King Croesus of Lydia became proverbial for his
wealth and the prosperity of his kingdom. His life
and deeds crossed the border between Myth and
History; and himself, having been double-crossed by
the oracles, crossed with an army the river
separating his country from that of the Persians,
and caused thereby his own ruin.
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King of Lydia.
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History, and not the myths, affirms that Croesus
reigned, as last king of Lydia, from 560 to 546 BC,
over all peoples and cities between the Aegean
coast of Asia Minor in the west and the river Halys
in the East, having as his capital the city of
Sardis, which is between Mount Tmolus and the river
Hermos.
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Kings of Sardis.
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Sardis is said to have been founded by Sardo,
son of Sthenelus 7, otherwise unknown, but the
country Lydia, previously known as land of the
Meii, was called after King Lydus, son either of
Heracles 1, or of Atys
3 and Callithea, daughter of Choraeus. The first
king of Lydia was Manes, son of
Zeus and
Gaia. He had, by the
Oceanid Callirrhoe 1, two sons: Atys 3 and Cotys 2.
Atys 3 is also said to have been the son of Cotys 2
and Halie 2, daughter of Tyllus, an
autochthon; but in
any case it was Atys 3, considered to be a
descendant of Heracles
1 and Omphale, who succeeded his father Manes
in the throne.
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Descendants of Heracles
1.
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When the throne had thus passed from Manes to
Atys 3 and from Atys 3 to Lydus, it came into the
hands of Agron 2, who could or not be the same that
History remembers as Adadnirari III. Agron 2 was
the son of the Assyrian queen Semiramis, who lived
about 810 BC and turned, at her death, into a white
dove, which is quite natural, given that her mother
Dercetis 1, a Babylonian, had changed into a fish.
Semiramis, who ended her life by committing
suicide, was married to Ninus, whom he murdered.
Ninus, credited with the foundation of Nineveh, the
capital of the Assyrians, was known as son of Belus
3, son of Alcaeus 6, son of
Heracles 1 and
Omphale, or of Heracles
1 and a female slave of King Iardanus,
otherwise called father of Omphale. In addition
some would probably say that this Heracles was not
Heracles 1, but an
Asiatic god or man instead.
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The naked queen.
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In any case the line of Agron 2 ruled in Sardis
down to Candaules, who lost his throne for being
limitless obsessed with his wife's beauty.
For it happened that Candaules, being unable to
control his idée fixe and knowing that men
trust their ears less than their eyes, not only
told his favourite bodyguard Gyges about her
beauty, but also wished him to see the queen naked
from a hiding place. At first Gyges refused,
entreating his master not to ask lawless acts of
him; but when the king insisted he had to consent,
and was brought by Candaules himself to the queen's
chamber at bed time. The queen laid her garments
aside and Gyges saw her naked; but on leaving the
room, she saw him and understood what her husband
had contrived. At the moment she said nothing but,
having decided to punish Candaules --for as they
say it was a great shame among the Lydians to be
seen naked-- , she called Gyges the next day,
giving him the following choice: either to kill
Candaules and take her as wife along with the
throne, or himself be killed. Gyges entreated her
not to impose on him such a choice, but he could
not move her more than he had moved Candaules when
the whole affair was started.
This is why Gyges plotted against his master
and, following the queen's instructions, he, coming
out from the same hiding place, slew the king as he
slept with the dagger that she had given him for
that same purpose.
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Vengeance in the fifth generation.
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The regicide caused a revolt, but Gyges and the
Lydians agreed that if the Oracle of
Delphi should confirm him
in power, then he should reign. And since the
oracle did so ordain, the descendants of
Heracles 1 lost the
sovereignty and Gyges became king. Yet some have
said that the family of Croesus also descended from
Heracles 1 and Omphale
through their son Agelaus 1, who could or not be
the same as Lamus 1 or Hyllus 3.
The oracle also said that vengeance would fall
upon Gyges' posterity in the fifth generation,
which proved to be Croesus'; for Croesus is son of
Alyattes, son of Sadyattes, son of Ardys, son of
Gyges (himself son of Dascylus). But at the time
Gyges had all reasons to be grateful to the oracle,
and that is why he is reported to have been the
first foreigner after King
Midas, to send many
valuable offerings in silver and gold to
Delphi.
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Gyges and successors.
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Gyges kept great devotion for the woman who had
been his mistress and whom he won as wife through
murder, letting her rule the country. And when she
died he honoured her with a monument high enough as
to be seen from the region about Mount Tmolus and
many parts of Lydia. Gyges, who reigned
thirty-eight years, took the city of Colophon and
started a long war against Miletus that was
inherited by his successors, until peace was agreed
between Thrasybulus, ruler of Miletus, and Gyges'
great grandson Alyattes, contemporary of King
Periander, under whose reign
Arion 2 was rescued by a
dolphin.
Alyattes is said to have married twice, having
children by both women, one from Caria and the
second from Ionia. It is
said that the latter plotted against her stepson
Croesus, giving poison to the woman who baked the
bread and telling her to knead it into it. But the
baker told Croesus and served the bread to the
stepmother's children instead. It is for this
reason that later, when Croesus became a wealthy
king, he let a golden statue of the baker be made
and offered it at Delphi.
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King Croesus.
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When Alyattes died, his thirty-five years old
son by the Carian woman Croesus came to the throne,
probably in 560 BC, after destroying a faction that
conspired to win the throne for his half-brother
Pantaleon, son of Alyattes by the Ionian mother.
When Croesus was victorious he confiscated the
estate of his enemy and put him to death by drawing
him across a carding-comb.
It was under Croesus' rule that the Greeks
living in the Asiatic mainland were made tributary
for the first time, and that all other nations west
of the river Halys were subdued, becoming his
subjects. This successful expansion resulted in
great wealth, and since wealth, along with the
power that derives from it, attracts many,
including the wise, Sardis became the magnet of its
time, being visited, as they say, by many teachers
from Hellas. For teachers go preferably where their
wages can be paid, and not necessarily where their
knowledge is more needed. And there they met
Croesus, the great potentate of his time, who:
"...was decked
out with everything in the way of precious stones,
dyed raiment, and wrought gold that men deem
remarkable, or extravagant, or enviable, in order
that he might present a most august and gorgeous
spectacle." [Plutarch, Solon 27.2]
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Solon visits Croesus.
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Among the wise men who visited Sardis, they say,
was the Athenian statesman and poet Solon (c. 640 -
c. 560 BC), whom Croesus entertained in his palace,
showing him the treasures, greatness and prosperity
of his country; for besides being spent, wealth may
be used to cause admiration. After having thus
acquainted his visitor with the country's riches,
Croesus, who supposed himself to be the most
blessed, asked Solon, who was renowned for his
wisdom and for having seeing the world and
travelled far while seeking knowledge, if he had
ever seen a man more happy than he. Yet Solon gave
the first prize of happiness to an inconspicuous
Athenian, and when asked again, he gave the second
to a couple of Argive brothers, which caused
Croesus to exclaim:
"...Is our
prosperity, then, held by you so worthless that you
match us not even with common men." [Croesus
to Solon. Herodotus 1.32]
Solon replied that the life of man was entirely
chance, being completely unknown what any day might
bring; and then, speaking of his host he added:
"To me you
seem to be very rich and to be king of many people,
but I cannot answer your question before I learn
that you ended your life well. The very rich man is
not more fortunate than the man who has only his
daily needs, unless he chances to end his life with
all well. Many very rich men are unfortunate, many
of moderate means are lucky. The man who is very
rich but unfortunate surpasses the lucky man in
only two ways, while the lucky surpasses the rich
but unfortunate in many. The rich man is more
capable of fulfilling his appetites and of bearing
a great disaster that falls upon him, and it is in
these ways that he surpasses the other. The lucky
man is not so able to support disaster or appetite
as is the rich man, but his luck keeps these things
away from him, and he is free from deformity and
disease, has no experience of evils, and has fine
children and good looks. If besides all this he
ends his life well, then he is the one whom you
seek, the one worthy to be called fortunate. But
refrain from calling him fortunate before he dies;
call him lucky... Whoever passes through life with
the most and then dies agreeably is the one who, in
my opinion...deserves to bear this name. It is
necessary to see how the end of every affair turns
out, for heaven promises fortune to many people and
then utterly ruins them." [Solon to Croesus.
Herodotus 1.32]
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Solon
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Wisdom, Power and Tact.
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This was Solon's view on the subject of
happiness; but since he seemed to disregard
prosperity, concentrating mainly in the end of
every matter, Croesus, they say, concluded that his
visitor was a man of no account and sent him away
accordingly. Aesop the fabulist, who flourished in
the same period of time as the Seven Wise Men
(among which Solon was counted), remarked once:
"These men do
not know how to act in the company of a ruler; for
a man should associate with rulers either as little
as possible, or with the best grace
possible." [Diodorus 9.28.1ff.]
But for all his tact Aesop could not escape
being killed by the Delphians on a false charge of
sacrilege, when he had come to make an offering in
Croesus' name. Others say that Aesop, knowing that
Croesus had not treated Solon kindly, brought up
the subject with the Athenian statesman:
Aesop: "O
Solon, our converse with kings should be either as
rare, or as pleasing as is possible."
Solon: "No, indeed, but
either as rare or as beneficial as is
possible." [Plutarch, Solon 28.1]
Still others seem to have deemed these
encounters unavoidable, probably because those who
have wisdom usually lack wealth and those who have
wealth usually lack wisdom:
"It is natural
for wisdom and great power to come together, and
they are for ever pursuing and seeking each other
and consorting together." [Plato,
Letters310e]
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Croesus' children.
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Croesus had children, apparently both sons and
daughters. One of the sons, being both deaf and
dumb, meant very little for Croesus; but the one he
loved was accidentally killed while hunting by a
Phrygian whom Croesus had received in his own house
after cleansing him for the death of his brother,
whom he had slain, also accidentally. The Phrygian
declared that he did not deserve to live, but
Croesus, who at first was angry at him, decided not
to punish him, blaming his own fortune and not the
intent of the young Phrygian. Nevertheless he,
having killed two men by accident, went to the tomb
of Croesus' son and slew himself upon it.
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Croesus would destroy a great empire
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It was a couple of years after the death of his
beloved son that Croesus started to worry about the
growth of the power of the Persians, conceiving a
preemptive war against them. With this purpose in
mind he consulted and tested the credibility of
several oracles, being more satisfied with the
answers provided by the one at
Delphi, and the oracle of
Amphiaraus at Thebes. And
after sending many gifts to to both, he sent Lydian
envoys to inquire the following:
"Shall Croesus
send an army against the Persians: and shall he
take to himself any allied host?" [Herodotus
1.53]
Both oracles, they say, gave the same answer,
namely that if he should send an army against the
Persians he would destroy a great empire; and they
also advised him to make alliance with the
mightiest of powers in Hellas. Pleased with these
answers (as well as with the previous tests) he
sent splendid gifts to
Delphi, which in turn
pleased the Delphians so much that they granted him
and the Lydians the right of first consulting the
oracle, freedom from charges, the best seats at
festivals, and life-long right of Delphian
citizenship to whoever should wish. And following
the oracle Croesus sent messengers to
Sparta and made an
alliance with the Lacedaemonians.
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A mule king.
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When he had obtained such privileges at
Delphi, Croesus made yet
an inquiry, asking whether his sovereignty should
last long; and the answer of the Pythia was:
"Lydian,
beware of the day when a mule is lord of the
Medians." [Herodotus.1.55]
This answer also pleased Croesus; for he did not
deem likely that a mule would ever be king of the
Medians instead of a man.
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Sandanis' counsel.
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Now, war is always a dangerous business to be
feared and respected, no matter which side strength
and surprise and other factors seem to favour; for
unexpected turns, sometimes having far reaching
effects, can never be dismissed. And since what is
risked through war should be carefully compared
with the eventual gains of a successful campaign,
the Lydian wise man Sandanis counselled Croesus in
the following manner, when he was preparing to
march against the Persians:
"O King, you
are making ready to march against men who wear
trousers of leather and their other garments of the
same, and who eat not what they desire but what
they have; for their land is stony. Further they
use no wine, but are water drinkers, nor have they
figs to eat, nor aught else that is good. Now if
you conquer them, of what will you deprive them,
seeing that they have nothing? But if on the other
hand you are conquered, then see how many good
things you will lose..." [Sandanis to
Croesus. Herodotus 1.71]
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Fears growing power.
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However Croesus, seeing how Cyrus had gained
control over the land of the Medes, making himself
the master of their vast territory and thereby
bringing the Persians to the eastern bank of the
river Halys, did not listen to Sandanis and put his
forces in motion. It is said that Croesus, among
other measures, dispatched an agent Eurybatus of
Ephesus with money to recruit Greek mercenaries;
but instead Eurybatus went over to Cyrus, revealing
his master's plans.
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Crosses the border.
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Having led his army to the border Croesus
crossed the river Halys at a place not far from
Sinope in the coast of the Black Sea, either
through bridges, or being helped by the celebrated
sage Thales of Miletus who, by digging a
semicircular trench, turned the course of the
river, causing part of its stream to flow in the
trench to the rear of the Lydian camp and, passing
it, return to its former bed.
Croesus began his campaign laying waste farms,
enslaving cities, and driving the inhabitants from
their homes. But then King Cyrus (who is the elder
Cyrus, the son of Cambyses), a man fortunate in war
and, as it is said, a wise ruler, came to meet the
invader, gathering more men as he marched and
campaigned against many foes in Asia.
It is told that before the battle Cyrus sent
messengers to Croesus saying that he would forgive
him and appoint him satrap of Lydia, if Croesus
presented himself at the Persian court,
acknowledging Cyrus as his master. But Croesus
answered that Cyrus should submit instead, given
that until then the Persians had been under Median
rule.
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Return to Sardis.
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The Lydian army, supported among others by
Egyptian units, attempted to surround the Persians,
but failed. Some have said that the battle ended in
stalemate and others that the Lydians were
defeated. But in any case Croesus has been reported
to have judged prudent to march away to Sardis.
Having returned to his capital Croesus summoned
his allies, among which the Lacedaemonians, to join
him at Sardis in five months time for a spring
campaign against the Persians, and in the meantime,
some say, he disbanded many of his Lydian units,
believing that after such equal encounter the
Persian king would not dare to march against his
capital.
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Portents reported.
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At this point portents were reported to have
been witnessed in the outer part of Sardis, such as
horses devouring snakes, which seers, with their
usual sharp-wittedness, interpreted as a sign of
invaders conquering the country; for the snakes,
they said, represent the children of the earth, and
the horses stand for the enemy and the foreigner.
They were right; for Cyrus, having learned of
the state of the Lydian army and caring little for
the previous stalemate, marched with all speed
against Sardis without giving Croesus any chance to
assemble his forces again.
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Sardis beleaguered
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The Lydian king however led the remains of his
army to the plain which is before the city,
arraying his skilled cavalry to meet the invaders.
But Cyrus, they say, assembled all the camels he
normally used for transportation of food and
baggage, setting men upon them equipped like
cavalrymen; and behind them he put his infantry,
and behind the infantry he put his horsemen. And in
this manner, they tell, when the Lydian horses saw
the Persian camels, they turned to flight and, the
battle being thereby lost, Sardis was beleaguered.
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Sardis taken.
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At first the Persian army made unsuccessful
assaults. But when fourteen days had passed the
Persians discovered a certain part of the citadel
neglected by the defence because of its height and
difficult access, and climbing up on this side,
which faces towards Mount Tmolus, the Persians
succeeded in taking the city.
This fortunate discovery was made by a Persian
soldier called Hyroeades who, during the days of
siege, observed a Lydian defender descending by
this part of the citadel in order to fetch a helmet
that had fallen down. It has also been told that,
in former times, when King Meles ruled Sardis, his
concubine borne him a lion; it was then declared
that if the lion were carried round the walls
Sardis would never be taken. Meles, they say, did
as it was prophesied and carried the beast round
the walls. However, he excepted that part of the
acropolis which he judged impossible to attack on
account of its height; and it was here that
Hyroeades and the rest of the Persians climbed up,
taking the city.
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Pyre for Croesus (I).
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Croesus, some assert, had prepared himself for
this day of utter defeat; and being determined to
escape slavery he had built a pyre, which he
mounted together with his wife and daughters, when
the Persians were about to sack the city. The women
were weeping inconsolably as he, while reproaching
Apollo's ingratitude,
ordered a slave to kindle the pyre. It was then
that Zeus sent the
rain-cloud that quenched the flames and
Apollo came to bring
Croesus and his family to live among the
Hyperboreans...
"... since of
all mortals he sent the greatest gifts to holy
Pytho." [Bacchylides, Ode 3.64]
...and as if it were suspected that some could
find this impossible, it is added:
"Nothing is
unbelievable which is brought about by the gods'
ambition." [Bacchylides, Ode 3.57]
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Mute speaks.
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But others tell otherwise. For they say that
during the sack of Sardis a Persian soldier came at
Croesus with intent of killing him, not because he
wished to disobey King Cyrus, who had given orders
to capture Croesus alive, but because --as it often
happens-- he did not know who Croesus was. And when
Croesus' dumb son, who at the moment was with his
father, saw the Persian soldier coming, he, who had
never uttered a single word, broke into speech and
exclaimed:
"Man, do not
kill Croesus!" [Croesus' son to the Persian
soldier. Herodotos 1.85]
In this way another oracle was fulfilled that
had prophesied that Croesus' son would speak some
unfortunate day:
"O you of
Lydian stock, over many king. You great fool
Croesus: never wish to hear within your halls the
much-desired sound of your son speaking. Better far
for you that he remain apart; for the first words
he speaks shall be upon a luckless day."
[Diodorus 9.33.2]
The Persian soldier then, obeying his king,
spared the life of Croesus, who was made a prisoner
after fourteen years of reign and fourteen days of
siege. This is how the oracle was fulfilled; for by
attacking the Persians the king of Lydia destroyed
a great empire, as it had been foretold.
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Pyre for Croesus (II)
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It is now that the pyre appears, others assert,
and he who had it built was not Croesus but Cyrus,
although the man to be burnt on it was the same.
And so, while Sardis was still being sacked,
Croesus saw himself bound in chains together with
fourteen Lydian boys, all awaiting death by the
flames.
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Remembers Solon.
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As he stood in this evil plight, he remembered
Solon, the man who used to concentrate in the end
of every matter and who, years ago, had not wished
to call anybody happy before his death. And sighing
and groaning Croesus said "Solon, Solon, Solon...",
being heard by Cyrus, who now bade interpreters to
ask him what he meant (for Solon was not so well
known then as he is now).
Croesus was reluctant to speak, but being
harassed, he finally said...
"I would
prefer to great wealth his coming into discourse
with all despots." [Croesus to the Persians.
Herodotus 1.86]
...but as this was still unintelligible, they
asked again and Croesus told them about Solon and
all his sayings, which greatly admired Cyrus.
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Fire cannot be mastered.
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In the meantime, and while this wholesome
conversation between Croesus and the Persians was
taking place, the flames in the outer parts of the
pyre grew higher and higher, as if reminding that
there is always very little time for wisdom. Now
Cyrus, seizing the meaning of that narrow instant,
considered that there was no purpose in burning
alive a man that had once been as fortunate as
himself and ordered to quench the fire and bring
Croesus and the Lydian boys down from the pyre.
However his servants, for all their efforts, could
not master the fire.
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Croesus saved by rain.
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And when it seemed that it was too late the rain
fell from clouds gathered in a clear and windless
sky, when Croesus, having seen Cyrus' repentance,
invoked Apollo, the god
that he had pleased with so many gifts. And as this
most violent rain quenched the fire Cyrus,
perceiving that Croesus was beloved of the gods,
brought him down from the pyre and set him near to
himself. And since Cyrus changed his mind on
account of what Croesus had told about Solon it was
later said that:
"Solon had the
reputation of saving one king and instructing
another by means of a single saying."
[Plutarch, Solon 28.4]
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Plunder.
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Having escaped death in such an extraordinary
manner Croesus sat in silence with his thoughts.
But then, seeing how the Persian army sacked the
city, he asked Cyrus what they were doing, and the
following dialogue followed:
Cyrus: "They
are plundering your city and carrying off your
possessions".
Croesus: "Nay, not my city,
nor my possessions; for I have no longer any share
of all this; it is your wealth that they are
ravishing..." [Herodotus 1.89]
Having said this and noticing that the Persian
king listened to him, Croesus counselled him as to
how to deal properly with the matter of spoils of
war.
But others say that Cyrus himself knew from the
beginning how to handle the matter of plunder, and
that he, during the taking of Sardis, threatened
those among his allies who were guilty of
insubordination and had run into the city to get
plunder from the houses. In any case Croesus'
insights pleased Cyrus who, having praised him
greatly, took the possessions of the inhabitants of
Sardis for the Royal Treasury.
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Croesus becomes wiser.
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Cyrus, they say, gave Croesus a place in his
council, believing him to be a sagacious man for
having associated with so many men of learning.
Some believe that these are the reasons why Cyrus
attained so much greatness; for he treated all
those he subdued with the same consideration and
respect that he treated Croesus, thus appearing
more as a benefactor than as a conqueror. In that
manner the fame of his clemency spread all over the
world and many wished to become his allies.
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Still annoyed.
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Despite his newly acquired wisdom and despite
the fact that he had just been saved by an
unexpected rain after invoking
Apollo, Croesus was still
bitter against the oracles that had, as he saw it,
double-crossed him. So when Cyrus, who now had come
to like his prisoner, asked him for whatever boon
he desired, Croesus bade the king to let him send
his own chains to Delphi,
as a reproach to the god that had deluded him.
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Oracles explained.
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This is why Lydians came to
Delphi carrying Croesus'
chains and asking if the god were not ashamed for
having encouraged Croesus to attack the Persians.
But there they learned from the Pythia that
Croesus was the man appointed by fate, for being
the fifth generation, to pay for the death of
Candaules, whom Gyges, ancestor of Croesus, had
murdered. Moreover, the Pythia said,
Apollo had wished that
Sardis had fallen after Croesus' time, but he could
not turn the purpose of the
MOERAE; therefore the god
could only favour Croesus in so far as they would
accept, being able just to delay the taking of
Sardis for three years and save Croesus from the
pyre.
Besides, the Pythian priestess added, the oracle
had rightly declared that if Croesus should lead an
army against the Persians he would destroy a great
empire, and it had been up to Croesus himself to
further ask which empire was meant.
Croesus, the Pythia added, did not understand
either the oracle concerning the mule, by which
Cyrus himself had been meant; for this king was the
son of two persons belonging to different nations.
And whereas his mother was nobler for being a
Median princess, his father was a Persian of lesser
estate under Median rule. These were the Pythia's
answers, and on learning about them, Croesus they
say, admitted that he was to blame and not Loxias,
who is Apollo the
Interpreter.
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It was then that the Persians reached the Aegean
Sea.
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Such is the story of Croesus, chosen by fate to
pay for Gyges' crime and remembered for his wealth.
Yet he believed that happiness was a greater good
than wealth; for otherwise he had not called to his
court the wisest men of his time, whom he
generously sent away with many presents. An
important part of his wealth he used for military
purposes, but he believed that heaven rules and not
strength; for otherwise he had not sent so many
valuable gifts to Delphi
and other places. He lacked talent to understand
oracles, but he understood enough to put the
interpreters of the gods to the test, showing that
his piety was not blind.
When his empire was destroyed, the Persians came
to the Aegean Sea, subduing the Greeks of the
Asiatic mainland, and threatening the islanders and
the whole of Hellas.
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