Power From On High The Development of Mormon Priesthood Table of Contents
A revelation to the three-year-old Church of Christ (also called Mormon) declared in 1833 that God would "give unto the faithful line upon line precept upon precept."1 The concept of authority was not initially addressed in the Restoration movement2 but developed gradually, or "line upon line." Now viewed as the founding Restoration event, the epiphany known as the "first vision" resulted from Joseph Smith's mourning "for my own sins and for the sins of the world."3 In response, "the Lord opened the heavens upon me and I saw the Lord and he spake unto me saying Joseph my son thy sins are forgiven thee." Despite the importance attached to the first vision by subsequent generations of Latter-day Saints, it did not serve as Smith's call to the ministry or claim to divine authorization. That claim began with another vision, in the autumn of 1823, when "an angel of the Lord came and stood before me." The angel called Moroni entrusted to Smith "plates of gold upon which there was engravings which was engraven by Maroni & his fathers the servants of the living God in ancient days and deposited by the commandments of God and kept by the power thereof and that I should go and get them."4 Translating the plates into the Book of Mormon marked the beginning of Smith's ministry. It established among his followers his credentials as a prophet. Such authority, however, was implied, for Smith never claimed that Moroni bestowed formal authority by the laying on of hands, the manner sanctioned by ancient and modern Christianity. As the Mormon restoration unfolded, the essence of divine empowerment assumed a more concrete form. Almost six years after Moroni's visit, angelic beings bestowed authority on Smith and his assistant Oliver Cowdery by the laying on of hands. Although in the Mormon church today the term "priesthood" refers to this bestowed authority, such a relationship did not develop until years after the founding of the church. Initially authority was understood to be inherent in what are now termed "offices." Three officeselder, priest, and teacherwere present by August 1829, as were the ordinances of baptism, confirmation, and ordination, but the word "priesthood" was not used in reference to these for another three years. In June 1831 a modern "pentecost" occurred in which supernatural powers, similar to those reported in the New Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles, chapter 2, were bestowed upon latter-day disciples through their ordination to the "high priesthood," thus coupling the concepts of "authority" and "power." Between 1831 and 1835 an organizational consolidation occurred, resulting in the 1835 designation of the "Aaronic Priesthood" and "Melchizedek Priesthood," which incorporated the elements of authority and power which had developed over the prior dozen years. Perhaps the most important and certainly least understood development began in 1836 when Smith and Cowdery recorded a vision of Elijah, the Old Testament prophet. Although Elijah did not become associated with priesthood for another two years, he gradually became the most important figure for Latter-day Saint authority. Indeed, after 1840 Smith never associated Moroni, John the Baptist, or Peter, James, and Johnprevious angelic ministerswith the concept of priesthood, opting instead to emphasize Elijah. The concept of bestowed authority was present prior to the organization of the church, but the structure and nomenclature developed gradually throughout the remaining years of Smith's life. Although the development occurred along a continuum, the continuity was punctuated by several key events. In attempting to understand the developmental process, it is useful to divide the continuum into several phases on the basis of those events. Phase 1: Implied Authority, September 1823-March 1829 Visions surrounding the gold plates of the Book of Mormon provided the earliest confirmation of Joseph Smith's divine calling. Within weeks of Smith's obtaining the plates in September 1827, neighbor Martin Harris "became convinced of the visions and gave [Smith] fifty Dollars to bare my expences and because of his faith and the righteous deed the Lord appeared unto him in a vision and showed unto him his marvilous work which he was about to do."5 A similar manifestation in 1829 converted a man whose role in Latter-day Saint priesthood would be second only to Smith's: "[The] Lord appeared unto a young man by the name of Oliver Cowdry and shewed unto him the plates in a vision and also the truth of the work and what the Lord was about to do through me his unworthy servant therefore he was desirous to come and write for me to translate."6 While it was apparent that Smith had a calling, the basis of his authority was implicit in his work, not the result of any "hands-on" ordination. Prior to 1829 neither Smith nor his followers claimed to have received the type of divine authorization which ultimately would become known as "priesthood." Smith's primary concerns during this time were his own status with God and the translation of the gold plates. He expressed no intent to organize a church or to confer authority or ordinances on others. Three revelations date from this period, none of which addressed these issues. In the first, from July 1828, Smith was chastised for having lost part of the Book of Mormon manuscript and was told that he would be allowed to resume translating, but no authority was mentioned.7 In the second, dated February 1829, a ministry extending beyond publication of the Book of Mormon was implied. The qualifications for that ministry were listed: "Faith, hope, charity and love, with an eye single to the glory of God" (BC III:1). Formal authority evidently was not required. The third revelation, given to Joseph Smith one month later in behalf of Harris, described for the first time the establishment of a church, "like unto the church which was taught by my disciples in the days of old" (BC IV:5), but stipulated not prerequisites.8 Phase 2: Angelic Authority, April 1829-October 1830 In April 1829 itinerant schoolteacher Oliver Cowdery arrived in Harmony, Pennsylvania, to serve as Joseph Smith's new scribe. Within days their work on the Book of Mormon produced passages dealing with baptism. The first of these was from "The Book of Mosiah"9:
Of particular importance is the idea that before Alma baptized he received authorization simply from "the spirit of the Lord." There is no mention of angelic appearance, laying on of hands, or ordained office. Alma baptized himself and Helam simultaneously. Cowdery received the following communication from God at about this time:
Smith's and Cowdery's baptisms in the Susquehanna River in May 1829 were thus divinely authorized, though not as a prerogative based on the duties of any office. Later accounts described additional elements such as authority from an angel conferred by the laying on of hands and tandem rather than simultaneous baptism, in contrast to the Book of Mormon model. Although they possessed authority to baptize, Smith and Cowdery lacked the authority mentioned in later passages of the Book of Mormon, which enabled recipients to confer the Holy Ghost and to ordain priests and teachers. In these passages those holding this "higher" authority were simultaneously called disciples and elders and were equivalent to Christ's apostles in Palestine (BM, 1830, 574-75). Book of Mormon witness David Whitmer later said that Smith and Cowdery obtained this authority early in June 1829, after he took them to his father's farm in Fayette, New York, and that following this they ordained each other elders.12 Shortly thereafter, Whitmer was baptized and ordained as the third elder of the Restoration.13 Inasmuch as a revelation dated mid-June stated that Cowdery and Whitmer had been "called even with that same calling" as the Apostle Paul (BC XV:11),14 the ordinations as elders must have occurred within the first two weeks of June 1829. The revelation reinforced the idea that their new, higher authority was the same described in the Book of Mormon by commissioning Cowdery and Whitmer to choose twelve disciples who were then "to ordain priests and teachers," the same duty given the twelve disciples/elders in "The Book of Moroni" (BC XV:35; cf. BM, 1830, 575). The following early Mormon and non-Mormon records support the claim of divine restoration of authority, including (beginning in 1830) the appearance of angels, (beginning in late 1832 but not explicit until late 1834) the receipt of priesthood from angels, and (in 1835) the naming of angels:
While it is not known why Smith and Cowdery delayed naming the messengers until 1835, the answer may reside in the role the Book of Mormon played during the earliest months of the Restoration. In addition to authorizing and initiating Smith's ministry, the Book of Mormon served as a blueprint for the early church. The form of the early church beginning in the summer of 1829 paralleled that described in the Book of Mormon. Its emphasis on the necessity of baptism and formal authority to baptize initiated Smith's and Cowdery's journey to the Susquehanna River. It described the mode of baptism and even specified the exact wording of the baptismal prayer. In this context one might appreciate that the actual conferral of authority to baptize (and subsequently the higher authority of the apostleship) could have been viewed by Smith and Cowdery of lesser significance. It is important to realize that Smith himself publicly associated John the Baptist and Peter, James, and John with priesthood restoration only from 1835 to 1840, after which time Elijah pre-empted them in Latter-day Saint theology, even as Moroni appears to have pre-empted them prior to 1835.six years for Whitmer); bitterness over having been excommunicated (both in 1838); or a belief that all necessary authority came through events surrounding the Book of Mormon or, in the case of Whitmer, refusal to acknowledge as valid any visitations or visions in which he himself had not participated. Thus Whitmer defended the Book of Mormon and his own vision of Moroni yet declined to validate Smith's first vision, the restoration events of 1829, the vision of the "degrees of glory" in 1832, the vision of the Celestial Kingdom in 1836, or the 1836 appearances of Jesus Christ, Moses, Elias, and Elijah in the newly dedicated Kirtland "House of the Lord"none of which he had participated in. (The vision of the "degrees of glory" is contained in DC, 1835 XCI; the vision of the Celestial Kingdom in the current LDS edition of the Doctrine and Covenants (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1981) [hereafter DC, LDS] 137; and the appearances of Jesus Christ, Moses, Elias, and Elijah in DC, LDS 110.)28 The status of Mormon authority in 1829 was as follows. Motivated by passages in the Book of Mormon, Smith and Cowdery had sought and received authorization to baptize. Later they encountered additional Book of Mormon passages describing a higher authority which was needed to confer the Holy Ghost and ordain to offices, which they subsequently received. Neither level of authority had yet been called "priesthood." Prior to 1831 the only use of the term was in the Book of Mormon, where it was used synonymously with the office of high priest (BM, 1830, 258-60), an office which did not exist in Mormonism until late 1831. Prior to then men acted by virtue of the office to which they had been ordained, either elder, priest, or teacher. In performing ordinances they sometimes referred to their authority explicitly, as in the baptismal prayer, though without using the term "priesthood."29 Authority was generally implied, as in the blessing of the bread and wine (BM, 1830, 575-76) and in the ordination of priests and teachers (BM, 1830, 575).30 It was not until several months after the June 1831 general conference, when the "high priesthood" was conferred, that the term "priesthood" entered Mormon usage at all. Two officespriest and teacherwere named in the Book of Mormon as possessing lesser authority. Neither office was specifically bestowed on Smith or Cowdery.31 The Book of Mormon stated that both offices had authority to baptize (BM, 1830, 265), though a revised version of the "Articles and Covenants" of the church in 1831 restricted the performing of baptism to the former office.32 The higher authority, according to the Book of Mormon, resided in elders whose authority equaled that of Jesus' ancient apostles (BM, 1830, 574-75). Initially the term "disciple" referred to those possessing this authority (BC XV:28), but in late 1829 the term switched to "apostle."33 In a revelation dated 6 April 1830 (the day the church was formally organized), Smith and Cowdery were called "Apostles" and "Elders" (BC XXII:1, 13, 14). Two months later the first general conference was held at which licenses to preach were given to two teachers, three priests, and five elders.1844 (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1983), 1.34 Two of those licenses still exist. Smith's father's states that "he is a Priest of this Church of Christ,"35 while John Whitmer's says "he is an Apostle of Jesus Christ, an Elder of this Church of Christ."36 A year later the "Articles and Covenants" further clarified the dual nomenclature by stating that "an apostle is an elder."37 William McLellin later explained that "an Apostle is not an administrative officer. When they ministered they did it as Elders."38 That apostles existed in the church as early as 1829, and that twelve apostles may have been selected as early as 1830, is further suggested by the following sources:
By the end of 1830 new elders were no longer also called apostles.been guilty of similar conduct, is set on high" (Painesville Telegraph, 6 Dec. 1831). Furthermore, a revelation dated 23 Sept. 1832 and addressed to "Eleven high Priests save one" who "are present this day" stated that "you are mine Apostles even Gods high Priests" and repeatedly compared these men to the ancient Apostles ("Kirtland Revelation Book," 20-31; see also DC, 1835, Sec. IV).43 The use of the term declined quickly. By 1835, when the Quorum of Twelve Apostles was organized, no mention was made of the earlier apostles. Another development at the end of 1830 proved to be of even greater impact on the church and was initiated by the baptism of former Campbellite preacher and bishop Sidney Rigdon. Having been converted in Kirtland, Ohio, by four missionaries sent to the "borders of the Lamanites" (Native Americans), Rigdon was convinced that these men had authority from God but was troubled by their apparent inability to prophesy and heal. Blaming Cowdery "for attempting to work miracles" and saying that "it was not intended to be confirmed in that way,"44 Rigdon went East to meet the prophet. Phase 3: High Priesthood, December 1830-November 1831 Sidney Rigdon's influence on Joseph Smith was immediate and favorable. Within days of his arrival in New York, Rigdon's status in the Restoration was declared by revelation: "Behold, verily, verily, I say unto my servant Sidney, I have looked upon thee and thy works. I have heard thy prayers and prepared thee for a greater work. Thou are blessed, for thou shalt do great things. Behold thou was sent forth, even as John, to prepare the way before me, and before Elijah which should come, and thou knew it not" (BC XXXVII:3-6). Several days later, with Rigdon as scribe, Smith received a revelation changing the qualifications for the ministry. The church was directed to move to Ohio where the elders would "be endowed with power from on high"something Rigdon had concluded was lacking in missionaries who converted himand thus be prepared to "go forth among all nations" (BC XL:28). Using the terminology of the Gospel of Luke, Chapter 24, the revelation likened the elders to the ancient apostles who were told that although they had been ordained, they lacked something essential to their forthcoming missions, namely "power from on high." Not until they were endowed with power on the Day of Pentecost could they leave Jerusalem on their missions. The nature of the new "endowment"45how and when it would be given, and of what it would consist--was not described in this revelation but emerged over the next five months. Two February revelations gave additional insight into the endowment. The first stated the necessity of personal preparation on the part of recipients (BC XLV:16). The second reinforced the similarity between the modern and ancient elders by promising a pentecostal experience: "I will pour out my spirit upon them in the day that they assemble themselves together" (BC XLVI:2). The same revelation announced that the assembly would be held in Kirtland the first week of June. Shortly after receiving this revelation, Smith, with Rigdon as scribe, revised the 14th chapter of Genesis which contains one of two Old Testament references to Melchizedek. They added sixteen verses defining an ancient order to which Melchizedek was ordained as a high priest and through which he possessed tangible power to break mountains, divide seas, dry up waters, and put armies at defiance.46 In May an unpublished revelation through Smith to Ezra Thayre stated:
This revelation linked for the first time the endowment of "power from on high" to ordination,48 though not yet specifying the "order" of priesthood which gave Melchizedek tangible power. That the elders expected to receive power and that their expectation was public knowledge was verified by an Ohio newspaper article published at the time: "In June they are all to meet, and hold a kind of jubilee in this new `land of promise,' where they are to work divers miraclesamong others that of raising the dead."49 The conference began on 3 June 1831 in a schoolhouse in Kirtland. On the second day a series of unusual events transpired. Of the many accounts later written, the most concise was that of John Corrill:
Other participants who later wrote of the experience included Joseph Smith, Parley P. Pratt, Levi Hancock, Lyman Wight, Newel Knight, Ezra Booth, Philo Dibble, and Zebedee Coltrin,51 all of whom described the event as a pentecost consisting of revelation, prophecy, vision, healing, casting out of evil spirits, speaking in unknown tongues, and, according to one witness, an unsuccessful attempt to raise a dead child.publicized and similarly unsuccessful attempt by fellow elders to raise him from the dead (see Burlington Sentinel [Burlington, VT], 23 Mar. 1832; and reprints of this article in the Wayne Sentinel [Palmyra, NY], 11 Apr. 1832, and the Ohio Star, 12 Apr. 1832). Two decades later LDS Church Historian George A. Smith wrote to Brackenbury's widow asking "the circumstances of his death, burial, and attempted resurrection" (George A. Smith to Elizabeth Brackenbury, 29 Aug. 1855, Henry Stebbins Collection, P24/F1, RLDS archives). Third, when E. D. Howe reprinted the Booth account in 1834, he told of an interview with the parents who said "that they were prevented from procuring medical aid for the child, by the representations of the elders, that it was in no danger--that it would certainly be restored" (Howe, 190).52 A new order was introduced at the conference into which about half the elders present were inducted by ordination. The new order was called the Order of Melchizedek, a name derived from the Book of Mormon and Genesis, chapter 14. It was also called the High Priesthood, a term used in the Book of Mormon but not in Genesis (BM, 1830, 260). There was not yet an office of high priest, even though Book of Mormon passages referred to Melchizedek as a high priest. Conference minutes from 4 and 24 August; 1, 6, 12 September; 10, 11, 21 October; and 1, 8, 9, 11, and 12-13 November still listed as "elders" men who had been ordained to the High Priesthood.53 The term "high priest" was not used in conference minutes until 26 April 1832.54 Booth acknowledged that conference participants professed "to be endowed with the same power as the ancient apostles were."55 This was chronicled most dramatically by Jared Carter. Shortly after the conference a woman belonging to the church fell from a wagon on her way to a meeting and sustained injuries feared to be fatal. Carter wrote:
Although the new order derived its name from Melchizedek, the term "Melchizedek Priesthood" was not yet used, in spite of what Smith, Corrill, Lyman Wight, and Newel Knight later wrote. The term was first used in 1835 when it became an umbrella encompassing all prior component terms. All accounts of the 1831 conference referring to "Melchizedek Priesthood" were written after 1835, while contemporary accounts of the conference mentioned only "High Priesthood" or "Order of Melchizedek."57 Enthusiasm and expectations were high following the conference, as the elders traveled from Kirtland to Independence, Missouri, to dedicate a site for a temple.58 A national periodical commented that "some of them affect a power even to raise the dead, and perchance, (such is the weakness of human nature), really believe that they can do it!"59 Yet their journey resulted in disappointment and lowered expectations. At another conference back in Kirtland on 25 October, Smith introduced a new dimension to the High Priesthood and simultaneously took the first step in the development of the unique Latter-day Saint theology of afterlife, by stating "that the order of the High-priesthood is that they have the power given them to seal up the Saints unto eternal life. And said it was the privilege of every Elder present to be ordained to the Highpriesthood."60 Prior to this, authority and power, by whatever title or description, had been "here and now." With this pronouncement the priesthood was extended beyond the grave. Within two weeks, elders exercised their new power, sealing entire congregations "up unto eternal life."61 Shortly after the October conference, a revelation directed to four men further defined priesthood. The office of high priest was formally established. After this, High Priesthood meant the office of high priest, with no further reference to an endowment.62 Further, the inspired words of high priests were proclaimed "scripture." The revelation reaffirmed the authority of the High Priesthood to seal people to eternal life, while adding that prior divine confirmation was required.63 Another revelation given simultaneously added a darker dimension to the sealing power, declaring that the wicked could be sealed up to condemnation (BC I:2).64 Phase 4: Organizational Consolidation, November 1831-March 1836 A revelation given in November 1831 initiated a process of organizational rearrangement which continued over a period of nearly five years, culminating in the hierarchical seating at the dedication of the Kirtland House of the Lord in 1836. When the Latter-day Saint movement began in August 1829,65 its government was democratic. Although Joseph Smith clearly occupied a favored position as translator of the Book of Mormon and as God's spokesman, administrative titles such as "President" or "First Elder" were absent during the early period.66 At the first general conference in June 1830, Smith was called "first Elder" and Cowdery "second Elder,"67 and church growth was forcing other changes. As a departure from Book of Mormon precedent and the early revelations which stated that only elders could ordain other officers,68 by 1831 priests were authorized to ordain deacons, teachers, and other priests, perhaps as a concession to the overburdened elders.69 More significant was a revelation received that November "regulating the Presidency of the church."70 This revelation outlined for the first time both the need for and structure of a formal presidency: "Wherefore it must needs be that one be appointed of the high Priesthood to preside over the Priesthood, and he shall be called President of the high priesthood of the Church, or in other words the presiding high Priest over the high priesthood of the Church." More than a figurehead, this president would hold the power to authorize all other officers within the church to administer "ordinances and blessings upon the church by the laying on of hands." He would serve a judicial role, as president of the court of the High Priesthood, "the highest court in the church," thus bringing the informal church judicial system under central control.71 The revelation concluded by stating that "the duty of the President of the office of the high Priesthood is to preside over the whole and to be like unto Moses."72 At a conference in Ohio on 24 January 1832, Smith was "acknowledged President of the High Priesthood" and formally ordained to that office by Sidney Rigdon. At the same time, Rigdon "ordained" Orson Pratt, who was already an elder, to "preside over the Elders," thus underscoring the recent distinction between the offices of elder and high priest.Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1971), 1:243 (hereafter HC). Although this appears to have presaged the formation of "quorums" of elders, Pratt's ordination to the High Priesthood only one week later delayed for years the emergence of organized, functional groups of elders. (See Lyndon W. Cook, The Revelations of the Prophet Joseph Smith [Provo, UT: Seventy's Mission Bookstore, 1981], 49, for the date of Pratt's ordination.)73 Simultaneously a second conference in Independence, Missouri, moved towards centralized control of all ordinations, unanimously resolving "that there be no person ordained in the churches in the land of Zion to the office of Elder Priest Teacher or Deacon without the united voice of the Church in writing in which such individual resides."74 The consolidation of centralized authority was strengthened several weeks later with the selection and ordination of Rigdon and Jesse Gause as Smith's "councellors of the ministry of the presidency of the high Priesthood."75 An unpublished revelation given to Bishop Newel K. Whitney the same month reaffirmed the primacy of the "presidency of the high Priesthood" in "all the concerns of the church."76 Nearly two years passed before the next significant step occurred in the process of centralization. Having seen in vision the manner in which ancient church councils were organized, Smith convened a conference in Kirtland on 17 February 1834 and organized "the high council of the Church of Christ," consisting of twelve high priests.77 Strictly judicial in function, the high council exercised both original and appellate jurisdiction.78 Although delegating substantial powers to this body, Smith signalled the continuity of strong, centralized control by placing himself and his two counselors at its head. In recognition of the growth of the church beyond Kirtland and Independence, provision was also made at this conference for ad hoc councils to settle "the most difficult cases of church matters" abroad. These councils would be temporary and subordinate to the standing high council, which could upon appeal reverse their decisions. One week later a revelation called Smith to lead an expedition known as Zion's Camp from Ohio to Missouri to rescue persecuted church members and "redeem Zion."79 Although the mission failed, and several members died of cholera, Smith succeeded in organizing a high council while he was in Missouri.80 Four days later he confidently stated "that he had lived to see the Church of Jesus Christ established on earth according to the order of heaven; and should he now be taken from this body of people, the work of the Lord would roll on."81 Smith's conclusion that the church organization was now complete proved to be short-lived. After returning to Kirtland, he met with the Young brothers, Brigham and Joseph, and related a vision he had experienced while praying to know the fate of those who had died on the expedition. He said, "Brethren, I have seen those men who died of the cholera in our camp; and the Lord knows, if I get a mansion as bright as theirs, I ask no more."82 Then, drawing from the same vision, he outlined the formation of the final two bodies of centralized authority, the twelve apostles and the seventy.83 The following Saturday, 14 February 1835, the twelve were appointed; two weeks later, the First Quorum of Seventies was chosen. Nearly all the men in both groups had proven their dedication by serving in Zion's Camp. Although the initial mission of the twelve was "to open the door of the gospel to foreign nations," with the seventy "under their direction to follow in their tracks,"84 it soon became apparent that other missions awaited the twelve. Two weeks later Smith told them that they were to be a "traveling high council, who are to preside over all the churches of the Saints among the Gentiles, where there is no presidency established"85that is, everywhere except Kirtland and Independence, where standing high councils presided. That the traveling high council would ultimately overshadow the standing high councils may have been indicated by a revelation given through Smith at the request of the Twelve on 28 March 1835.86 While stating that four councils all had "authority and power" equal to that of the First Presidency, listing the twelve ahead of the seventy and high councils suggested a favored status (DC, 1835 III:12-15). Furthermore, to the twelve was given the exclusive authority "to ordain and set in order all the other officers of the church" (v. 30). By August 1835 the revelation which had established the standing high councils was changed to give further priority to the twelve: whereas decisions of the standing high councils (and of ad hoc councils of traveling high priests) could still be appealed, those of the twelve could not (DC, 1835 V:13). By late 1835, then, the centralization of authority was complete. Ordinations were under central control,87 church members in the stakes were under the control of the standing high councils and bishops, and those outside of the stakes came under the jurisdiction of the twelve apostles and the seventy. All of these bodies, in turn, answered to the president who was "to preside over the whole church, and to be like unto Moses" (DC, 1835 III:42). Although changes would yet be made in the responsibilities of these governing bodies, no new units of ecclesiastical government would be added during the remaining nine years of Smith's ministry. In the earliest days of the Restoration only three offices existed: teachers, priests, and elders/apostles. Teachers and priests were ordained without regard to number or organization. Elders/apostles, though initially a group of twelve men, did not function as a unit. In November 1831 the revelation which appointed a president also mandated that each office be organized into well-defined groups: deacons88 into groups of twelve; teachers, twenty-four; priests, forty-eight; and elders, 96. Each group was to be presided over by a president "to sit in council with them and to teach them their duty edifying one another as it is given according to the covenants."89 Although the blueprint for group function was drawn, no group was able to respond effectively at the time. When the Kirtland House of the Lord was completed in 1836 only teachers had established a significant tradition of group function.90 As shown earlier, the concept of dual levels of authority was present in the Book of Mormon and formed the model for the Restoration. Both levels were restored in 1829, though neither was named at that time nor were the offices within each layer specified. Through mid-1832 the only use of the word "priesthood" was in conjunction with "high priesthood" which first referred to an order of elders, then to the office of high priest. A revelation in September 1832 expanded the meaning of the word "priesthood" and for the first time made some offices subordinate to others (DC, 1835 IV). The revelation is confusing, for it deals with three terms"holy priesthood," "high priesthood," and "lesser priesthood"the first two having since become interchangeable. Furthermore, the revelation was given to two groups of men over a two-day periodseven elders on 22 September and "Eleven high Priests save one" the following dayand for two separate purposes"explaining the two priesthoods" and "commissioning the Apostles to preach the gospel."91 Without the original manuscript, it is impossible to identify with certainty the seam connecting the two parts. The revelation describes a "holy priesthood" which Moses received from his father-in-law, Jethro, who had inherited it lineally from Adam through Melchizedek, "which priesthood continueth in the church of God, in all generations" (DC, 1835 IV:2). It then describes a second "priesthood" which the Lord confirmed "upon Aaron and his seed," which "continueth and abideth forever, with the priesthood which is after the holiest order of God" (v. 3). What the revelation does not clarify is how these two levels of priesthood corresponded to the three events of 1829 and 1831. Clarification comes from Smith's diary, written at the same time, in which he recounts the events of the Restoration92: "firstly he receiving the testamony from on high"; "seccondly the ministering of Angels"; "thirdly the reception of the holy Priesthood by the ministring of Aangels to administer the letter of the Gospelthe Law and commandments as they were given unto himand the ordinencs"; and "forthly a confirmation and reception of the high Priesthood after the holy order of the son of the living God [and] power and ordinence from on high to preach the gospel in the administration and demonstration of the spirit."93 Comparison of the autobiography with the revelation shows that the term "high priesthood" (DC, 1835 IV:5) referred to the office of high priest and not to the authority of Peter, James, and John. This office, according to the revelation, is superior to its two appendages: the offices of elder and bishop. Similarly, the "lesser priesthood," that is, the office of priest, or "lesser priest" (v. 22 of the same revelation), is superior to its two appendages: the offices of teacher and deacon (ibid.).94 While not yet using the term "Aaronic Priesthood" for authority restored by John the Baptist on 15 May 1829, the revelation moved in that direction by associating such priesthood with "Aaron and his seed." Similarly, while the term "Melchizedek Priesthood" was not yet used, the connection between this priesthood and Melchizedek was firmly established. The relationship between offices, while perhaps implied in earlier records, was explicit. Lesser priests and high priests were dominant, with teachers and deacons subordinate to the former and elders and bishops to the latter. Prior to this revelation there had been no indication that ordination to an office or to a level of authority was a right. But by stating that the lesser priesthood was conferred on "Aaron and his seed throughout all their generation," a doctrine of priesthood-through-lineage emerged. Several weeks later this was formalized in a revelation stating that "ye are lawful heirs according to the flesh," and that "the Priesthood hath remained and must needs remain through you and your lineage untill the restoration of all things . . ." (DC, 1835 VI:3, 6 Dec. 1832). The next step in defining priesthood came through a revelation in March 1835 (DC, 1835 III)95 introducing the terms "Aaronic Priesthood" and "Melchizedek Priesthood," which have since been used by all Latter-day Saint churches to refer to formal authority. In contrast to the September 1832 revelation, this one used the word "priesthood" generically to refer to all officers in each of the two levels of authority. Thus, whereas the 1832 revelation had teachers and deacons as appendages to the "lesser priesthood"the office of priestthe three offices of priest, teacher, and deacon were now part of the Aaronic Priesthood which in turn served an umbrella function with reference to no specific office. Similarly, the offices of elder and high priest were now part of the Melchizedek Priesthood, rather than elders being appendages to high priests, as the earlier revelation had outlined. Finally, the office of bishop, previously an appendage to the high priesthood, was part of the Aaronic Priesthood.96 The collected revelations were soon assembled and edited for publication as Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints. Among the textual changes was an addition to a revelation dated September 1830. Whereas the earlier form was silent on angelic intervention, the new version described John the Baptist as the messenger who restored the "first priesthood," while Peter, James, and John were the restorers of the apostleship, this being the first time that the ancient apostles had explicitly been linked to the June 1829 restoration (DC, 1835 L:2-3). The use of the word "apostles" rather than "Melchizedek Priesthood" was significant, for while apostleship formed a part of Melchizedek Priesthood, the latter term had come to encompass more than just the apostleship. It is unfortunate that this distinction did not remain clear. After 1835 references to earlier events, including those of June 1829 and June 1831, frequently made use of the term "Melchizedek Priesthood." The failure of later commentators to understand the anachronism led to elaborate gyrations in attempting to deal with such statements as "I was also present with Joseph when the higher or Melchizedek priesthood was restored by the holy angels of God [in 1829],"97 and "the Melchizedek priesthood was then [June 1831] for the first time introduced."98 The central purpose of the Ohio gathering in 1831 and June conference that year had been the endowment of elders with "power from on high," such that they, as the ancient apostles, would be prepared to spread the message of the gospel. There had been no repeat of the pentecostal experience for elders who had not attended the June conference, nor was it mandatory thereafter that elders be ordained to the High Priesthood prior to embarking on their missionary journeys.99 Yet near the end of 1832, when several missionaries had returned from their travels, Smith received a revelation indicating that further preparation was required, "that ye may be prepared in all things when I shall send you again" (DC, 1835 VII:21).100 This preparation was to be both spiritual and intellectual. In order to facilitate the preparation, Smith was commanded to establish a school for the elders (v. 36). The opening of the "School of the Prophets" occurred on 23- 24 January 1833. Although never referred to as an "endowment," the school's opening resembled the 1831 conference. Both included new ordinances: in 1831 initiation into the High Priesthood, whereas in 1833 the washing of the feet by President Smith in similitude of the gesture of Jesus to his apostles. This latter was accompanied by a pentecostal outpouring, including speaking in tongues, prophesying and "many manifestations of the holy spirit,"101 which was not repeated with subsequent admissions of elders to the school. However, the continuing expectation existed, as underscored in a letter written by Oliver Cowdery the next year:
Coincident with the 1833 decision to build the "House of the Lord" in Kirtland was a coupling of the ideas of empowerment and sacred space. A revelation in June 1833 stated: "I gave unto you a commandment, that you should build an house, in the which house I design to endow those whom I have chosen with power from on high" (DC, 1835 XCV:2, 1 June 1833). The same sentiment was stated more forcefully a year later by Oliver Cowdery: "We want you to understand that the Lord has not promised to endow his servants from on high[,] only on the condition that they build him a house; and if the house is not built the Elders will not be endowed with power, and if they are not they can never go to the nations with the everlasting gospel."103 Several weeks later, during the return from the Zion's Camp expedition, Smith received a revelation that the redemption of Zion "cannot be brought to pass until mine elders are endowed with power from on high; for, behold, I have prepared a greater endowment and blessing to be poured out upon them."104 During the winter of 1835-36 the elders worked to complete the House of the Lord and prepare themselves for the anticipated endowment.105 The dedication occurred on 27 March 1836 and involved the general membership of the church. Three days later in the same building a "solemn assembly" was conducted which involved only adult males. As in 1831 and 1833, the 1836 endowment was pentecostal: "The brethren continued exhorting, prophesying and speaking in tongues until 5 o clock in the morningthe Saviour made his appearance to some, while angels minestered unto others, and it was a penticost and enduement indeed, long to be remembered."106 Having received the required empowerment, the elders embarked on foreign missions beginning with the British Isles in 1837. On 18 December 1833 Smith gathered his family and gave them blessings. To his father, he said:
While the term "Patriarchal Priesthood" would be used a decade later in a markedly different context, in 1833 it referred to the office of patriarch, even as the terms "Lesser Priesthood" and "High Priesthood" used at this same time referred to the respective offices of lesser priest and high priest.108 Although Joseph Smith, Sr., was likened by this blessing to the Old Testament patriarchs, no explanation was given of his duties in the newly created office.109 In the first year following Joseph Sr.'s ordination, there is no evidence that he functioned in any other than honorary duties. During the return of Zion's Camp in 1834 the subject of "patriarchal blessings" was raised by Joseph Young. His brother Brigham later reminisced:
The first recorded blessings given by Joseph Smith, Sr., were on 9 December 1834 to Smith family members and their wives.111 Beginning in 1835 he gave blessings to other church members. By the time the Kirtland House of the Lord was dedicated in 1836 the patriarchal blessing had become an important rite of passage for Latter-day Saints. In addressing the elders at the solemn assembly in the Kirtland House of the Lord on 30 March 1836, Joseph Smith said "that I had now completed the organization of the Church and we had passed through all the necessary ceremonies."112 Four days later the vision of Elijah may have given him second thoughts. Phase 5. Elijah and the Fullness of Priesthood, April 1836-April 1844 On Sunday morning, 3 April 1836, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery sequestered themselves behind curtains in the House of the Lord. As they prayed they experienced a series of visions, first of Jesus, then Moses, Elias, and finally Elijah:
From an obscure figure in the early years of the Restoration, Elijah emerged as the dominant figure both in priesthood and in afterlife theology. At the time of Smith's death in 1844, Elijah's importance was second only to that of Jesus Christ. In order to understand this important doctrinal development, it is necessary to examine the references to Elijah according to the time at which they were written. For example, the account of Moroni's 1823 visit to Joseph Smith, which included a promise of Elijah's return, was not written until 1838113 and reflects the theology of the later date. That the expectation of Elijah's return dates to the early Restoration is indicated by a revelation dated December 1830 in which Sidney Rigdon was told that he had unknowingly been a forerunner both of Jesus (whose return to initiate the Restoration had already occurred) and of Elijah (whose return was still anticipated).114 However, Elijah's role in the Restoration was not described, nor does any other record exist from the period between 1830 and 1835 to further clarify his role. But in preparing revelations for publication in the 1835 Doctrine and Covenants, Smith added several verses to the Rigdon revelation. Whereas the 1830 text stated merely that Elijah would come, the new verses added that Elijah held "the keys of the power of turning the hearts of the fathers to the children and the hearts of the children to the fathers, that the whole earth may not be smitten with a curse," repeating the essence of Malachi's prophecy (DC, 1835 XXIX:2).115 One year later, when Smith and Cowdery experienced the vision of Elijah, the essence of Malachi's prophecy was unchanged. The hearts of fathers and children would be turned to each other. But whereas the redacted revelation of 1835 only spoke of Elijah's keys, the vision of 1836 committed them to Smith and Cowdery (DC, LDS 110:16). No explanation was given regarding what this may have meant.116 Two years later, in 1838, when Smith began to dictate the history of the church, he returned to the prophecy of Malachi. The history described the initial visit of Moroni in 1823 and Moroni's quotation of Malachi with a significant change from the biblical text. While earlier references spoke of fathers and children, Moroni focused on children's adherence to tradition and said the earth would otherwise be "utterly wasted": "And he [Elijah] shall plant in the hearts of the children the promises made to the fathers, and the hearts of the children shall turn to their fathers, if it were not so the whole earth would be utterly wasted at his coming."117 In addition, the 1838 account quoted Moroni linking for the first time Elijah and priesthood: "Behold, I will reveal unto you the Priesthood by the hand of Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord."Earlier accounts of Moroni's visit failed to mention either Elijah or priesthood. Also, no Restoration reference to Elijah prior to the 1838 account mentions or infers a relationship between Elijah and priesthood. The sequential redactions of Malachi 4:6, which formed the basis of a developing theology of afterlife, demonstrate a continuum.118 In the summer of 1839 Smith gave a discourse on priesthood in which he again referred to Elijah, this time making explicit a necessary relationship between living and dead: "The hearts of the children will have to be turned to the fathers, & the fathers to the children living or dead to prepare them for the coming of the Son of Man. If Elijah did not come the whole earth would be smitten."119 The following summer Smith gave form to the relationship between living and dead when he announced that it was the privilege of Latter-day Saints to be baptized in behalf of their deceased kin who had died without baptism.120 On 5 October 1840 Smith returned to the relationship of Elijah and priesthood. In what was apparently the only discourse for which he ever prepared a text, he acknowledged that in spite of the Restoration events of 1829, 1831, and 1836, there was more to "priesthood" than had yet been revealed:
This discourse stated explicitly that the concept of priesthood was fluid, that one could not point to a single date when "the priesthood was restored." The events of 1829, 1831, and 1836 were all part of the gradual restoration of priesthood, a restoration best understood as a process rather than an event. Smith not only linked Elijah with priesthood but placed Elijah at its forefront. Perhaps it is not surprising that only once after this discourse did Smith ever refer to the Restoration events of 1829 and 1831 and then mentioned only an unnamed angel who restored authority to baptize. This reference was part of an 1844 discourse highlighting the priority of Elijah's authority.122 One year after the initiation of baptisms for the dead Smith delivered a discourse which specifically linked Elijah to the restoration of that ordinance.123 Two epistles in September 1842 further reinforced the relationship among Elijah, priesthood, and salvation of the dead. The first, written on 1 September, stated "for I am about to restore many things to the earth, saith the Lord of Hosts" (DC, LDS 127:8).124 The second, written five days later, connected St. Paul's reference to being "baptized for the dead" (1 Cor. 15:29) to the mission of Elijah. Quoting Malachi's prophecy of Elijah, Smith continued:
A year later, in August 1843, Smith applied for the first time the term "sealing" to the relationship between parents and children, invoking in the process the name of Elijah: "A measure of this sealing is to confirm upon their head in common with Elijah the doctrine of election or the covenant with Abrahamwhich when a Father & mother of a family have entered into[,] their children who have not transgressed are secured by the seal where with the Parents have been sealed."126 Two weeks later Smith preached a sermon on priesthood, deriving his remarks from Hebrews, Chapter 7, and stated that the author of the epistle was referring to three priesthoods: Melchizedek, Patriarchal, and Aaronic (or Levitical). The account of Franklin D. Richards reported: "There are 3 grand principles or orders of Priesthood portrayed in this chapter[:] 1st Levitical which was never able to administer a Blessing but only to bind heavy burdens which neither they nor their father [was] able to bear[;] 2 Abrahams Patriarchal power which is the greatest yet experienced in this church[;] [and] That of Melchisedec who had still greater power." James Burgess wrote: "Hebrews 7 chap. Paul is here treating of three priesthoods, namely the priesthood of Aron, Abraham, and Melchizedeck, Abraham's priesthood was of greater power than Levi's and Melchizedeck's was of greater power than that of Abraham." Levi Richards wrote: "J. Smith . . . afterwards preached from Hebrews 7 upon the priesthood Aaronic, Patriarchal, & Melchisedec."127 Of these, only the Aaronic and Patriarchal had yet been fully experienced in the church. While it sounds inconsistent to say that the highest of the three, Melchizedek, was not yet fully developed, Smith was about to embark on the ultimate step in its restoration. Only one month after this discourse he bestowed on members of his inner circle the "second anointing," also termed the "fullness of the Priesthood."128 Wishing to place this in a separate category, Smith used the text of Hebrews, Chapter 7, to validate the concept of three priesthoods rather than the two which previously had been formulated. Abraham (a patriarch) paid tithes to Melchizedek and was thus portrayed as subordinate to him. Having previously associated Abraham (and other Old Testament patriarchs) with Melchizedek priesthood, Smith merely kept the essence of what had been called Melchizedek Priesthood, renamed it after the patriarchs, and applied the former term to the new order. Since the second anointing had not been introduced at the time of this sermon, Smith was correct in saying that the newly renamed Patriarchal Priesthood was the greatest yet experienced in the church.129 In discussing the highest of the three priesthoods (now to be called Melchizedek), Smith again invoked the name of Elijah, stating: "how shall god come to the rescue of this generation. He shall send Elijah."130 On 21 January 1844, Joseph Smith delivered a sermon in which he summarized the mission of Elijah as he then understood it:
Not only had Elijah become the paramount figure in priesthood theology, he now was seen as primarily responsible for all salvific ordinances for the living and the dead. Three months prior to his own death, Smith reinforced Elijah's position at the pinnacle of the priesthood hierarchy and indeed the entire Kingdom of God on earth:
In the same discourse Smith returned to a bipartite model of priesthood. Patriarchal Priesthood was now folded into Melchizedek Priesthood, which continued to include the "fullness of the Priesthood," or second anointing.133 Smith's final reference to Elijah came in the famous King Follett Sermon on 7 April 1844 when he stated that "the greatest responsibility in this world is to seek after our dead." He equated that responsibility with the mission of Elijah.134 Summary In reviewing the development of Latter-day Saint priesthood during Joseph Smith's ministry, one might be reminded of the work of Harvard biologist Stephen Jay Gould who described biological evolution as "punctuated equilibrium"that is, a gradual process of development accented at irregular intervals by major changes over brief periods of time. In the case of priesthood the "punctuation marks" are readily identifiable in 1823, 1829, 1831, and 1836. Between the punctuation marks came periods of incremental change, as Smith gradually came to understand the implications of his visionary experiences and changed policy and doctrine to reflect his own understanding. Nevertheless, these "quiet periods" were of enormous significance, seen most clearly in the case of the theology surrounding Elijah. Whereas the vision of Elijah was important, he was but one of four figures appearing to Smith and Cowdery that day. It was not the vision alone but the added process of reflection, prayer, and gradual enlightenment over the following eight years that moved Elijah from obscurity to virtually unparalleled importance. The development of priesthood is evident in contemporary accounts of the early years of the Mormon restoration. Five relatively distinct phases have been identified. In the earliest years no explicit notion of authority was mentioned in any records relating to the Restoration. Smith acted in his unique position by virtue of his relationship with Moroni rather than by formal ordination. The dictation of the Book of Mormon was accompanied by a May 1829 bestowal on Smith and Oliver Cowdery of "authority" to baptize each other, followed in early June 1829 by "authority" to confer the Holy Ghost and ordain other officers. The term "priesthood" was not used; rather, men acted by virtue of the office to which they had been ordained. The terms "elder" and "disciple" were interchangeable and implied authority equal to that of the twelve apostles of Jerusalem. By the latter part of 1829 preference was given to the term "apostle." It was later explained that "elder" was an administrative title, while "apostle" referred to witnesses of Jesus Christ. In 1831, as Smith revised the book of Genesis, he added several verses describing an ancient order to which Melchizedek belonged as a high priest which entitled him to immense this-worldly powers. At a conference in June 1831 ordinations were performed to a new order called both the Order of Melchizedek and the High Priesthood. This was accompanied by a pentecostal outpouring of miracles. A revelation in November formally established the office of high priest which then became synonymous with High Priesthood. During this important period a number of parallel yet interrelated developments took place. Church government was centralized, and Smith was designated "President of the High Priesthood." Four governing bodies were formed to assist him, but Smith's primacy over all these was explicit. The offices of elder, priest, teacher, and deacon were organized into formal groups, each with a president chosen from among its members. Amidst these organizational developments a new understanding of priesthood emerged, while a hierarchy of officeswith bishops and elders being appendages to high priests, and teachers and deacons as appendages to priestswas formulated. In March 1835 priests, teachers, and deacons became offices in an "Aaronic Priesthood," while elders and high priests were in a "Melchizedek Priesthood." Shortly after this 1835 revelation Smith first identified the angels who years before had bestowed on him the authority to baptize and ordain: John the Baptist and Peter, James, and John, respectively. Just a year later, however, their roles began to be eclipsed by the Old Testament prophet Elijah. It gradually became apparent that through Elijah's instrumentality all salvific ordinances for the living and the dead were made both possible and essential. Oliver Cowdery had participated with Smith in each of the angelic ministrations associated with priesthood: John the Baptist and Peter, James, and John in 1829, and Elijah in 1836. However, at the time of Cowdery's dissociation and subsequent excommunication in 1838, Smith had not begun to make the association among Elijah, priesthood, and salvation theology. Shortly after Smith's death, Cowdery began to show renewed interest in the church, eventually rejoining in 1848. In 1846, writing to Phineas Young, he spoke only of the events of 1829: "I have been sensitive on this subject, I admit; but I ought to be soyou would be, under the circumstances, had you stood in the presence of John, with our departed Joseph, to receive the Lesserpriesthoodand in the presence of Peter, to receive the Greater, and look down through time, and witness the effects these two must produce."135 Similarly, when he reentered the church in 1848 Cowdery recounted the events of 1829 but was silent concerning Elijah.136 Since Cowdery was the only living witness to the events he described, it is likely that his audience, both immediate and extended, focused on what he described, not on what he did not describe. Alternatively, church members did not yet understand Elijah theology in the same light as Smith. Since Smith was sole exponent of the theology, his death, and the abrupt halt it brought to the developing theology, was probably sufficient to effect the subsequent silence on the subject. This would explain the otherwise baffling silence of both churches on a matter so important to Joseph Smith. Footnotes |
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