevailing Romantic conventions (melodrama most noticeably)
while providing the reader with a thoroughly realistic ending.
Bronte, Charlotte. Jane
Eyre. New York: Norton,
1987.
Mellor, Anne K. Romanticism
and Gender. New York:
Routledge, 1993.
Oates, Joyce Carol,
“Declaration of Independence: the biggest surprise in Charlotte Bronte’s
Jane Eyre is its unromantic heroine,” Salon.com Classics Book
Group, accessed November 17, 2001, http://www.salon.com/sept97/oates970929.html
Penner, Louise, “Domesticity and Self-Possession in The Morgensons and Jane Eyre,” Studies in American Fiction 27:2, 131-146.
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Illusions
and Realities in Ibsen’s Plays The
Wild Duck and Ghosts
Abstract:
In
this essay, Ibsen’s plays, The Wild
Duck, and Ghosts are considered in relation to themes of illusions and
realities. In both plays, families are held together by illusions, yet torn
apart by truths that have been concealed to protect the children. Ibsen’s
use of artistic realism is an ironic art form where illusions and realisms
are contradicted to reveal the deeper conflicts of ordinary lives. Ibsen
presents the complicated realities of ordinary lives and emphasizes the fact
that there are always many realities -- just as there are many illusions.
Illusions
and Realities in Ibsen’s Plays The
Wild Duck and Ghosts
Introduction
In
Ibsen’s The Wild Duck, illusions and reality are set into a conflict within
the story of a son’s personal desire to confront idealism. Throughout much
of the play, the son, Greger, argues the value of truth with the reluctant
Dr. Relling. Relling insists on the importance of illusions, but fails to
discourage Greger’s intentions and a play that begins as a comedy quickly
turns into a tragedy because of these conflicts.
At the heart of the illusions in this play are the ways that people
assume many roles in a family, impersonating multiple ideals as ways for
managing their relationships. This theme of impersonation is also developed
in Ibsen’s Ghosts, where family
relations are slowly undone as the illusions and deceptions are stripped
away. In both plays,
deceptions are strategic and designed to protect the children from the pains
and struggles of their families’ histories.
Ultimately, in these plays, families are held together by illusions,
yet torn apart by truths that have been concealed to protect the children.
Illusions
and Realism
In The Wild Duck, as Relling continues to discourage Greger from
revealing damaging truths about family secrets, Relling insists, "If
you take away make-believe from the average man, you take away happiness as
well" (Ibsen, 294). Relling is referring to the ways the Ekdal family
is structured on particular deceptions; however, these are designed to
protect the innocent as well as the guilty. Hedvig, the fourteen year old
daughter, represents one of the innocents, and Greger’s father, Old Werle,
represents a part of the guilty side. The key to these dualisms of false and
truth, innocent and guilty, illusion and reality, lies in Ibsen’s art of
realism, which was a staging of the complicated threads that hold ordinary
lives together.
Within
the ordinary lives of the families in Ghosts
and The Wild Duck are tales of
infidelity, corruption, greed, lust, disease, and other afflictions that
characterize family secrets. For example, in Ghosts, the mother, Mrs. Alving, reveals the ways she has protected
her son Oswald from the truths of her unhappy marriage. She tells her friend
and priest, Manders, “…Yes, I was always swayed by duty and
consideration for others; that was why I lied to my son, year in and year
out. Oh, what a coward I have been” (315).
Manders
responds, “You have built up a happy illusion in your son’s mind, Mrs.
Alving – and that is a thing you certainly ought not to undervalue,”
(315) echoing Dr. Relling’s belief that illusions are sometimes more than
a question of reality. In both plays, the deeper questions are about whose
reality matters, and who may determine another person’s reality.
Relling accuses Greger of having a plague of “…integrity-fever; and then -- what's worse -- you are always in a delirium of hero-worship; you must always have something to adore, outside yourself,” which Greger agrees to, without considering the consequences of this claim (297). In fact, Greger’s certainty about the dangers of illusions provokes the young Hedvig into an emotional despair, and she kills herself. The issues presented in this play are not about what is true, or false, but about the ways people build their lives on the past. Hedvig’s father, Hialmar, protects his daughter from truths that concern the actions of others, with consequences that have indirectly affected her life. In Ghosts, Mrs. Alving is protecting her son from truths that, in the end, have consequences on Oswald’s life, as he has inherited syphilis from his philandering father.
The climaxes of these two stories result in the deaths of Hedvig, and Oswald and both deaths come about as a result of their learning the truths of their pasts. In each of these plays, the reality is what destroys the characters. Once the life illusions are taken away, there is nothing for the individuals to hold onto. As the illusions are shattered, reality becomes impossible to endure.
Ultimately, by using realism to portray the value of illusions, Ibsen produces complicated questions about what is real and what is sometimes a necessary illusion.
Conclusion
Both The Wild Duck, and Ghosts are tragedies that involve what might be understood as “the sins of the fathers;” however, Ibsen seems to suggest that some truths are better maintained as illusions. In both plays, the truth destroys the lives of those who have been protected from the past and in both cases the past involves relationships that have indirect consequences on the children’s understandings of their lives. In the end, whether it is right or wrong to maintain the illusions is not as significant as the question of who has the right to determine what is real, and what is true for others.
Henrik
Ibsen, “The Wild Duck,” Four Great
Plays by Henrik Ibsen, NY: Bantam Books.
Henrik Ibsen, “Ghosts,” Playreader’s Repertory, M.R. White and F. Whiting, Eds., London: Foresom and Company.
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This is a 8 page, 10 resource paper discussing
Alzheimer’s disease,
discussing the history, symptoms, diagnosis and hopes for a cure of the
disease.
Alzheimer’s
Disease: Not Just Loss of Memory
Alzheimer's disease, a neurodegenerative brain disease, is the most common cause of dementia. It currently afflicts about 4 million Americans and is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States. Furthermore, Alzheimer’s disease is the leading cause of mental impairment in elderly people and accounts for a large percentage of admissions to assisted living homes, nursing homes, and other long-term care facilities. Psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, have been reported in a large proportion of patients with this disease. In fact, it is the presence of these psychotic symptoms can lead to early institutionalization (Bassiony, et all, 2000).
Learning about Alzheimer’s disease and
realizing that it is much more that just a loss of memory can benefit the
families of those with the disorder as well as society as a whole. The
purpose of this paper is to look at the disorder, as well as to discuss the
history, symptoms, diagnosis and hopes of a cure for Alzheimer’s disease.
Around the turn of the century, two kinds of dementia were defined by Emil Kraepin: senile and presenile. The presenile form was described more in detail by Alois Alzheimer as a progressive deterioration of intellect, memory and orientation. As a neuropathologist, Alzheimer studied the case a 51 year-old woman. When she died, Alzheimer performed an autopsy and found that she had “cerebral atrophy” (deterioration of the brain), “senile plaques” (protein deposits) and “neurofibrillary tangles” (abnormal filaments in nerve cells) in her brain -- three common pathological features of those who have Alzheimer’s Disease (Ramanathan, 1997).
Today, as research on Alzheimer's disease progresses, scientists are
describing other abnormal anatomical and chemical changes associated with
the disease. These include nerve cell degeneration in the brain's nucleus
and reduced levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the brains of
Alzheimer's disease victims (Alzheimer’s Disease). However, from a
practical standpoint, conducting an autopsy of an individual to make a
definitive diagnosis is rather ineffective. Newer diagnostic techniques will
be discussed in a later section of this paper.
The progression of Alzheimer’s disease is classified into three phases: forgetfulness, confusional, and dementia. The forgetfulness phase is the first stage and is characterized by a loss of short-term memory. Patients in this phase will often have trouble remembering names of well-known people and will misplace items on a regular basis. This stage also may include behavioral changes. Additionally, a loss of spontaneity and social withdrawal often occurs as the individual begins to become aware that there is something inherently wrong. Speech problems and difficulty with comprehension may also appear. Cleary, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish an Alzheimer’s patient from normal everyday people or people with other disorders.
In the confusional stage, the cognitive deterioration is more noticeable and memory loss is much more pronounced. Individuals in this stage will often have trouble recognizing where they are or remembering the date and day of the week. Poor judgment is also a noticeable trait at this state and the individual’s personality will likely change to some degree as well.
In the final stage of dementia, there are profound losses of memory and mental abilities. Patients will often not recognize their spouse or children or be able to read with comprehension. Eventually, individuals will become bedridden as brain functions disintegrate (Ramanathan 1997).
As of yet, there are no known causes that can be concretely linked to Alzheimer’s disease. To further complicate matters, there are a number of diseases that have symptoms in common with the dementia associated with Alzheimer’s. Understanding the different types of dementia-related illnesses is important when trying to diagnose a patient with these kinds of symptoms. Doctors separate the dementia illnesses into three groups: primary undifferentiated dementia, primary differentiated dementia and secondary dementia.
Primary undifferentiated dementia diseases produce the dementia by direct effects on the brain, such as those seen in Alzheimer’s. They resemble each other quite closely and often cannot be distinguished from one another through ordinary diagnostic means. The primary differentiated dementia diseases often include losses of muscular control and thus they can be separated from the previous group. Most of these diseases are rare. The secondary dementia diseases are not due to a permanent impairment of the brain and can often be cured, so accurate diagnosis is critical. Therefore, one can see how the three types can cause diagnosis problems for people in the medical field (Heston and White 1983).
For example, Pick’s disease is so similar Alzheimer’s that distinguishing the two in living patients is almost impossible. Like Alzheimer’s patients, those with Pick’s disease show signs of neurofilament masses and disarray in the neurotubules. However, there is a syndrome that is seen more in Pick’s patients than any other patient, which can aid in the diagnosis of the illness. This is a disease of the brain center and the individual often shows signs of severe overeating, hypersexuality and euphoric disposition. Pick’s patients often show signs in their early fifties and nearly all die within eight years of the onset of the illness (Ibid).
Low-pressure-hydrocephalus or ‘water on the brain’ is one illness of the primary differentiable type. If this disease can be properly diagnosed, it can be treated and, in most cases, the symptoms are relieved or greatly improved. It is caused by an overabundance of cerebral fluid on the brain, which must be relieved surgically. Huntington’s disease is another differentiable type, but it, as of yet, has no cure. Patients who have this disease exhibit involuntary writhing movements that are distinctive to this disorder. Finally, viral diseases, Parkinson’s disease and Wilson’s disease, among others, can also be causes of primary dementia similar to that seen in Alzheimer’s patients (Ibid).
Current Research
Accordingly, how are doctors able to diagnosis Alzheimer’s disease in the face of all these difficulties? One answer is to look at the article written by Douglas Gelb for the Statistics in Medicine Journal. Dr. Gelb puts forth four areas that could be useful in the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s. These are: cognitive testing, global assessment, functional assessment, and behavioral rating scales.
Cognitive testing, while not directly related to everyday tasks, can be helpful in rating the change in a patient over time. Dr. Gelb discusses at length how copying geometric puzzles and counting backwards by seven doesn’t reflect everyday skills. His main point about this kind of testing is the rate of change seen between tests. This rate of change can help doctors diagnose the dementia and classify it into it proper category, one of those being dementia of the Alzheimer’s type.
A single test or series of tests can be used to test an
individual’s dementia on a global scale, i.e. specific symptoms are not
focused on, but the effect of all the symptoms together are studied. Dr.
Gelb puts form that there
are at least two ways in which global measures could conceivably be useful
in diagnosis of dementia. First, global testing can help identify which
treatment strategies are working for specific groups of dementias. Second,
the global testing of a wide patient pool could offer evidence of a scale
with which to rate the progress of the disease.
Functional testing is perhaps the most practical of all the testing
as it studies the motor and brain skills required to function on a day to
day basis. Self-care tasks are studied to asses whether a patient is able to
care for themselves. Repeated tests can also show if a patient is responding
in a positive way to a treatment regime. Like the global testing, this kind
of testing could also be used to create a rating scale.
Finally, Dr. Gelb states the need for more behavioral testing. In the
past, this area has been ignored since most of the tests come at the request
of the caregiver. These tests, too, could be studied across a vast group of
patient in order to create a rating scale. Likewise, response to treatment
can be assessed (Gelb, 2000).
Research is also being conducted in an attempt to correlate the
deterioration of the individual’s cognitive functions and psychiatric
phenomena. According to one group of researchers, patients with dementia and
major depression also showed a low level of a particular enzyme in the
brain. Furthermore, there was a higher neuron count in a portion of the
brain. Thus, they conclude, this enzyme may be related to neuron function,
which is, in turn, related to the depression (Harwood et all, 2000). This
correlation may lead to research that can help alleviate the depression
symptoms in patients with dementia.
Studying the effects of different symptoms and their relationship with the patient’s dementia are also being conducted. These kinds of studies are useful in diagnosing the particular dementia, as there seem to be slight differences in the amount of dysfunction and its progress in different dementias. For example, gait and balance dysfunctions were studied in a group of patients consisting of individuals with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and Vascular dementia. It was seen in this study, as one might expect, that those patients with Parkinson’s disease showed the greatest dysfunction in this area (Wait et al, 2000). This is probably due to the fact the Parkinson’s disease also severely affects the patient’s motor control.
Also, research is being conducted in the area of Alzheimer’s itself and the disease’s progression. One set of researchers has found that Alzheimer’s patients, while being aware of their deficits in memory and other function in the beginning of the illness, lose some of this self-awareness as the disease progresses. This self-awareness is most likely, logically, connected to the fact that an Alzheimer’s memory deteriorates as the disease progresses -- a patient cannot be aware of things they do not remember (Derouesne et all, 2000).
In addition, many more areas are being researched in regards to dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. In fact, there are so many that it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss them all. However, some of these are worth mentioning. For example, significant findings from studies have improved doctors’ understanding of the plaques and tangles seen in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease. This understanding eventually may lead to the development of treatments to slow the effects of the disease process. Ultimately, the prevention of the plaque deposits and tangles is the goal of this research.
Moreover, the recent discovery of a previously unknown lesion characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease may lead researchers to further understand the disease process and how intervention therapies may be designed. This lesion, called AMY plaque, may play a role in the onset and progression of Alzheimer’s. Moreover, studies of the inflammatory processes of the brain and the role of oxidative stress in Alzheimer’s disease have been conducted. This has led to preliminary indications of the beneficial use of anti-inflammatories, such as ibuprofen, and antioxidants, such as vitamin E, in treating or slowing progression of the disease.
As of yet, there are no known cures for Alzheimer’s disease. In fact, many of the dementias similar to Alzheimer’s also lack a cure. However, research is continually being conducted. This research covers a wide range of areas, from better diagnostic tools to genetic testing.
One such diagnostic tool recently received a patent. According to the inventor of the tPST, H. Paul Voorheis, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Biochemistry at Trinity College, his new blood test can make a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease simply, and without risk or discomfort to the patient. The tPST detects tau- peptide fragments, which are released into the blood by degenerating neurons in Alzheimer's disease sufferers. Dr. Voorheis has been able to detect tau-peptide in early Alzheimer's disease and believes that the tPST is as sensitive to the early stages of Alzheimer's disease as to later stages. In addition, Dr. Voorheis noted that because very little tau-peptide is found in normal blood, he believes that the tPST will prove to be both a sensitive and highly specific test for Alzheimer's disease and that, when the tPST is fully developed and routinely available, it will provide a safe and cost-effective diagnosis of the disorder . This test would go a long way toward the accurate diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease and provide a concrete way of pinpointing who has this disease.
Obviously, knowledge regarding Alzheimer’s disease has progressed far from thinking that it is just a loss of memory. This disease produces a full-blown dementia in its patients and affects millions of people and their families. These people and their families have special needs. Consequently, programs, environments, and care approaches must reflect this uniqueness. Developing an effective care/service plan for a person with dementia requires careful assessment of that person, a detailed plan, and attention to the individualized needs of persons with dementia. All individuals (including the person with Alzheimer’s disease, family, and staff) should be involved in the development, implementation, and evaluation of the assessment and care/service plan process.
Bibliography
7.
Waite, Louise, G. Anthony Broe, David Grayson, and Helen
Creasey. (2000). Motor function and disability in the dementias.
International Journal Geriatric Psychiatry, 4, 786-892.
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This paper discusses The Crucible by Arthur Miller, as well as examines the character of Reverend Hale in the play.
This paper discusses The Crucible by Arthur Miller, as well as examines the character of Reverend Hale in the play. Through the prose passages that interrupt the dialogue and action of the play, Miller establishes the particular quality of Salem society that makes it especially receptive to the repression and panic of the witch trials. The Puritan life in Salem is rigid and somber, allowing little room for persons to break from the monotony and strict work ethic that dominated the close-knit society. Furthermore, the Puritan religious ethic permeated all aspects of society, promoting safeguards against immorality at any cost to personal privacy or justice.
The Puritans of Massachusetts were a religious faction who, after years of suffering persecution themselves, developed a willful sense of community to guard against infiltration from outside sources. It is this paradox that Miller used to create a major theme of The Crucible. That is, in order to keep the community together, members of that community believe that they must in some sense tear it apart. Miller relates the intense paranoia over the integrity of the Puritan community. This relates strongly to the political climate of the early 1950s in which Miller wrote The Crucible.
In The Crucible, the character that sets the witchcraft trials in motion is Reverend John Hale. Indeed, Hale is perhaps the most complex character in The Crucible. He is a man “who approaches religious matters with the conviction of a scientist and a scientific emphasis on proper procedure” (Weales p.134). Hale holds the contradictory belief that they cannot rely on superstition to solve the girls' problems but that they may find a supernatural explanation for the events. Since he lacks the malicious motivations and obsessions that plague the other instigators of the trials, Reverend Hale has the ability to change his position, yet he finds himself caught up in the hysteria he has helped to create.
Near the end, Miller develops the motivations of the proponents of the witchcraft trials. Reverend Parris remains motivated by suspicion and paranoia, while Thomas Putnam moves from an original motivation of grudges against others to unabashed greed. Abigail Williams, in contrast, moves from self-preservation to a more general lust for power.
However, upon the arrest of Rebecca Nurse and Elizabeth Proctor, Reverend Hale eschews the supernatural explanations for more concrete, legal explanations. He redeems himself from his role as a Pontius Pilate by serving as an advocate for justice. This is significant, for it provides concrete evidence that opposition to the trials does not necessarily mean opposition to law and order.
Additionally, the theme of self-preservation recurs throughout the novel. While Hale suggests, “that God damns a liar less than a person who throws one's life away” (Weales p.123), Elizabeth suggests that this is the devil's argument. Miller seems to support Elizabeth's position, for it is by giving self-preserving lies that Tituba and Sarah Good perpetuated the witch-hunts.
In conclusion, over the course of the play, The Crucible utilizes Reverend Hale in a profound way. He is the scientific thinker of the two religious quarrels and the role Reverend Hale plays is one of a reoccurring sense of justice within the framework of the play. Yet, while Hale attempts to be a thinker who depends on the virtues of the Bible, he does not really have a real grasp as an enlightened thinker because, ultimately, he shifts like a politico in almost everyway.
Bibliography:
Miller, Arthur, Gerald Weales (Editor), The Crucible: Text and Criticism, Penguin USA, December 1995.
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This
four-page undergraduate paper discusses the opposition that American leaders
encountered after the Revolution, as a result of deciding to form a central
government. The states feared that such a government would suppress them and
would interfere with their internal affairs. Consequently, heated debates
and uprisings characterize this period, which started with the framing of
Articles in 1777 and ended with the final adoption of the
STATES’ ARGUMENTS AGAINST A CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
American leaders faced much opposition from the states after the American
Revolution as a result of deciding to form a central government. The states
feared that such a government would suppress them and would interfere with
their internal affairs. Consequently, heated debates and uprisings
characterize this period, which started with the framing of Articles in 1777
and ended with the final adoption of the
The American Revolution holds a very prominent place in the history of this
country, as it was the longest and the most painful war Americans ever
encountered. It took many years and numerous conflicts to finally gain
independence in 1776 from British domination, which had been subjugating its
colonies with laws of an unwritten constitution. It must be understood that
though Americans were fighting for the right of democracy and each state
wanted self-government, later that same issue turned into a big problem.
Soon after
It was then that the leaders of the nation decided to write a central
constitution, which would be followed by all states. This is when the power
struggle began. While some
states agreed to the proposal, several states completely rejected it and
others were indecisive as to what would be the right thing to do. There were
so many issues that arose that the individual states urged the people to
reject the idea of a central government, because it would, purportedly,
create undue interference in a state’s internal matters.
The people who opposed the proposal were known as Anti-federalists.
They wrote many articles against the concept of a central government, which
were printed under pseudonyms.
The arguments raised against the central government appeared in many
newspapers. For example, a paper
under the name of ‘Brutus’ was published on
Ultimately, while the original thirteen states went through the process of
ratification of the constitution, it was very disturbing period in the
history of
Factors like these convinced some people to resist the idea of a central
controlling body. However, those who were in favor of the central government
dismissed such fears claiming the a central government was being formed to
unite the country under one force and that it did not aim at snatching the
liberty or basic rights of the citizens. This argument was eventually
accepted by the states. Ultimately, while American leaders faced much
opposition from the states after the American Revolution as a result of
deciding to form a central government, the U.S. Constitution was eventually
approved and accepted.
REFERENCES:
1)Essay
IV: 1760-1836IV. WHAT WAS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION? 1760-1836
2)BRUTUS,
THE ANTI-FEDERALIST PAPERS,
3)"JOHN
DEWITT”, ANTI-FEDERALIST PAPERS,
Sources
are available online:
http://www.constitution.org/afp/brutus01.txt
http://www.askeric.org/Virtual/Lessons/crossroads/sec2/essay04.html
http://www.constitution.org/afp/dewitt01.htm
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This paper will
explain the basic ideas contained in the Declaration of Independence, the
impact of the Declaration upon the American War of Independence, and the
reasons the Declaration was considered a "radical document".
These themes will be discussed and analyzed to demonstrate the
premise of the Declaration of Independence, as well as to explain why and
how it worked within the time it was written in.
By understanding the framework of time that the Declaration of Independence was written in, we can see its impact upon the peoples of early America and how they dealt with this famous writing. This paper will explain the basic ideas contained in the Declaration of Independence, the impact of the Declaration upon the American War of Independence, and the reasons the Declaration was considered a "radical document". These themes will be discussed and analyzed to demonstrate the premise of the Declaration of Independence, as well as to explain why and how it worked within the time it was written in.
When Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence, he
foresaw the coming of great changes within the times that he lived in.
The Declaration embodied many of the ideas that separated the
colonies from England and thus began the process of creating a new country
out of the fray.
One
of the ideas that Jefferson wrote about was the freedom of religion.
This was a core idea that made the basis of a republican society
work, via separation of church and state.
This caused many schisms in the many faiths that were already
implanted in the colonies. Moreover,
it took a long time to separate the church from the state because of the old
foundations set by England. Jefferson set the trend for freedom in this
writing to give everyone a fair chance to be “whomever they wanted to be
regardless of race, creed or religion” (Zinn p.77).
Another
idea entrenched in the Declaration of Independence is that men should not be
subject to the hierarchy that was the foundation for a monarchical
government -- such as the one that England had used unsuccessfully with the
colonists in the new world. A
king could do as he pleased and thus wreaked havoc within the colonies by
taxing without representation. This
started the whole “windfall of rebellion by the colonists from the North
to the South” (Maier p.236). Jefferson
wrote that all people were created equal -- and this was the great democracy
that he and others envisioned in their time. Jefferson believed that the
English form of governing was no longer the acceptable way for a human to be
treated and this was the basis for him to ink the Declaration against
primogeniture and other forms of “special” treatment for Lords who
governed the colonies so poorly through the influence of King George the
III.
The
Declaration of Independence inspired the American Revolution because it
rebelled against the harsh treatment that many colonists underwent due to
the unpredictable behavior of the English monarchy.
“Riots and protest were started and sometimes ended in
blood-shed” (Maier p.45) and many people began to assemble militias and
guerrilla styled armies. Many
wealthy merchants and farmers realized that they could better govern their
own people in a rational manner, rather than utilizing the sometimes haughty
and foolish measures of the British.
Predominantly,
these were the reactions of the common people, but the new congress did
debate some of what Jefferson had written and “saw his criticisms of King
George somewhat too much” (Stein p.112).
There were some who believed the document was the unreasonable result
of the hot temper that Jefferson wrote with at certain times. This document,
even though some powerful men of the colonies thought it reactionary, was in
many ways a radical document because it reintroduced the old Greek form of
Republican government and set the tone for the later documents that would
make the ideas law. It was a
great split from the Old World and cut the chain from England as a ruling
body that was attached to early America.
In
conclusion, we find that the idea of men being created equal is the main
focus of the document, and thus separated England from America during the
late 18th century. Even though some considered it to be a radical
text, ultimately, the Declaration of Independence is a great document.
Freedman,
Russel, Give Me Liberty!, The Story of the Declaration of Independence,
Holiday House, Inc., September 2000.
Fehrenbach,
T.R., Greatness to Spare: The Heroic Sacrifices of the Men Who signed the
Declaration of Independence, Replica Books, June 1999.
Maier,
Pauline, American Scripture: he Making of the Declaration of Independence,
Random House, Incorporated, June 1998.
Stein,
Jopesph, R. Conrad Stein, The Declaration of Independence, Grolier
Publishing, October 1995.
Zinn,
Howard, The Declarations of Independence: Cross Examining American Ideology,
Harper Trade, September 1991.
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