DATE AND HISTORY OF ESTABLISHMENT The Presidents of Costa Rica and Panama jointly declared intent to establish an international park on 3 March 1979. This was reconfirmed in Costa Rica by Presidential Decree of 4 February 1982, declaring La Amistad (Talamanca) a national park. This park, along with Las Tablas Protected Area (gazetted 1981), Chirripo National Park (gazetted 29 July 1975 by congressional law 5773), Hitoy-Cerere Biological Reserve (gazetted 4 April 1978 by executive decree No. 8351-A), Barbilla National Park (gazetted 1982 as a Bioloical Reserve, upgraded to National Park in May 1997), Rio Macho Forest Reserve (gazetted under Forestry Law No. 4465-A) and Tapanti National Park (1990) were inscibed as one site on the World Heritage List in 1983.

This cluster of Costa Rican protected areas, excluding Rio Macho Forest Reserve, but including eight Indian reserves, were internationally recognised as a Biosphere Reserve under UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme in 1982. The Rio Macho Forest Reserve extension was approved by the MAB Bureau on 27 January 1988.

The Panamanian La Amistad National Park was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1990, forming the transboundary World Heritage Site referred to as Talamanca Range-La Amistad/La Amistad National Park.

AREA The total area of the Costa Rican sites increased from 358,420ha to 360,845ha in 1997, following confirmation of boundaries by the government. This figure is taken from the official map of the site, although there is a discrepancy of 2,200 ha between the map and the written confirmation (SINAC, in litt., 16 May 1997). The transboundary World Heritage Site now totals 567,845ha. IUCN (1997) however, puts this figure at 567,809ha. The site comprises the following:

La Amistad (Talamanca) National Park 193,929ha
La Amistad National Park (Panama) 207,000ha
Las Tablas Protected Area 19,062ha
Chirripo National Park 50,150ha
Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve 9,154ha
Barbilla National Park 12,830ha
Rio Macho Forest Reserve 69,640ha
Tapanti National Park 6,080ha

The total Biosphere Reserve area is 509,835ha, and includes the above sites, except La Amistad (Panama) and Tapanti National Park, as well as the following Indians reserves:

Telire 16,260ha
Tayni 16,216ha
Talamanca 66,419ha
Ujarras-Salitre-Cabagra complex 58,600ha

LAND TENURE 95% of the land within the core area (La Amistad and Chirripo National Parks, and Hitoy-Cerere and Barbilla National Park) is state property, although there are small scattered agricultural developments along the borders. The remaining 5% is being surveyed and will be purchased or expropriated in the near future. There are sizeable holdings of private land within Las Tablas Protected Area, although the remainder is state-owned. Expropriation of this land is not foreseen, but legislation prohibits changes in existing land use, and 90% consists of undisturbed forest. Within the Indian reserves, the Indian population has exclusive rights to the land in perpetuity. However, those rights have not been fully attended. In fact, Indian settlers sold their lands to colonizers. The Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS) owns the Las Cruces Botanical Garden at Chirripo National Park.

ALTITUDE Ranges from 50m to 3,820m at Cerro Chirripo, the highest point in southern Central America

VEGETATION Tropical rain forests have covered most of the area since at least the last glaciations, about 25,000 years ago. Of the twelve life zones of Costa Rica, at least eight occur in the park, including lowland tropical rain forest, cloud forest, sub-alpine paramo forests, pure oak stands, lakes of glacial origin and high altitude bogs. The latter four communities are not found elsewhere in Central America. The area also contains all five altitudinal zones found in the tropics. Most of the main crest lies within montane rain forest, characterised by mixed oak forest; a dense, low and heavily covered forest with bryophytes, ferns, bromeliads, orchids and other epiphytes. Below 2,500m lower montane rain forest occurs and the forest is generally more mixed. The Talamanca Mountains contain the largest tracts of virgin forest in Costa Rica. On high points along the ridge, at elevations above 2,900-3,100m, frequent stands of paramo, swamps, cold marshes and Aretostaphylos arbustoides occur. The paramo located on Mt Kamuk contains the richest and most varied vegetation (after Chirripo) in the entire Talamanca Range and is the only one in Costa Rica that shows no signs of human intervention. Species diversity is perhaps unequalled in any other reserve of equivalent size in the world, due to the convergence of the floras of North and South America and varied climatic and edaphic factors. It includes some 9,000 flowering plant, more than 4,000 non-vascular plant, 80% of the country's moss, about 900 lichen and approximately 1,000 fern species. Levels of endemism are estimated between 30-40% (Anon, n.d.).

FAUNA The fauna is extremely diverse, with intermigrations from both North and South America. Studies indicate that one out of the 115 species of fish, 20 out of the 250 species of reptile and amphibian, 13 out of the 215 species of mammal and 15 of the 560 species of birds are endemic to the reserve. Signs of tapir Tapirus terrestris (LR), possibly of a species as yet unrecorded in Costa Rica, are abundant at Cerros Utyum, Kamuk and Fabrega near the Panamanian border. All Central American felines are found including puma Felis concolor, ocelot F. pardalis, jaguarundi F. yagouaroundi, tiger cat F. tigrina, and the jaguar Panthera onca (LR) and also Central American tapir Tapirus bairdii (VU), Central American squirrel monkey Saimiri oerstedii (EN) and Geoffroy's spider monkey Ateles geoffroyi. A green and black high-altitude viper Bothrops negrivisidis, that has rarely been seen or collected, is present. Resplendent quetzal Pharomacrus mocinno (LR) is present in the park as are many other bird species, such as bare-necked umbrella bird Cephalopterus glabricollis (VU), three-wattled bellbird Procnias tricarunculata (VU), harpy eagle Harpia harpyia (LR), crested eagle Morphnus guianensis (LR), solitary eagle Harpyhaliaetus solitarius (LR) and orange-breasted falcon Falco deiroleucus (LR). It has been suggested that no other park is the world possesses as many species and such a wealth of fauna. La Amistad includes nine of the elevan birds listed as 'endangered' by Costa Rica, 13 of their 16 'endangered' mammals, and all their reptiles and amphibians.

CULTURAL HERITAGE Archaeological sites are reported along all major water courses, yet an almost total lack of archaeological investigation within the area makes objective analysis of the human history difficult. Less than 50km away, near Baru Volcano in Chiriquo Panama, pre-ceramic sites have recently been discovered dating back more than 12,000 years. Such sites are extremely rare in Central America, but this discovery just a short distance away indicates the possibility of more finds of Central America's earliest human inhabitants in the area. Studies on the Pacific Slope of Costa Rica just a few kilometres from La Amistad-Talamanca International Park have revealed much about the area's pre Colombian inhabitants. Skilfully-created elaborate zoomorphic and anthropomorphic gold ornaments, jewellery and huge symmetrical stone spheres up to two metres in diameter are among the most outstanding evidences of the cultural development of pre-Colombian man in the area over the last 3,000 years. Analysis of polychrome pottery found in digs has led to definition of two major cultural phases for the area: the Agua Buena phase lasted from 300 BC to 500 AD and the Chiriqui phase from 500 AD until the Spanish Conquest. The recent discovery of pre-ceramic sites in the region surrounding the site presents a 10,000-year gap in the archaeological record of the area and is of great interest to scientists. Further details are given in Torres et al. (1987).

LOCAL HUMAN POPULATION At the time of the Spanish conquest, a number of Indian tribes inhabited the Talamanca Range. Their numbers were decimated by conflict with Spanish settlers and imported diseases over the following centuries, and by 1940 only 6,000 Indians were left in Costa Rica along isolated river valleys in still unsettled terrain. Since then, increased public and governmental interest in their plight has led to a gradual increase in their numbers and legal recognition of their land rights. Approximately 10,000 Indians of the Bribri, Cabecar, Brunca and Guaymi tribes live within the area's boundaries. These almost represent the total world population of Bribris and Cabecars, and an important percentage of the remaining Guaymis and Bruncas population. These groups have experienced varying degrees of cultural contact for over 400 years, yet have retained much of their folklore, language, customs, and subsistence agricultural, hunting and gathering lifestyle.

VISITORS AND VISITOR FACILITIES No information

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND FACILITIES Apart from a number of anthropological surveys, no comprehensive scientific studies have been conducted within the area. There are some research facilities, in particular at Las Cruces Botanical Garden. Chirripo National Park, La Amistad-Talamanca International Park, and Las Tablas Forest Protection Zone are used for field training activities for university students.

CONSERVATION VALUE The entire protected area comprises the single largest natural forest unit in Central America, containing several hundred endemic plant species and one of the last major refuges for threatened fauna. No other protected area complex in Central America contains as many viable populations, species, life zones, or as much altitudinal variation. The Talamanca range is estimated to harbour almost four percent of the varities of all terrestrial species on earth.

CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT The core area is made up of Chirripo National Park, La Amistad-Talamanca National Park, Hitoy Cerere Biological Reserve and Barbilla National Park, which are all managed by the Costa Rican National Park Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales, Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM). The buffer area consists of the Indian reserves of Talamanca, Tayni-Estrella, Telire, Chirripo, Cabagra, Salitre and Ujarras (together covering 217,441ha) as well as Las Tablas Forest Protection Zone (managed by the Costa Rican Forest Protection) and Las Cruces Botanical Garden (115ha). The area is made up of a complex of reserves with various types of legal protection, and has only recently been legally protected as a whole, by means of executive laws passed by the legislative assembly. Changes of land use are prohibited within the privately owned areas of the Las Tablas area but within the Indian reserves the Indian populations have exclusive rights to the land. Barbilla National Park has yet to be legally established. More recently, Reserva Forestal de Rio Macho was officially incorporated into the reserve. A management plan for the major part of the site is being prepared. The plan will include very detailed recommendations for the management and development of La Amistad-Talamanca National Park and Las Tablas Forest Protection Zone. For the other reserves, more conceptual recommendations on land use and resource protection will be outlined. The preparation of this plan is being coordinated by specialists from the Wildlands and Watershed Programme of CATIE. The first stages of the planning process, resource inventories and basic information collection, were completed in 1982. Simultaneously, a planning team from Costa Rica's National Autonomous University is preparing a detailed management and development plan for Chirripo National Park. Short-term management of protected wildlands within the World Heritage site are based on objectives, priorities and activities outlined in annual operational plans for these management units. Guard patrols and overflights assure the integrity of resources within the natural reserves. From 1985 to 1987 an interdisciplinary team (Torres et al., 1987) from CATIE and the National Park Service implemented a planning project in order to produce a regional conservation and development strategy.

There are two levels of zoning: one at the general level of the biosphere reserve as a whole which is managed as one unit, and another within each specific reserve according to their different statutes. The other reserves of the overall biosphere reserve will be generally managed with natural zones, cultural zones, recovering zones and forest management zones. Funds were being raised during 1985 and 1986 in order to purchase privately held land, although this did not proceed as planned. An environmental education programme has been underway since September 1984 in the indigenous reserve and colonist communities adjoining the Atlantic slope.

MANAGEMENT CONSTRAINTS There are several Indian reservations near or contiguous to the area and man's impact in them is considerable with about 10,000 people maintaining their traditional lifestyles of free-range grazing, hunting, fishing and use of medicinal plants. Oil exploration in Talamanca Reserve is a problem, as is forest loss and soil degradation in the Ujarras, Salitre and Cabagra area. Land squatters on the Pacific side of Costa Rica are known to exist. If settlers can provide documentary evidence of more than 10 years occupancy, their removal requires compensation under agrarian law. Parts of the buffer zone have been affected by shifting cultivation and forest use, resulting in forest destruction, habitat elimination and watershed degradation. Additional threats are posed by development projects proposed for areas in or near the reserve. These include construction of a cross-Talamanca highway and copper mining. During 1983/84 it was reported that poaching, looting of archaeological sites and encroachment by colonists, particularly along the Pacific slopes of Chirripo, the Cordillera de Talamanca and Las Tablas Forest Protection Zone were posing a threat to the site. Insufficient funding had lead to inadequate staff training, equipment, infrastructure, border delineation and baseline surveys.

STAFF For the various reserves, national parks etc. that make up the biosphere reserve, there are 37 full-time employees and two part-time, mostly engaged in protection and surveillance. There are also research workers at various times undertaking specific studies (MIRENEM, pers. comm., 1995).

BUDGET In 1993, the Bank for Interamerican Development (BID) brought a total of US$ 2,000,000 in technical assistance to develop different projects; the Dutch government gave US$ 971,200 for capacity building (1993-1997); UNESCO brought US$ 150,000 to develop environmental education projects. Other funders were Amisconde (Mc Donalds) with US$ 3,000,000 for the period 1992-1994, ASDI who donated US$ 2,500,000 to develop research, environmental education and natural resource management projects during the period 1992-1994, MacArthur Foundation who gave US$ 100,000 for 1992-1994, and a Dutch organisation (Kaneblo) that brought US$ 1,400,000 to fund several capacity building, production, etc. projects (MIRENEM, pers. comm., 1995).

Area de Conservacion La Amistad-Region Pacifico, Costado sur del Almacen Mas por menos, San Isidro del General, Perez Zeledon. Apartado 10094, San Jose, Costa Rica.

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Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). Los Parques Nacionales de Costa Rica,INCAFO, Madrid.

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Torres, H., de Mendoza, L.H. and Masterson, D. (1987). La Amistad Biosphere Reserve: towards sustainable developemnt. CATIE, Turriable, Costa Rica. 10 pp.

Weber, H. (1959). Los Paramos de Costa Rica y su concatenacion fito geografica con los Andes Suramericanos. Instituto Geografico Nacional. 67 pp.

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DATE 1982, revised August 1986, May 1989, September 1990, updated July 1995, July 1997