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China
 
[early Chinese Customs flag]
          1861 - 1873  (Merchant ships)
[Flag of China, 1872]
                  1873 - 1890 
[Flag of China, 1890]
1890 - 12 Feb 1912;  1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917
CN-WFLAG.GIF
             10 Oct 1911 Revolt flag
 
[1912 Flag of China]
           12 Feb 1912 - 22 Dec 1915; 
           22 Mar 1916 -  1 Jul 1917; 
           12 Jul 1917 -   8 Oct 1928 
ch_1915.gif 
           22 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916
 
 
[Flag of Taiwan]

             8 Oct 1928 - 1 Oct 1949
[Flag of China]

                Adopted 1 Oct 1949
Map of China
Hear National Anthem
"March of the Volunteers"
Text of National Anthem
Adopted 1949
Constitution
  (4 Dec 1982)
Maps: Japanese occupation
Civil War (1947-1950)
Ethnolinguistic Map of China
Chinese Military Regions
Capital: Beijing
Currency: Yuan (CNY) 
National Holiday: 1 Oct  (1949) 
Founding of  People's Republic
Population: 1, 273, 111, 290 (2001)
     
China Index
CHRONOLOGY
  
c.2000 BC - c.1500 BC      Partly legendary Shia (Xia) dynasty.
c.1700 BC - c.1027 BC      Shang dynasty.
c.1027 BC - 221 BC         Chou (Zhou) dynasty.
475 BC - 221 BC            Period of the Warring States, fragmentation of 
                             Zhou kingdom.
221 BC - 206 BC            Ch'in (Qin) dynasty, from which modern China
                             derives its name.
221 BC - 210 BC            First Emperor Shih Huang-ti reigns (d. 210 BC).
206 BC - 220 AD            Han dynasty (9 - 24 AD, briefly interrupted).
220 - 589                  Era of disunity under Warlords. China  not unified
                             under any one power. Huns, Turks and nomadic
                             tribes invade the north.
420 - 589                  Divided under Northern and Southern dynasties.
589                        Reunification under the Sui dynasty (rules to 618)
907 - 979                  Era of the "Five dynasties and Ten Kingdoms."
1276 - 1368                Yuan (Mongol) dynasty, Kublai Khan (b. 1215 - 
                             d. 1294) rules  1276 - 1294. 
28 Jan 1368                Great Ming (Shining) Realm inaugurated.
15 May 1636                Great Qing (Ch'ing [Manchu] dynasty) Empire
                             inaugurated.
28 May 1858                Left bank of Amur River annexed by Russia.
14 Nov 1860                Amur right bank below Ussuri junction (Primorye)
                             annexed by Russia.
 4 Jul 1871 - 24 Feb 1881  Russia briefly annexes Ili.
 2 Jun 1895 - 25 Oct 1945  Taiwan annexed by Japan.
10 Oct 1911                Revolution begins.
 1 Jan 1912                Republic of China
Jan 1913 -  7 Oct 1951     Tibet (de facto) independent.
 1 Dec 1911                (Outer) Mongolia declares independence.
 1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Restoration of Great Qing Empire.
19 Feb 1920 -  3 Feb 1921  Mongolia briefly reincorporated.
10 Sep 1931 - 15 Aug 1945  Japanese occupy Manchuria (Manchukuo).
 1 Dec 1931 - 15 Oct 1934  Communists declare Soviet Republic of China in 
                             Kiangsi province.
Sep 1937 - Aug 1945        Japanese occupy northeast China, Yellow River
                             valley and coastal provinces.
 1 Oct 1949                People's Republic of China (from 8 Dec 1949,
                             Republic of China continues on Taiwan only.
 1 Jul 1997                Reintegration of the former British colony 
                             of Hong Kong.

20 Dec 1999                Reintegration of the former Portuguese colony 
                             of Macau.
People's Republic of China
Administrative
Divisions
Foreign
Colonies
 Chinese Empire
  • Rebellions:
  • Taiping
  • Shengping
  • Cheng
  • Pingnan Guo
  •  Warlord Era (1911-1928)
    Nationalist
    China
     (1917-1949)
    Alternative
    Governments
    (1927-34)
    Japanese
    Occupation (1937-45)
    Manchuria and
    Manchukuo
    Meng Chiang
    (1934-1945)
    Kashgaria and
    East Turkestan
    Dörben Oyriad
    (Dzungar Khanate)
    Tibet
    ----
    Tibet Government
    in Exile
         
    Note about Pinyin: To 1979 names are given Wade-Giles transliteration, where available, with the pinyin version following in parenthesis (i.e., Li  Yuan-hung (Yuanhong). After 1979, the pinyin transliteration (which came into general use in 1979, but is rejected by the Nationalist regime on Taiwan) following the names) is used. Under the People's Republic, all names are given in pinyin with those before 1979 followed in parenthesis by the Wade-Giles version (i.e. Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung).  I have taken this additional step because most sources prior to 1979 refer to Chinese names in the pre-pinyin fashion. 

    Chinese Empire
     
    Map Chinese Empire
    Hear National Anthem
    "Harden the Golden Pot"
    Text of National Anthem
    (to 1911, 1917)
    Constitution
      (1906)
    Capital: Peking
    Currency: Chinese Silver Tael (CST)
    National Holiday: N/A
    Population: 431, 735, 400 (1900)

    Note: Emperors are listed with their personal name (ming), followed by their temple name (miaohao), posthumous name (shi), and the era name (nianhao) roughly coextensive with the particular reign (note that the overlap is not perfect). Although it is customary in "Western" sources to refer to a Qing ruler by his nianhao (i.i., the Guangxu emperor), Chinese usually refer to a former emperor by his miaohao, perhaps preceded by the name of the polity (i.e., Qing Dezong). 

    Emperors¹
     7 Feb 1661 - 20 Dec 1722  Hsüan-yeh (Xuanye)                (b. 1654 - d. 1722)
                                 miaohao: Shengzu / shi: Ren huangdi
                                 nianhao 18 Feb 1662 - 4 Feb 1723:  K'ang-hsi (Kangxi)
    10 Jul 1706 - 1707         Wei Zhiye (in rebellion)
                                 nianhao 10 Jul 1706 - 1707: Wenxing
    1707 - 1708                Zhu Cihuan
                                (styled Ding wang, heading Great Ming [or Shining] Realm,
                                 in rebellion)
    26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721  Zhu Yigui
                                 (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively on Taiwan)
                                 nianhao 26 May 1721 - 30 Jul 1721: Yonghe
    27 Dec 1722 -  8 Oct 1735  Yin-chen (Yinzhen)                 (b. 1678 - d. 1735)
                                 miaohao: Shizong / shi: Xian huangdi
                                 nianhao 5 Feb 1723 - 11 Feb 1746: Yung-chêng (Yongzheng)
    18 Oct 1735 -  9 Feb 1796  Hung-li (Hongli)                   (b. 1711 - d. 1799)
                                 niaohao Gaozong / shi: Chun huangdi
                                 nianhao 12 Feb 1736 - 8 Feb 1796: Ch'ien-lung (Qianlong)
     Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788    Lin Shuangwen
                                 (in rebellion, rules almost exclusively on Taiwan)
                                 nianhao Dec 1786 - 10 Feb 1788: Shuntian
     9 Feb 1796 -  2 Sep 1820  Yung-yen (Yongyan)                 (b. 1760 - d. 1820)
                                 niaohao: Renzong / shi: Rui huangdi
                                 nianhao 9 Feb 1796 - 2 Feb 1821: Chia-ch'ing (Jiaqing)
     Mar 1797 - 1797           Li Shu (in rebellion)
                                 nianhao Mar 1797 - 1797: Daqing
     3 Oct 1820 - 25 Feb 1850  Min-ning (Minning)                 (b. 1782 - d. 1850)
                                 niaohao: Xuanzong / shi: Cheng huangdi
                                 nianhao 3 Feb 1821 - 31 Jan 1851: Hsüan-tsung (Daoguang)
     9 Mar 1850 - 22 Aug 1861  Yi-chu (Yizhu)                     (b. 1831-d. 1861)
                                 miaohao: Wenzong / shi: Xian huangdi
                                 nianhao 1 Feb 1851 - 29 Jan 1862: Hsien-fêng (Xianfeng)
    22 Aug 1861 - 12 Jan 1875  Regency
                               - Empress Dowager Tz'u-an (f)(Cian)(d. 1881)
                               - Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi (f)     (b. 1835 - d. 1908)
                                  (Cixi) (1st time)
                               - Prince Kung
    11 Nov 1861 - 12 Jan 1875  Tsai-ch'un (Zaichun)               (b. 1856 - d. 1874)
                                 miaohao: Muzong / shi: Yi huangdi
                                 nianhao 30 Jan 1862 - 5 Feb 1875: T'ung-chih (Tongzhi)
    25 Feb 1875 - 14 Nov 1908  Tsai-t'ien (Zaitian)               (b. 1871 - d. 1908)
                                 miaohao: Dezong / shi: Jing huangdi
                                 nianhao 6 Feb 1875 - 21 Jan 1909: Kuang-hsü (Guangxu)
    25 Feb 1875 -  4 Mar 1889  Empress Dowager Tz'u-hsi (f)       (s.a.)
                                (Cixi) (2nd time)-Regent 
                                (de facto 3rd time; from 20 Sep 1898 to 2 Dec 1908)
     2 Dec 1908 - 12 Feb 1912  P'u-i (Puyi)  (1st time)           (b. 1906 - d. 1967)
                                 nianhao 22 Jan 1909 - 12 Feb 1912: Hsüan-T'ung (Xuantong)
     2 Dec 1908 -  6 Dec 1911  Prince Chun (Zaifeng) -Regent      (b. 1882 - d. 1951)
     6 Dec 1911 - 12 Feb 1912  Empress Dowager Long Yu            (b. 1868 - d. 1913) 
                                 Huagtaihou (f) (Longyu Xiaoding)
                                (holder of the Imperial seal) 
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  P'u-i   (2nd time)                 (s.a.)
                                (from 12 Feb 1912 - 5 Nov 1924, Emperor
                                  inside the Forbidden City² only)
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Chang Hsün -Regent                 (b. 1854 - d. 1923)

    Grand Secretaries
    1671 - 1744                ....
    1744 - 1763                Shi Yizhi
    1763 - 1771                ....
    Grand Chancellors
    1771 - 1773                Qinggui (1st time)
                               + Marquess Feimo, Marquess of Weiqin
                                 (1st time)
    1773 - 1784                ....
    1784 - 1793                Qinggui (2nd time)
                               +  Feimo Lebao, Marquess of Weiqin
                                 (2nd time)
    1793 - 1799                ....
    1799 - 1812                Qinggui (3rd time)
                               + Marquess Feimo, Marquess of Weiqin
                                 (3rd time)
    1812 - 1820                ....
    1820 - 1820                Cao Zhenyong
    1820 - 1838                Duke Changling Weiyong
    1838 - 1840                Wenqing (1st time)
    1841 - 1855                Qi Junzao
    1855 - 1856                Wenqing (2nd time)
    1856 - 1858                ....
    1858 - 1876                Wenxiang
    1876 - 1884                Baoyun
    1884 - 1894                Zhang Zhiwan
    1894 - 1898                Weng Tonghe
    1894 - 1898                Prince Aixin-juelo Yixin Gong
    1898 - 1901                Jung-lu (Ronglu)
    Prime ministers 
    1901 - 1903                Jung-lu (Ronglu)
    1903 -  8 May 1911         Prince Ch'ing (Zengziang) 
     8 May 1911 -  1 Nov 1911  Prince Yiguang                     (b. 1839 - d. 1917)
     2 Nov 1911 - Mar 1912     Yuan Shi-kai                       (b. 1859 - d. 1916)
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Chang Hsün                         (s.a.)


    Polities Rebelling against the Ch'ing (Qing) Empire 1851-1872

    Taiping

    11 Jan 1851                Taiping tianguo (Heavenly Realm of Great Peace)
                                 inaugurated.
    25 Oct 1864                Extinguished by Qing empire.

    Heavenly Kings
    11 Jan 1851 -  1 Jun 1864  Hung Hsiu-ch'üan (Hong Xiuquan)   (b. 1813 - d. 1864)
     1 Jun 1864 - 25 Oct 1864  Hung Fu   (Hong Tianguifu)        (b. 1849 - d. 1864)


    Shengping

     9 Oct 1854                Shengping tianguo (Heavenly Realm of Ascending Peace) 
                                 inaugurated.
    24 Jul 1858                Extinguished by Qing empire.

    Heavenly Kings
     9 Oct 1854 - 24 Jul 1858  Hu Youlu (to Oct 1855)
                               + Zhu Hongying


    Cheng

    27 Sep 1855                Great Cheng Realm inaugurated.
    21 Aug 1861                Extinguished by Qing empire.

    Kings
    27 Sep 1855 - 21 Aug 1861  Chen Kai (styled Ping Xun wang)
                               + Li Wenmao (to 1858)


    Kashghar: see under  Sinkiang

    Pingnan Guo

    1856 - 26 Dec 1872         Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State") is a major
                                 Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province.

    Leader of the Community of Muslims (title Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin)
    (usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan)
    1856 - 26 Dec 1872         Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman        (d. 1873)
                               (Du Wenxiu [orig. Yang Xiu]) 
     

     ¹full style from 1643: the Great Emperor (Huang Ti/Huangdi) of the Great Ch'ing (Qing) Dynasty, Son of Heaven (Tien Tseu), Lord of Ten Thousand Years, Grand Khan of Tartary.

      ²According to the treaty signed between the Ch'ing court and government of the Republic of China, P'u-i perserved the title Emperor, recieved annual payment from the Republic of China government, and had the right to live in the Forbidden City, to be protected by an imperial troop, grant noble and honorary titles, maintain certain government organs in the Forbidden City mainly for management of the Forbidden City and other palaces, management of imperial familes, etc.  Inside the Forbidden City the dragon flag of the Ch'ing Dynasty while the republican flag was flown outside. People in the Forbidden City still wore the Ch'ing official dress and used the Ch'ing calender system. In 1922 when the Emperor got married, his wife was called Empress.  On 5 Nov 1924 the Emperor was forced to leave the Forbidden City by a faction of the army of the Republic of China.


    Warlord China

    10 Oct 1911                 Revolution begins.
     1 Jan 1912                 Republic of China proclaimed.
    22 Dec 1915                 Empire of China
    22 Mar 1916                 Republic of China
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917   Brief restoration of the Great Qing Empire (s.a.).
     
    Map of China
    Hear National Anthem
    "China Rises in the Universe" (to 19..)
    Hear National Anthem
    "Song of the Fortunate Cloud"
    (19.. - 1928)
    Constitution
      (1911)
    Map of Warlord Control
    Capital: Beijing (1912-1928)
    Currency: Chinese Dollar/Yuan (CND)
    Population: 485, 598, 900 (1925)

    Note: The following provincial military governments proclaimed their independence from the Qing Empire in the name of a Republic of China in gestation at the end of 1911, and
    combined in a Central Military Government at the end of November.  Names in parenthesis are given in pinyin transliteration (which came into general use in 1979, but is rejected by the Nationalist regime on Taiwan) following the names (i.e., Li  Yuan-hung (Yuanhong).

    Military governors
    - Hubei (Hupe) -
    11 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong)            (b. 1864 - d. 1928)
    - Hunan -
    23 Oct 1911 - 31 Oct 1911  Jiao Dafeng
    31 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Tan Yankai                         (b. 1879 - d. 1930)
    - Shaanxi (Shensi) -
    23 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Zhang Fenghui
    - Jiangxi (Kiangsi) -
    24 Oct 1911 -  2 Nov 1911  Ma Yubao
     2 Nov 1911 - 12 Nov 1911  Wu Jiezhang
    12 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Peng Chengwan
    - Shanxi (Shansi) -
    29 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Yan Xishan                         (b. 1883 - d. 1960)
    - Yunnan -
    30 Oct 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Cai E                              (b. 1882 - d. 1916)
    - Shanghai (actually called itself Military Government of the Republic of China) -
     4 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Chen Qimei                         (b. 1878 - d. 1916)
    - Zhejiang (Chekiang) -
     4 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Tang Shouqian
    - Guizhou (Kweichow) -
     5 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Yang Jincheng
    - Jiangsu (Kiangsu) -
     5 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Cheng Dequan                       (b. 1860 - d. 1930)
    - Anhui (Anhwei) -
     8 Nov 1911 - 28 Nov 1911  Zhu Jiabao                         (d. 1923)
    28 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Sun Yuyun
    - Guangxi (Kwangsi) -
     9 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Shen Bingkun
    - Fujian (Fukien) -
     9 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Sun Daoren
    - Guangdong (Kwangtung) -
     9 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Hu Hanmin                          (b. 1879 - d. 1936)
    - Shandong (Shantung) -
    13 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Sun Baoqi                          (b. 1867 - d. 1931)
    - Sichuan (Szechwan) -
    22 Nov 1911 - 27 Nov 1911  Zhang Peijue
    27 Nov 1911 - 30 Nov 1911  Pu Dianjun

    Military governor (Central Military Government of the Republic of China)
    30 Nov 1911 - 31 Dec 1911  Li Yuan-hung  (Yuanhong)           (s.a.)
    Presidents
     1 Jan 1912 - 10 Mar 1912  Sun Yat-sen (provisional)          (b. 1866 - d. 1925)
    10 Mar 1912 - 22 Dec 1915  Yuan Shi-kai (1st time)            (s.a.)
                                (provisional to 10 Oct 1913)
    Emperor
    22 Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916  Yuan Shi-kai                       (s.a.)
                                 nianhao: Hongxian
                               (This attempt at imperial installation of Yuan Shikai
                                was not formally consummated by an enthronement, and 
                                there are questions about its actual significance)
    Presidents
    22 Mar 1916 -  6 Jun 1916  Yuan Shi-kai (2nd time)            (s.a.)
     7 Jun 1916 -  1 Jul 1917  Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong) (1st time) (s.a.)
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Restoration of Great Qing Empire   (s.a.)
    12 Jul 1917 - 17 Jul 1917  Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong) (2nd time) (s.a.)
    17 Jul 1917 - 10 Oct 1918  Feng Kuo-chang (Guozhang)          (b. 1859 - d. 1919)
    10 Oct 1918 -  2 Jun 1922  Hsü Shih-chang  (Xu Shichang)      (b. 1855 - d. 1939)
     2 Jun 1922 - 11 Jun 1922  Chao Tzu-ch'i (Zhou Ziqi)(acting)  (b. 1871 - d. 1923)
    11 Jun 1922 - 13 Jun 1923  Li Yuan-hung (Yuanhong)  (3rd time)(s.a.)
    13 Jun 1923 -  9 Sep 1923  Chang Shao-ts'eng (Zhang Shaozeng) (b. 1870 - d. 19..)
                                       (acting) 
     9 Sep 1923 - 10 Oct 1923  Kao Ling-wei (Gao Lingwei)(acting) (b. 1896 - d. bf.1953)
    10 Oct 1923 -  2 Nov 1924  T'sao K'un (Cao Kun)               (b. 1862 - d. 1938)
     2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924  Huang Fu (acting)                  (b. 1880 - d. 1936)
    24 Nov 1924 - 20 Apr 1926  Tuan Ch'i-jui   (Duan Qirui)       (b. 1865 - d. 1936)
                                (provisional chief executive)
    20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Hu Wei-te (Weide) (acting)         (b. 1871 - d. 19..)
    13 May 1926 - 22 Jun 1926  Yen Hui-ching (Yan Huiqing)(acting)(b. 1877 - d. 1950)
    22 Jun 1926 -  1 Oct 1926  Tu Hsi-Kuei (Du Xigui) (acting)    (b. 1875 - d. 19..)
     1 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927  Ku Wei-chün (Gu Weijun) (acting)   (b. 1887 - d. 1985)
    18 Jun 1927 -  2 Jun 1928  Chang Tso-lin  (Zhang Zuolin)      (b. 1873 - d. 1928)
                               (Generalissimo of the Military Government of China)

    Premiers
    13 Mar 1912 - 27 Jun 1912  Tang Shao-yi  (Shaoyi)             (b. 1860 - d. 1938)
    29 Jun 1912 - 25 Sep 1912  Lu Cheng-hsiang  (Zhengxiang)      (b. 1870 - d. 1949)
    25 Sep 1912 -  1 May 1913  Chao Ping-Chün (Zhao Bingjun)
     1 May 1913 - 31 Jul 1913  Duan Qirui (acting)                (s.a.)
    31 Jul 1913 - 12 Feb 1914  Xiong Xiling                       (b. 1870 - d. 1941)
    12 Feb 1914 -  1 May 1914  Sun Pao-ch'i  (Baoqi)  (acting)    (s.a.)
    Secretaries of state
     1 May 1914 - Dec 1915     Hsü Shih-chang  (Xu Shichang)      (s.a.)
                                  (1st time) 
     Dec 1915 - 22 Mar 1916    Lu Cheng-hsiang  (Zhengxiang)      (s.a.) 
                                  (acting)
    22 Mar 1916 - 23 Apr 1916  Hsü Shih-chang  (Xu Shichang)      (s.a.)
                                  (2nd time) 
    23 Apr 1916 - 29 Jun 1916  Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui)         (s.a.)
    Premiers
    29 Jun 1916 - 23 May 1917  Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui)         (s.a.)
                                  (1st time)
    23 May 1917 - 28 May 1917  Wu Tingfang (acting)               (b. 1842 - d. 1922)
    28 May 1917 -  2 Jun 1917  Li Jingxi (1st time)
     2 Jun 1917 - 12 Jun 1917  Hsü Shih-chang  (Xu Shichang)      (s.a.)
    12 Jun 1917 - 24 Jun 1917  Chang Shao-jong (Jiang Zhaozong)   (b. 1863 - d. 19..)
                                  (acting)
    24 Jun 1917 -  1 Jul 1917  Li Jingxi (2nd time)
     1 Jul 1917 - 12 Jul 1917  Restoration of Great Qing Empire   (s.a.)
    14 Jul 1917 - 30 Nov 1917  Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui)         (s.a.)
                                  (2nd time) 
    30 Nov 1917 - 23 Mar 1918  Weng Shizhen (acting)              (b. 1861 - d. 1930)
    23 Mar 1918 - 10 Oct 1918  Tuan Ch'i-jui (Duan Qirui)         (s.a.)
                                  (3rd time) 
    10 Oct 1918 - 13 Jun 1919  Ch'ien Neng-hsün  (Qiang Nengxun)  (b. 1870 - d. 19..)
    13 Jun 1919 - 24 Sep 1919  Kung Hsin-chan  (Gong Xinzhan) 
                                  (acting)
    24 Sep 1919 - 14 May 1920  Chin Yün-P'eng  (Jin Yunpeng)      (b. 1877 - d. 1925) 
                                 (1st time) (acting to 5 Nov 1919)
    14 May 1920 -  9 Aug 1920  Sa Chen-ping (Zhenbing) (acting)   (b. 1859 - d. 1952)
     9 Aug 1920 - 18 Dec 1921  Chin Yün-P'eng  (Jin Yunpeng)      (s.a.)
                                  (2nd time) (acting)
    18 Dec 1921 - 24 Dec 1921  Yen Hui-Ching  (Yan Huiqing)       (s.a.)
                                 (1st time) 
    24 Dec 1921 - 25 Jan 1922  Liang Shi-i  (Shiyi)               (b. 1869 - d. 1933)
    25 Jan 1922 -  8 Apr 1922  Yen Hui-Ching  (Yan Huiqing)       (s.a.)
                                  (2nd time) (acting)
     8 Apr 1922 - 11 Jun 1922  Chao Tzu-Ch'i  (Zhou Ziqi) (acting)(s.a.)
    11 Jun 1922 -  5 Aug 1922  Yen Hui-Ching  (Yan Huiqing)       (s.a.)
                                  (3rd time) 
     5 Aug 1922 - 29 Nov 1922  Wang Ch'ung-hui  (Chonghui)        (b. 1881 - d. 1958)
                                  (acting)
    29 Nov 1922 - 11 Dec 1922  Wang Ta-hsieh  (Daxie)             (b. 1860? - d. 19..)
    11 Dec 1922 -  4 Jan 1923  Wang  Cheng-t'ing   (Zhengting)    (b. 1882 - d. 1961)
     4 Jan 1923 -  9 Sep 1923  Cheng Shao-ts'eng (Zhang Shaozeng) (s.a.)
     9 Sep 1923 - 12 Jan 1924  Kao Ling-Wei  (Gao Lingwei)(acting)(s.a.)
    12 Jan 1924 - 14 Sep 1924  Sun Pao-ch'i  (Baoqi)              (s.a.)
    14 Sep 1924 - 31 Oct 1924  Yen Hui-Ching  (Yan Huiqing)       (s.a.)
                                   (4th time) 
     2 Nov 1924 - 24 Nov 1924  Huang Fu (acting)                  (s.a.)                Mil
    27 Nov 1924 - 26 Dec 1925  Tuan Ch'i-jui   (Duan Qirui)       (s.a.)
                                 (4th time) 
    26 Dec 1925 -  4 Mar 1926  Hsu Shih-ying   (Xu Shiying)       (b. 1873 - d. 1964)
     4 Mar 1926 - 20 Apr 1926  Chia The-yao  (Jia Deyao)
    20 Apr 1926 - 13 May 1926  Hu Wei-te  (Weide)  (acting)       (s.a.)
    13 May 1926 - 22 Jun 1926  Yen Hui-Ching  (Yan Huiqing)       (s.a.)
                                 (5th time) 
    22 Jun 1926 -  1 Oct 1926  Tu His-Kuei  (Du Xigui) (acting)   (s.a.)
     1 Oct 1926 - 18 Jun 1927  Ku Wei-chün (Gu Weijun)  (acting)  (s.a.)
    18 Jun 1927 -  2 Jun 1928  Pan Fu                             (b. 1871 - d. 19..)

       
    "Independent" military governments in 1913

    Military governors
    - Jiangsu (Kiangsu)
    15 Jul 1913 - 29 Jul 1913  Cheng Dequan
    - Anhui (Anhwei) -
    17 Jul 1913 -  7 Aug 1913  Bo Wenwei                          (b. 1875 - d. 1947)
    - Guangdong (Kwangtung) -
    18 Jul 1913 -  3 Aug 1913  Chen Jiongming                     (b. 1878 - d. 1933)
    - Hunan -
    25 Jul 1913 - 13 Aug 1913  Tan Yankai                         (s.a.)

    "Independent" military governments in 1916

    Military governors
    - Yunnan -
     1 Jan 1916 -  8 May 1916  Tang Jiyao                          (b. 1881 - d. 1927)
    - Guizhou (Kweichow) -
    27 Jan 1916 -  8 May 1916  Liu Xianshi
    - Guangxi (Kwangsi) -
    15 Mar 1916 -  8 May 1916  Lu Rongting                         (b. 1856 - d. 1927)
    - Guangdong (Kwangtung) -
     6 Apr 1916 -  8 May 1916  Long Jiguang                        (b. 1860 - d. 1921)
    - Zhejiang  (Chekiang) -
    12 Apr 1916 -  8 May 1916  Lu Gongwang

    These came together under an umbrella government:

    Chairman of the Military Affairs Council
     8 May 1916 - 14 Jul 1916  Tang Jiyao                          (s.a.)

    "Independent" military governments in 1917

    Military governors
    - Anhui (Anhwei) -
    29 May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917  Ni Sichong
    - Shaanxi (Shensi) -
    29 May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917  Chen Shufan
    - Fengtian -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Chang Tso-lin  (Zhang Zuolin)      (s.a.)
    - Shandong (Shantung) -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Zhang Huaizhi                      (b. 1860 - d. 19..)
    - Fujian (Fukein) -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Li Houji
    - Henan (Honan) -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Zhao Ti                            (b. 1871 - d. 19..)
    - Zhejiang (Chekiang) -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Yang Shande
    - Zhili (Chihli) -
     May 1917 - 22 Jun 1917    Cao Kun                            (s.a.)


    Nationalist China

    Note: The name of the polity is still Republic of China, but it overlaps the preceding polity of that name, has a different flag and government system, and eventually a different capital (Nanjing; Beijing is in fact deprived of the name-part jing, meaning capital, and is renamed Beiping after the demise of the "warlord" regime).
     
    [1912 Flag of China]
           10 Sep 1917  - 5 May 1921
    [Flag of Taiwan]
            5 May 1921  -  1 Oct 1949
    Map of China
    Hear National Anthem
    "Song of the Nationalist Revolution" (to 1924)
    Text of National Anthem
    Adopted 24 Jun 1924
    Constitution
    (25 Dec 1946)
    Capital: Nanjing (1928-37,46-49) Hankow (1937-1938)
    Chungking  (1939-1946)
    Hear National Anthem
    "San Min Chu i" (from 1924)
    Currency: Chinese Dollar/Yuan (CND)
    Population: 481, 151, 700 (1936)

    Generalissimo of the Military Government
    10 Sep 1917 -  5 Jul 1918  Sun Yat-sen                        (s.a.)               KMT
     5 Jul 1918 - 21 Aug 1918  Governing Committee of the Military Government
                               - Sun Yat-sen                      (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Tang Shao-yi  (Shaoyi)           (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Wu Tingfang                      (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Cen Chunxuan                     (b. 1861 - d. 1933)  KMT
                               - Lu Rongting                      (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Tang Jiyao                       (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Lin Baoyi                        (b. 1862 - d. 19..)  KMT
    21 Aug 1918 - 24 Oct 1920  Cen Chunxuan                       (s.a.)               KMT
                               (chairman Governing Committee of the Military Government)
    24 Oct 1920 -  4 May 1921  Governing Committee of the  Military Government
                               - Sun Yat-sen                      (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Tang Shao-yi  (Shaoyi)           (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Wu Tingfang                      (s.a.)               KMT
                               - Tang Jiyao                       (s.a.)               KMT
    Extraordinary President
     5 May 1921 - 29 Jun 1922  Sun Yat-sen                        (s.a.)               KMT
    Generalissimos of the National Government
     2 Mar 1923 - 12 Mar 1925  Sun Yat-sen                        (s.a.)               KMT
    12 Mar 1925 -  1 Jul 1925  Hu Han-min (acting)                (s.a.)               KMT
    Chairmen of the National Government
     1 Jul 1925 - 15 Apr 1926  Wang Ching-wei  (Jingwei)          (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT
    16 Apr 1926 - 29 Mar 1927  Tan Yankai                         (s.a.)               KMT
    Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National Government
    20 Mar 1927 - 13 Sep 1927  Wang Ching-wei (Jingwei) (at Wuhan)(s.a.)               KMT
    17 Sep 1927 - 10 Oct 1928  Tan Yen-K'ai (Yankai)              (s.a.)               KMT
    Chairmen of the National Government
    10 Oct 1928 - 15 Dec 1931  Chiang Kai-shek (1st time)         (b. 1887 - d. 1975)  Mil/KMT
    15 Dec 1931 -  1 Aug 1943  Lin Sen (acting to 1 Jan 1932)     (b. 1867 - d. 1943)  KMT
     1 Aug 1943 - 20 May 1948  Chiang Kai-shek (2nd time)         (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                               (acting to 10 Oct 1943) 
    Presidents
    20 May 1948 - 21 Jan 1949  Chiang Kai-shek                    (s.a.)               KMT
    21 Jan 1949 -  8 Dec 1949  Li Tsung-jen (Zongren)(acting¹)    (b. 1890 - d. 1969)  KMT
                                (from 8 Dec 1949 see under Taiwan)

    Presidents of the Executive Yuan (premiers)
    10 Oct 1928 - 22 Sep 1930  Tan Yen-K'ai (Yankai)              (s.a.)               KMT
     Sep 1930 -  4 Dec 1930    Sung Tzu-wen  (Song Ziwen)(acting) (b. 1891 - d. 1971)  KMT
                                ("T.V. Soong")(1st time) 
     4 Dec 1930 - 15 Dec 1931  Chiang Kai-shek (1st time)         (s.a.)               KMT
    15 Dec 1931 - 28 Dec 1931  Ch'eng Ming-hsu (Chen Mingshu)     (b. 1890 - d. 1965)  KMT
                                  (acting) 
    28 Dec 1931 - 28 Jan 1932  Sun Fo (1st time)                  (b. 1895 - d. 1973)  KMT
    28 Jan 1932 -  7 Dec 1935  Wang Ching-wei  (Jingwei)          (s.a.)               KMT
     7 Dec 1935 -  1 Jan 1938  Chiang Kai-shek (2nd time)         (s.a.)               KMT
     1 Jan 1938 - 20 Nov 1939  K'ung Hsiang-hsi (Kong Xiangxi)    (b. 1880 - d. 1967)  KMT
                                 ("H.H. Kung")
    20 Nov 1939 - 31 May 1945  Chiang Kai-shek (3rd time)         (s.a.)               KMT
    31 May 1945 -  1 Mar 1947  Sung Tzu-wen (Song Ziwen)(2nd time)(s.a.)               KMT
     1 Mar 1947 - 18 Apr 1947  Chiang Kai-shek (4th time)         (s.a.)               KMT
    18 Apr 1947 - 24 May 1948  Chang Ch'ün  (Zhang Qun)           (b. 1889 - d. 1990)  KMT
    24 May 1948 - 26 Nov 1948  Wong Wen-hao  (Weng Wenhao)        (b. 1889 - d. 1971)  KMT
    26 Nov 1948 - 12 Mar 1949  Sun Fo (2nd time)                  (s.a.)               KMT
    12 Mar 1949 -  3 Jun 1949  Ho Ying-ch'in (He Yingqin)         (b. 1889 - d. 1987)  KMT
     3 Jun 1949 -  8 Dec 1949  Yen Hsi-shan  (Yan Xishan)         (s.a.)               Mil/KMT
                               (from 8 Dec 1949 see under Taiwan)


    Alternative governments of the Republic of China:

    [Flag of Taiwan]

    Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the National Government (at Nanjing)
    18 Apr 1927 - 15 Aug 1927  Chiang Kai-shek                    (s.a.)               KMT
    26 Aug 1927 - 15 Sep 1927  Tan Yen-kai (Yankai)               (s.a.)               KMT



    [Flag of Taiwan]

    Chairman of the Committee of the National Government (at Beiping)
     1 Sep 1930 - 31 Oct 1930  Yen Hsi-chan  (Yan Xishan)         (s.a.)               Mil


    [Flag of Taiwan]

    Chairman of the National Government (at Guangzhou/Canton)
     1 Jul 1931 -  1 Jan 1932  Wang Ching-wei (Jingwei)           (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT


    FUZOU

    Chairman of the People's Government (at Fuzhou)
    21 Nov 1933 - 21 Jan 1934  Li Jishen                          (b. 1884 - d. 1959)


    China under Japanese occupation:
     
    [1912 Flag of China]
                17 Dec 1937 - 1939 
    cn_1939union-v.gif
                  1939 - 1 Apr 1940
       1 Apr 1940 - Feb 1943
    [Flag of Taiwan]
                    Feb 1943 - Aug 1945

    Acting chairman of the Provisional National Government (at Beiping)
    14 Dec 1937 - 30 Mar 1940  Wang Kemin                         (b. 1873 - d. 1945)
    Acting chairman of the Reformed National Government (at Nanjing)
    28 Mar 1938 - 30 Mar 1940  Liang Hongzhi                      (b. 1883 - d. 1946)
    Chairmen of the National Government (at Nanjing)
    30 Mar 1940 - 10 Nov 1944  Wang Ching-wei (Jingwei)           (b. 1883 - d. 1944)  KMT-WC
                                (acting to 1940)
    20 Nov 1944 - Aug 1945     Chen Gongbo (acting)               (b. 1892 - d. 1946)



    People's Republic of China
     
    chi_s-1.gif
             3 Jan 1932 - 15 Oct 1934
    [Flag of China]
                 Adopted 1 Oct 1949
     1 Dec 1931 - 15 Oct 1934  Soviet Republic of China (in Kiangsi, capital Ruijin).
    19 Aug 1948                People's Government of North China
     1 Oct 1949                People's Republic of China
     8 Dec 1949                Final remnants of Nationalist government flee to Taiwan.

    Note: Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-ping)(b. 1904 - d. 1997) was de facto leader from the late 1970's to the early 1990's.  He never took over either the chairmanship of the State, the Government nor the General Secretary of the Party, from 1978 to his death in 1997 he was the unquestionable Paramount Leader.  From Jun 1981 he was Chairman of the Military Affairs Committee. It is impossible to provide exact dates; he rose to power in the aftermath of Mao's death (9 Sep 1976) and became more and more frail in the 1990's (he last appeared in public 
    9 Feb 1994).

    Chairmen of the Communist Party of China (CPC)
     8 Jan 1935 -  9 Sep 1976  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (b. 1893 - d. 1976)
     9 Oct 1976 - 29 Jun 1981  Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-feng)         (b. 1920?)
    29 Jun 1981 - 12 Sep 1982  Hu Yaobang                         (b. 1915 - d. 1989) 
    General Secretaries (top party post from 12 Sep 1982)
    12 Sep 1982 - 16 Jan 1987  Hu Yaobang                         (s.a.)
    16 Jan 1987 - 24 Jun 1989  Zhao Ziyang (acting to 2 Nov 1987) (b. 1919) 
    24 Jun 1989 -              Jiang Zemin                        (b. 1926)

    Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Republic of China
     1 Dec 1931 - 15 Oct 1934  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (s.a.) 
    Chairman of the People's Government of North China
    19 Aug 1948 -  1 Oct 1949  Dong Biwu (Tung Pi-wu)             (b. 1886 - d. 1975)  CPC
    Chairman of the People's Government of the North-East
    27 Aug 1949 -  1 Oct 1949  Gao Gang                           (b. 1895 - d. 1954)  CPC
    Chairman of the Central People's Government
     1 Oct 1949 - 27 Sep 1954  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (s.a.)               CPC
    Chairmen¹
    27 Sep 1954 - 27 Apr 1959  Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung)          (s.a.)               CPC
    27 Apr 1959 - 31 Oct 1968  Liu Shaoqi (Liu Shao-ch'i)         (b. 1898 - d. 1969)  CPC
    31 Oct 1968 - 24 Feb 1972  Dong Biwu (Tung Pi-wu)             (s.a.)               CPC
                               + Song Qingling (f) (acting)       (b. 1893 - d. 1981)  CPC
                                (Sung Ch'ing-ling)
    24 Feb 1972 - 17 Jan 1975  Dong Biwu  (acting)                (s.a.)               CPC
    Chairmen of the Permanent Standing Committee of the National People's Congress²
    17 Jan 1975 -  6 Jul 1976  Zhu De (Chu Teh)                   (b. 1886 - d. 1976)  CPC
     6 Jul 1976 -  5 Mar 1978  Vacant³
     5 Mar 1978 - 18 Jun 1983  Ye Jianying                        (b. 1897 - d. 1986)  CPC
    Presidents²
    18 Jun 1983 -  8 Apr 1988  Li Xiannian                        (b. 1909 - d. 1992)  CPC
     8 Apr 1988 - 27 Mar 1993  Yang Shangkun                      (b. 1907 - d. 1998)  CPC
    27 Mar 1993 -              Jiang Zemin                        (s.a.)               CPC

    Premiers
     1 Oct 1949 -  8 Jan 1976  Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai)           (b. 1898 - d. 1976)  CPC
     4 Feb 1976 - 10 Sep 1980  Hua Guofeng (acting to 7 Apr 1976) (s.a.)               CPC
    10 Sep 1980 - 24 Nov 1987  Zhao Ziyang                        (s.a.)               CPC
    24 Nov 1987 - 17 Mar 1998  Li Peng (acting to 9 Apr 1988)     (b. 1928)            CPC
    17 Mar 1998 -              Zhu Rongji                         (b. 1928)            CPC

     ¹The ambiguity of the Constitutional situation leaves it unclear whether this was a vacancy or a substitution for Chiang.

     ²The title "chairman" for the heads of state in 1954-75 represents the same Chinese term (zhuxi) that is commonly translated "president" for the heads of state after 1983.

     ³Vice-chairmen of the Standing Committee during the vacancy: Wu De, Song Qingling (f) 
    (b. 1893 - d. 1981), Liu Bocheng (b. 1892 - d. 1986), Wei Guoqing (b. 1913 - d. 1989), Seypidin (b. 1916), Chen Yun (b. 1905 - d. 1995), Tan Zhenlin (b. 1902 - d. 1983), Li Jingquan, Ulanhu (b. 1904 - d. 1988), Guo Moruo (b. 1892 - d. 1978), Xu Xiangqian (b. 1901 - d. 1990), Nie Rongzhen (b. 1899 - d. 1992), Zhang Dingcheng, Cai Chang (f), Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme (b. 1910), Zhou Jianren (b. 1888 - d. 1984), Xu Deheng, Hu Juewen, Li Suwen (f), Yao Lianwei, and, from 
    2 Dec 1976, Deng Yingchao (f) (b. 1904 - d. 1992). 

    Note: Claims Taiwan; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai) as does Taiwan.

    Party Abbreviations: CPC = Communist Party of China (communist, authoritarian, only legal party since 1 Oct 1949); Mil = Military;
    - Former parties: KMT = Chungkuo Kuomin Tang ("Kuomintang" or Chinese Nationalist Party, Chinese nationalist, authoritarian, only legal party 1928-49 [1914-1919 Chung-hua Ke-ming Tang (Chinese Revolutionary Party]); KMT-WC = Kuomintang-Wang Ching-wei (Nationalist Party-Wang Ching-wei faction, personalist [Japanese puppet government 1940-44])



    Manchuria (Manchukuo)
     
    [Manchuoko]
                   1922 - 18 Sep 1931
    [Manchuoko]
               9 Mar 1932 - 1 Mar 1934 
    [Flag of Manchuria, 1934-45]
               1 Mar 1934 - 15 Aug 1945
    Map of Manchukou
    Hear National Anthem
    "National Anthem of the Foundation" (1933-1942)
    Text of National Anthem
    Constitution
    Capital: Hsinking  (Changchun)
    Hear National Anthem
    "National Anthem" (1942-1945)
    Currency (1932-1945): Manchukuo Yuan (CNMY)
     Population: 43, 234, 000 (1943)

    1897 - 1917                Russian protectorate over Manchuria (after Sep 1905,
                                 only over northern Manchuria).
    1897 - 10 Mar 1905         Occupied by Russia.
    10 Mar 1905 - 15 Apr 1907  Southern Manchuria occupied by Japan.
    1916                       Manchuria under warlord control (nominally still of
                                 of the Republic of China).
    1922                       Declared to be autonomous by local warlord.
    29 Dec 1928                Manchuria "formally" reunified with China.
    18 Sep 1931                Japanese invasion and occupation begins.
     9 Mar 1932                Great Manchu State (Manchukuo [Manzhugou])(not recognized¹).
    21 Jan 1933                Chinese province of Jehol annexed.
     1 Mar 1934                Great Manchu Empire
     9 Aug 1945                Soviet forces begin invasion.
    15 Aug 1945 - May 1946     Occupied by the Soviet Union.

    Governors
    1916 -  7 Jun 1928         Chang Tso-lin  (Zhang Zuolin)       (b. 1873 - d. 1928)
                                 (military governor to 13 May 1922)
     7 Jun 1928 - 18 Sep 1931  Chang Hsüeh-liang  (Zhang Xuelian)  (b. 1901 - d. 2001)
    18 Sep 1931 -  9 Mar 1932  Minami Jiro  (military governor)    (b. 1874 - d. 1957)
    Chief Executive
     9 Mar 1932 -  1 Mar 1934  P'u-i ("Henry" Puyi)                (b. 1906 - d. 1967)
                                 nianhao: Hsüan-T'ung (Xuantong) 
                                 (1908-1912, Jul 1917 Emperor of China)
    Emperor
     1 Mar 1934 - 15 Aug 1945  P'u-i                               (s.a.)
                                 nianhao: Kang Teh (Kangde)
    Soviet Military governor
    15 Aug 1945 - May 1946     Aleksandr Mikhailovich Vasilevsky   (b. 1895 - d. 1977)

    Premiers
     9 Mar 1932 - 21 May 1935  Chang Hsiao-hisn (Zheng Xiaoxu)     (b. 1860 - d. 1938)
    21 May 1935 - 15 Aug 1945  Chang Ching-hui  (Zhang Jinghui)    (b. 1873 - d. 19..)

    Japanese Plenipotentiary and Commander of Japanese forces in Manchukuo
     9 Mar 1932 - 15 Aug 1945  Minami Jiro                         (s.a.)

     ¹the following countries recognized Manchukuo or established unofficial diplomatic relations: Japan (15 Sep 1932), El Salvador (21 May 1934), the Vatican (1934), Estonia (1934), Poland (1935), Italy (1936), Germany (12 May 1938), Spain (1937), Lithuania (1939), Hungary (1939), Slovakia (1939), Japanese sponsored National Government China (1940), Romania (1940), Bulgaria (1940), Finland (1941), Croatia (1941), Denmark (1941), Thailand (1941), the Philippines (1943), and the Free India Movement (1944).



    Inner Mongolia  (Meng Chiang)
     
    [Mongolian league flag]
                     Apr 1934 - 28 Jun 1936 
    [Flag of Inner Mongolia, 1936]
                 28 Jun 1936 - 8 Dec 1937
    [Mongolian Federated Autonomous Council, 1937]
               8 Dec 1937 - 10 Sep 1945
    Capital:  Hohohoto 
    (Hohhot)
    Currency (1936-1945): 
    Meng Chiang Yuan  (CNPM) 
    Population: 7, 174, 200 (1936)

    Apr 1934                   Mongols in China establish autonomous Mongolian Federation 
                                 (or League).
    22 Dec 1935                Independence declared.
    28 Jun 1936                Japanese form Mongol provinces into the Mengjiang Joint Committee 
                                 (Meng-chiang) parallel to the Japanese puppet Provisional 
                                 Government of the Republic of China, then later subordinate to 
                                 the Japanese puppet National Government of the Republic of 
                                 China (in former Chahar and Suiyuan provinces).
    22 Nov 1937                Menggu zizhi bang (Mêng-ku Tzu-chih Pang [Menggu/Manzhou), the 
                                 Mongolian Federated Autonomous Government created (Mongol 
                                 name: Mongol Obesbeen Jasaha Uls, English: Meng Chiang).
    10 Sep 1945                Inner Mongolian People's Republic 
    25 Oct 1945                Part of People's Republic of China.

    Chairman of the Autonomous Political Council
    Apr 1934 -  8 Dec 1937     Dewang (Yunwang, Prince Teh)      (b. 1870 - d. 19..)
    Chairman of Inner Mongolia Federation
     8 Dec 1937 - 10 Sep 1945  Dewang                            (s.a.)



    Kasgaria/East Turkestan (Sinkiang )
     
    [Flag of Uighuristan]
                           1932 - 1933
     
    [Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan]
              12 Dec 1933 -  6 Feb 1934 
          Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan
    [Flag of Xinjiang]
                12 Nov 1944 - 16 Jun 1946
                 East Turkestan Republic
    Capital: Kashgar
    Currency: N/A
    Population: 4, 360, 000 (1943)

    1514                       Khanate of Kashgaria founded part of Djagataide Khanate.
    17th cent.                 Divided into several minor Khanates without importance, real 
                                 power going to the so-called Khwaja, Arabic islamic religious
                                 leaders
    c.1678                     Hidayat Allah Hazrat Apaq of the Aqtaghlik, with the help of the
                                 Dzungars, deposed the last Djagataide Khan and ousted the rival 
                                 Qartaghlik, becoming the real ruler of Kashgaria under Dzungar
                                 (Dörben Oyirad) protection.
    1694 - 1720                Occupied by Dörben Oyirad.
    Jul 1759 - May 1826        Occupied by Qing empire.
    1820 - 1828                Aqtaghliq rebellion.
    1864                       Detached from the Qing empire Kingdom of Qäshqäriyä (Kashgaria).
    1870                       Polity renamed Jiti Shahar.
    28 Dec 1877                Reincorporated into Qing empire.
    1888                       Eastern Turkestan formally annexed to Qing empire
                                 and renamed Sinkiang.
    1928 - 1944                Autonomous from Chinese central government.
    12 Dec 1933 -  6 Feb 1934  Islamic Republic of Eastern Turkestan (in rebellion)
                                (also known as Uighuristan or Turkish Islamic Republic of 
                                 East Turkestan).
    16 Jan 1943                Re-incorporation into China declared.
    12 Nov 1944 - 16 Jun 1946  East Turkestan Republic (in rebellion)
    Jun 1946                   Reincorporated into China
     1 Oct 1955                Creation of Xinjian-Ughur Autonomous Region.

    Khans
    c.1693 - 1720              Ahmed Khan                         (d. af.1720)
    1720 - 1754                Daniyal Khwaja (2nd time)
    1754 - 1757                Yusuf ibn Daniyal
    1757                       `Abd Allah Badshah Khwaja ibn Yusuf
    1757 - Aug 1759            Burhan ad-Din ibn Ahmad            (d. 1760)
    1820 - 1828                Jahangir Hodja (in rebellion)      (b. 1783? - d. 1828)
    Sep 1830 - Dec 1830        Muhammad Yusuf Hodja (in rebellion)
    May 1857 - Aug 1857        Wali Khan (in rebellion)
    1864 - Feb 1865            Qutlugh Beg
    Feb 1865 - 1866            Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir Khan 
                                 (1st time)
    1866                       Muhammad Amin ibn Jahangir Khan
    1866 - 1867                Buzurg Khwaja ibn Jahangir Khan
                                 (2nd time)
    1867 -  6 Dec 1873         Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir        (b. c.1820 - d. 1877)
                                 Muhammad Mirza 
    Amir Khans
     6 Dec 1873 - 29 May 1877  Muhammad Ya`qub Beg ibn Pir        (s.a.)
                                 Muhammad Mirza 
    29 May 1877 - 28 Dec 1877  Quli Beg ibn Muhammad Ya`qub Beg   (b. 1821 - d. 1877)
    President of the Turkish-Islamic Republic of East Turkestan
    12 Dec 1933 -  6 Feb 1934  Xoca Niyaz Haci  (in rebellion)    (b. 1887 - d. 1938)
    President of East Turkestan Republic
    12 Nov 1944 - 16 Jun 1946  Alikhan Tore (in rebellion)        (b. 1885 - d. 1976)


    Dörben Oyriad (Dzungar Khanate)

    1626                       Dörben Oyriad (Four Confederates) or Dzungar Kalmyk (or Kalmuck)
                                 Khanate formed. Covering Xinjiang region of China, Kyrgystan, 
                                 eastern Kazakhstan, and western Mongolia.
    1755 - 4 Oct 1755          Tributary of China.
     4 Oct 1755 - 4 Oct 1757   In rebellion against Chinese suzerainty.
    Mar 1756                   Annexed by China.
     4 Oct 1757                Dissolved.

    Khans (2 Dec 1717 - 1720 also styled Protectors of Tibet)
    c.1676 -  3 May 1697       Galdan Khan                         (b. 1645 - d. 1697)
    1697 - 1727                Tsewang Rabdan
    1727 - Aug/Sep 1745        Galdan Tsereng                      (d. 1745)
    1745 - 1750                Tsewang Dordji Namgyal (Bayan Khan)
    1750 - 1753                Lama Dardja                         (d. 1753)
    1753 - 1755                Dawadji                             (d. 1759)
    1755 -  4 Oct 1757         Amursana                            (b. 1722 - d. 1757)
                                (from 4 Oct 1755, in rebellion) 

    Chinese Imperial Commissioner
    1755 -  4 Oct 1755         Pan Ti                              (d. 1755)



    Tibet
     
    [Tibetan flag]
                      1912  -  7 Oct 1950

     
    Map of Tibet to 1950
    Hear National Anthem
    Text of Anthem
    Constitution
    Charter of the Tibetans in Exile
     (14 Jun 1991)
    Capital: Lhasa
    Currency (1912-1951): 
    Tibetan Silver Rupee (TBR) 
    National Holiday (to 1951): 
    7 Jul (1935)  Dali Lama's
    Birthday
    Population: 1, 700, 000 (1947)

    c.600                      Kingdom of Tibet
    842 - 1244                 State fragmented.
    1244 - 1358                Mongol rule.
    c.1642 -  2 Dec 1717       Under suzerainty of the Kochot Khanate.
     2 Dec 1717 - 1720         Under suzerainty of the Dörben Oyriad.
    1720                       Under suzerainty of the Qing (Chinese) Empire.
     7 Sep 1904 - 1945         Under British influence (remains under Chinese suzerainty).
    28 Oct 1912                Dalai Lama rejects inclusion in the Republic of China.
    Jan 1913                   Nominally independent (Kingdom of Tibet), de jure still part
                                 of China (officially from 8 Mar 1913).
     3 Jul 1914                By Convention of Simla, all of Tibet, Inner and Outer,
                                 recognized by Britain as "state under the suzerainty but
                                 not the sovereignty of China." 
     7 Oct 1950                Chinese invasion and occupation.
    23 May 1951                Annexed by China (see Tibetan region)

    Note: Although the dates are firm in the Tibetan calendar, the correspondence between the Tibetan and the Gregorian calendars is only approximate, as are, consequently, the dates
    given here.

    Khans (styled Protectors of Tibet)
    1656 - 1670                Dayan Khan
    1670 - 1700                Dalai Khan
    1700 -  2 Dec 1717         Latsang Khan                           (d. 1717)
     2 Dec 1717 - 1720         Tsewang Rabdan
    Secular rulers (title Junwang, usually translated king)
    11 Jan 1740 - 12 Mar 1747  Pho-lha-nas bSod-nams-stobs-rgyas      (d. 1747)
                                 "Mi-dbang Pho-lha"
    1747 - 11 Nov 1750         Pho-lha-nas 'Gyur-med-rnam-rgyal       (d. 1750)
                                 "Ta-la'i-ba-dur"
    Dalai Lamas
    1679 - 1703                Sangs-rgye rgya-mtsho (Sangye Gyatso)
                                (adminstrator to 1683, then regent)
     8 Dec 1697 - 27 Jun 1706  Rin-chen-blo-bzang-rig-'dzins-
                                 tshangs-dbyangs-rgya-mtsho
                                    (6th Dalai Lama)                  (b. 1683 - d. 1706)
    1703 - 1706                Ngag-dbang rin-chen - Regent
                                (Ngawang rinchen)
    27 Jun 1706 - 1707         Vacant
    1707 - 1717                Ngag-dbang-ye-shes-rgya-mtsho          (b. 1681/5 - d. 1723)
                                 (usurping Dalai Lama)
    1717 - 1720                sTag-rtse-zhabs-drung  -Regent
                                (Taktse Shabdrung)
    1720 - 1721                Yan-xin - Chinese administrator
    16 Oct 1720 - 22 Mar 1757  rGyal-dbang-blo-bzang-bskal-
                                 bzang-rgya-mtsho (7th Dalai Lama)    (b. 1708 - d. 1757)
                                (ritually presumed to have ruled from 1708)
    22 Mar 1757 - 29 Apr 1757  Council of Ministers
    29 Apr 1757 - 28 Aug 1762  De-mo sprul-sku Ngag-dbang-'jam-       (d. 1770)
                                 dpal-bde-legs-rgya-mtsho -Regent
    28 Aug 1762 - 19 Nov 1804  Blo-bzang-'jam-dpal-rgya-mtsho
                                    (8th Dalai Lama)                  (b. 1758 - d. 1804)
    1804 -  5 Mar 1808         Kun-bde-gling rTa-tshag-rje-drung-     (d. 1810)
                                 sprul-sku Ye-shes-blo-bzang-bstan-
                                 pa'i-mgon-po -Regent
     5 Mar 1808 - 26 Mar 1815  Blo-bzang-lung-rtogs-rgya-mtsho
                                    (9th Dalai Lama)                  (b. 1806 - d. 1815)
    1815 - 28 Mar 1819         De-mo sPrul-sku Blo-bzang-thub-
                                 bstan-'jigs-med-rgya-mtsho -Regent   (d. 1819)
    30 Mar 1819 -  6 Feb 1822  mTsho-smon-gling sPrul-sku             (d. 1844)
                                 Ngag-dbang-'jam-dpal-tshul-khrims
                                    (1st time) -Regent
     6 Feb 1822 - 30 Sep 1837  Blo-bzang-tshul-khrims-rgya-mtsho
                                    (10th Dalai Lama)                 (b. 1816 - d. 1837)
    30 Sep 1837 - 29 Sep 1841  mTsho-smon-gling sPrul-sku             (s.a.)
                                 Ngag-dbang-'jam-dpal-tshul-khrims
                                    (2nd time) -Regent
    29 Sep 1841 - 31 Jan 1856  Blo-bzang-mkhas'-grub-rgya-mtsho
                                    (11th Dalai Lama)                 (b. 1838 - d. 1856)
    31 Jan 1856 - 1856         Council of Ministers
    1856 - 26 Feb 1858         Rva-sgreng sPrul-sku Ngag-dbang-       (d. 1888)
                                 ye-shes-tshul-khrims-rgyal-mtshan -Regent
    26 Feb 1858 - 25 Apr 1875  Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-'phrin-las-
                                 rgya-mtsho (12th Dalai Lama)         (b. 1856 - d. 1875)
    25 Apr 1875 - 1875         Council of Ministers
    1875 - 12 Feb 1878         Kun-bde-gling sPrul-sku rTa-tshag-
                                 rje-drung-ngag-dbang-dpal-ldan-
                                 chos-kyi-rgyal-mtshan -Regent
    12 Feb 1878 - 17 Dec 1933  Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-thub-bstan-
                                 rgya-mtsho-'jigs-bral-dbang-phyug-
                                 phyogs-las-rnam-rgyal
                                   (13th Dalai Lama)                  (b. 1876 - d. 1933)
                               (30 Jul 1904 - 25 Dec 1909 in Mongolia, later China exile; 
                                23 Feb 1910 - Jun 1912 in exile in Darjeeling, India)
    30 Jul 1904 - 1910         Ganden Tripa Rimpoche Lobzang
                                 Gyaltsen Lamashar - Administrator
                                 (for exiled Dalai Lama) 
    23 Feb 1910 - 1913         Gaden Tripa Tsmoling Rimpoche
                                 Ngawang Lozang - Administrator
                                 (for exiled Dalai Lama) 
    17 Dec 1933 - Jan 1934     Council of Ministers
     Jan 1934 - 25 Aug 1939    Rva-sgreng sPrul-sku Thub-bstan-       (b. 1911 - d. 1947)
                                'jam-dpal-ye-shes-rgyal-mtshan -Regent
                                (regent [for the Dalai Lama to 16 Jan 1941])
    25 Aug 1939 -              rJe-btsun-'Jam-dpal-ngag-dbang-
                                 blo-bzang-ye-shes-bstan-'dzin-
                                 rgya-mtsho (14th Dalai Lama)         (b. 1935)
                              (from 31 Mar 1959 in exile [from 1 May 1960 in Dharamsala, India])
    16 Jan 1941 - 1950         Stag-brag ngag-dbang gsung-rab -Regent
                               (Taktra Rimpoche Sungrab Ngawang) 
    31 Mar 1959 - Sep 1965     Bskal-bzang Tshe-brtan -Head of state
                                (10th Panchen Lama)            (b. 1938 - d. 1989)
    Military commander-in-chief
    Jan 1951 - Feb 1967        Zhang Guohua

    Regents (chief ministers)
    1679 - 1705                A-bar Sans-rgyas rGya-mts'o
    1705 - 1706                Ngag-dban Rin-ch'en
    1706 - 1717                IHa-bzang
    1717 - 1720                Sa-skyong sTags-rTse-pa lHa-rgyal-rab-
                                 brtan
    Chinese Administrator
    1720 - 1721                Yan-xin
    President of the Council of Ministers (bKa-bton)
    1721 - 1727                K'an-tsen-nas bdSod-nams rGyal-po
    Regents (chief ministers)
    1727 - 1728                Triumvirate
                               - Na-p'od-pa rDo-rje rGyal-po
                               - Lum-pa-nas bKra-shis rGyal-po
                               - sByar-ra-ba bLo-gros rGyal-po
    1728 - 1740                P'o-lha-nas bSod-nams-sLobs-rgas
    1740 - 1750                dGyur-med rNam-rgyal
    1750 - 1751                dGa'-bzhi Pandita (acting)
    1751 - 1757                Vacant
    1757 - 1777                De-mo Qutuqtu
    1777 - 1781                gNag-dban Ts'ul-k'rims (1st time)
                                (Tsomolin Nomenkhan)
    1781 - 1789                Vacant
    1789 - 1790                rTa-ts'ag sPrul-sku Ye-'ses 
                                 bLo-bzan bsTan-pa'i mGing-po
                                 (1st time)
    1791 - 1791                gNag-dban Ts'ul-k'rims (2nd time)
                                (Tsomolin Nomenkhan)
    1791 - 1810                rTa-ts'ag sPrul-sku Ye-'ses 
                                 bLo-bzan bsTan-pa'i mGing-po
                                 (2nd time)
    1811 - 1819                De-mo bLo-bzan t'ub-bstan Jigs-med 
                                 rGya-mts'o
    1819 - 1844                gNag-dban Jam-dpal Ts'ul-k'rims
    1844 - 1845                Blo-bzang-bstan-pa'i-nyi-ma
                               (7th Panchen Lama)                 (b. 1781 - d. 1854)
    1845 - 1855                gNag-dban Ye-'ses Ts'ul-k'rims 
                                 rGyal-mts'an (1st time)
    1855 - 1856                Vacant
    1856 - 1862                gNag-dban Ye-'ses Ts'ul-k'rims 
                                 rGyal-mts'an (2nd time)
    1862 - 1864                bSad-sgra dBan-p'yug rGyal-po
    1864 - 1872                bLo-bzan mK'yen-rab dBang-p'yug
    1872 - 1875                Vacant
    1875 - 1886                gNag-dban dPal-ldan c'os-kyi 
                                 rGyal-mts'an
    1886 - 1893                gNag-dban bLo-bzan 'P'rin-las 
                                 Rab-rgyas
    1893 - 1904                ....
    1904 - 1909                Ganden Tripa bLo-bzang Gyantsen
    1910 - 1913                Ganden Tripa Isomolin Rimpoch'e
    1913 - 1934                ....
    1934 - 1941                T'ub-bstan 'Jam-dpal Ye-'ses 
                                 rGyal-mts'an
    1941 - 1950                gNag-dban gSun-rab gRub-t'ob 
                                 bsTan-pa'

    Chinese ambans (representatives of the emperors at the court of the Dalai Lama)
    1709 - 1711                Ho Shou -Envoy
    1720 - 1721                Yanxin -Military commandant
    1721 - 1723                Ts'eban Norbu -Military commandant
    1723 - 1724                Orai
    1726? - 172.               Oci
                               + Bandi
    1727 - 1728                Sengko (1st time) -Envoy
                               + Mai-u (2nd time) -Envoy
    1728 - 1728                Jalangga -Military commandant
    1728 - 1733                Sengko (2nd time)
                               + Mailu (2nd time)
    1733 - 1734                Qingbu
    1733 - 1734                + Miyuser
    1734                       Nasutai (1st time)
                               + Arxun
    1734 - 1737                Nasutai (2nd time)
    1737 - 1739                Hanggilu
    1739 - 1741?               Jishan (1s time)
    1742 - 1745                Sopai (1st time)
    1745 - 1747                Fujing (1st time)                      (d. 1750)
    1747 - 1748                Sopai (2nd time)
    1747 - 1748                Fujing (2nd time)                      (s.a.)
    1748                       Sopai  (3rd time)
    1748 - 1749                Labdon (La-bu-dun)                     (b. 1703 - d. 1750)
    1749 - 1750                Jishan (2nd time)
    1750                       Fujing (3rd time)                      (s.a.)
    1750                       Jishan (3rd time) 
    1751 - 1751                Bandi (1st time)
    1751 - 1751                Ts'ebin -Commissioner
    1751 - 1752                Bandi (2nd time)
                               + rNamrgyal
    1752 - 1786                ...
    1786 - 1789                Qingli
    1791 - 179.                Baotai
    179. - 1804                ....
    1804 - 1805                Ts'e-pa-k'e
    1805 - 1820                ....
    1820 - 1823                Wengan
    1823 - 1839                ....
    1839 - 1842                Mengbao
    1843 - 1847                Qishan
    1847 - 18..                Binliang
    18.. - 1886                ....
    1886 - 1888                Wenshi
    1888 - 1892                Shengtai
    189. - ....                Kuihan
    1902 - 1904                Yugang
    1904 - 1906                Yutai
    1906 - 1912                Lianyu
    1912 - 1913                Zhongyin
    High Commissioner of the Chinese Republic
    1913 - 1931                Luxingji (acting)
    British Political Officer
    Feb 1937 - 1940            Sir Hugh E. Richardson
     

    Kingdom of Tibet in Exile

    [Tibetan flag]

    Dalai Lama
    31 Mar 1959 -              rJe-btsun-'Jam-dpal-ngag-dbang-
                                 blo-bzang-ye-shes-bstan-'dzin-
                                 rgya-mtsho (14th Dalai Lama)         (s.a.)
                              (from 1 May 1960 in Dharamsala, India)

    Chairmen of the Cabinet
    19.. - 19..                Zurkhang Ngawang Gelek 
    19.. - 19..                Shenkha Gurney Topgyal
    19.. - 19..                Garang Lobsang Rigzin
    19.. - 19..                Kunling Woeser Gyaltsen
    19.. - 19..                Wangdue Dorjee
    19.. - May 1990            Juchen Thupten Namgyal
    May 1990 - Jul 1991        Kelsang Yeshi
    Aug 1991 - Jan 1993        Gyalo Thondup
    Feb 1993 -  4 Jun 1996     Tenzin Namgyal Tethong 
     4 Jun 1996 -  5 Sep 2001  Sonam Topgyal                      (b. 1934)
     5 Sep 2001 -              Samdhong Rinpoche                  (b. 1939)

    No political parties existed prior to the 7 Oct 1950 Chinese invasion.


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