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The Caribbean |
The Antilles
The Island of Puerto Rico is part of the Caribbean archipelago, the Antilles. It's geographic coordinates are latitude 18-15 N and longitude 66-30 W, which puts it about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida U.S.A. The Antilles is a chain of islands located in the; Caribbean Sea; The largest islands Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica and Hispañola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) make up the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico being the easternmost and smallest of this group. The Lesser Antilles, located east and southeast of Puerto Rico, are made up of dozens of smaller islands, including the Virgin Islands, Martinique, Barbados and Trinidad to name a few. Although the islands of the Antilles are relatively close in proximity and share a common history, a cultural and political diversity is characteristic of the region. And, Puerto Rico is without exception.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (in Spanish, "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico"), is a freely associated commonwealth of the United States, composed of one large island and several small islands named Culebra, Desecheo, Mona, and Vieques. A host of smaller cays and islets including Culebrita, Monito, and Palomino are associated with Puerto Rico, as well.
Puerto Rico is bound at the north by the Atlantic Ocean and at the south by the Caribbean Sea. It is bound at the east by the Virgin Islands and on the west by La Hispañola.
Puerto Rico is a mountainous, tropical island roughly rectangular in shape. At it's widest points the Island measures 65 km (about 40 mi) from north to south and about 180 km (about 110 mi) from east to west. It's total area amounts to 9104 sq km (3515 sq mi), and it boasts more than 580 km (360 mi) of beautiful coastline.
Puerto Rico's geographic diversity includes several mountain ranges, a mountainous rain forest, karst areas, arid desert-like regions, beaches, caves, rivers and oceans. The prominent geographical features that characterize the island can be found in it's interior mountainous regions, karst areas and flatlands.
About 80% of Puerto Rico's territory is mountainous and hilly. The principal mountain ranges include La Cordillera Central, La Sierra Bermeja, La Sierra de Cayey and La Sierra de Luquillo. These mountains reach about an average elevation of 915m (about 3000 ft).
The most prominent of these masses is a central mountain chain known as "La Cordillera Central." This geographical anomaly amounts to an extensive mountain range, that transects the length of the island east to west from Aibonito to the outskirts of Mayagüeze, and divides the country into distinct north and south regions. It's highest peak, and the country's highest point, is Cerro de Punta. This 1338 m (4,398 ft) point is located just south of Jayuya at the western outskirts of the Toro Negro Forest. For the most part, La Cordillera Central runs closer to the southern coast. The slopes are steeper on this side, as well. Rain fall is more frequent on the northern side.
At the west end of the island La Cordillera Central faces the sea in an abrupt steepness, but not before branching out to form La Sierra Bermeja mountain range. La Sierra Bermeja is the smallest branch of the Central Mountain ranges. With an elevation of about a 1000 ft., it extend from Guánica to the southwestern tip of the island.
The mountain rage of La Sierra de Cayey is an extension of La Cordillera Central. It begins at Cayey and runs east to Humacao. At the easternmost regions its elevation approaches only 400 ft. and concludes in a fork of two low ranges, the Sierra Guardarraya and Cuchillas de Panduras. These mountains extend southeast between Yabucoa and Patillas, and culminate near the southeast coast and the Caribbean Sea.
In their approach toward the eastern part of the island, the central mountains also branch tnortheastward and form another mountain chain, La Sierra De Luquillo. This mountain range runs from Gurabo to Fajardo, as several high peaks, including Toro Hill at 1,074m (3524 ft), El Yunque at 1,065m (3,494 ft) and El Pico Oeste at 1041m (3416 ft).
*Karst regions are concentrated along several areas in northern Puerto Rico. Most of the formations extend from Aguadilla on the west coast to the center of the island. Scarce pockets of small hilly karst formations are scattered east all the way to Loíza.
Near the coast limestone deposits, a major characteristic of karst regions, form a vast regiment of rolling hills, that resemble haystacks laid arbitrarily across the land. These limestone deposits were formed by volcanic rock as the island rose out from the sea millions of years ago.
South of the coast, approaching the interior mountainous regions of the island, the most common features associated with this karst topography, include rolling hills, sinks, sinkhole underground streams and rivers, limestone plateaus and a labyrinth cave system (much of it unexplored).
The process that creates these natural forms is simple, but takes millions of years to achieve. The ceilings of subterranean caverns eventually fold causing depressions at the surface of the ground. These impressions are what form the karst hills, sinks and sinkholes. Streams from rainwater drain into sinks, revealing the presence of caves underneath. Underground streams and rivers flowing through these caverns are constantly replenished, and as a result, the currents continuously wear away the porous limestone and creates more caverns and depressions. This cycle has existed for countless millenniums.
Some places of interest with good examples of karst topography include Rio Abajo Forest, Guajataca Forest, Dos Bocas Lake, Rio Camuy Cave Park and several points on the Camuy River. Rio Abajo Forest, and Dos Bocas Lake have a fine display of tropical karst topography. Numerous cone-shaped hills covered in tropical vegetation make up the rolling landscape. The Guajataca Forest features some 25 miles of well-marked trails along it's typical karst landscapes. Here, you will find minerals ranging from stalagmites, stalactites and other sediment formations.
The Rio de Camuy Cave Park hosts one of the largest underground rivers in the world, the Rio de Camuy. The Park also has an elaborate cave system. Many of the caves are as yet unexplored. High ceilings, adorned by a diverse collections of crystalline stalactite formations, grounds laden with random shaped stalagmites and subterranean waterfalls are characteristic of these 45 million year old caves. Plants that inhabit these depths have very little pigmentation. The region is so dim that fish have evolved without eyes.
The flatland is a geographical feature known for it's low-lying and relatively flat regions. There are relatively few flatland regions in Puerto Rico. They include narrow stretches of coastal plains and inland valleys formed by the erosion of mountains millions of years ago.
The flatlands or coastal plains that surround the island are an extension of the submerged continental shelf that lies 200 meters deep. Fertile coastal plains that extend along the north coast reach about 19 km (about 12 mi) inland. Small rivers, streams and plenty of rain water common to this region, contributes to the landscape's lush appearance.
In contrast with the north, a tropical dry coastal plain, covering on average about 13 km (about 8 mi) inland, blankets the southern coast. Along the southwest coast the land is extremely arid and receives very little rain fall.
Small valleys are sparsely situated throughout the island, especially near the east and west coasts. El Valle de Lajas is said to be the largest of them on the island.
Maritime
The temperature of the seawater surrounding Puerto Rico averages to some 27° C ( 81° F). Variation in seawater temperature during the course of the year is negligible.
The lowest point in Puerto Rico is sea level (Caribbean Sea 0 m). The Island is flanked on all sides by a submerged continental shelve, that slopes from the shores to a depths of about 200 meters. Past this ledge the surrounding ocean waters become deep very quickly.
Two miles north of Puerto Rico, below the rough seas of the Atlantic, the ocean floor drops about 600 feet. At 45 miles (72.42 km) to 75 miles (120 km) out, the Oceans floor plunges deep into what is called the Puerto Rico Trench or Bronson's Deep. The depression, lies parallel to the northern coast and measures about 1,090 miles (1,750 km) long by 60 miles (100 km) wide. About 100 miles (160 km) northwest of Puerto Rico, situated within the west end of the Puerto Rico Trench, is the Milwaukee Deep. Measuring a depth of 27,493 feet (8,380 meters), it is considered the deepest depression in the North Atlantic Ocean. The Trench, which has it's beginnings in the Tertiary period, has been expanding for the past 70 million years. It is believed to belong to a Carribean system of strike-slip faults with characteristics similar to the Andreas fault in California. A diagram containing the outline and depth of known trenches surrounding Puerto Rico is available below.
Click on the following image to enlarge it. To return to this page click the back button on your browser.
Map of the Puerto Rico trench indicating the
2002 surveyed region within the larger 2003 proposed survey area. Image
source provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
| U.S. Department of Commerce at Oceanexplorer.com
Off the West coast the Mona Passage divides Puerto Rico from Hispañola. This key shipping lane to the Panama's is about 75 miles (120 km) wide and more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep. To the South, the calmer Caribbean sea drops some 16,400 feet (5,000 meters) in what is known as the Venezuelan Basin.
Puerto Rico's economic zone claims sovereignty on 200 nautical miles (370 km/230 mi) offshore. This includes exclusive rights to research, environmental protection and seabed minerals development. The island's territorial waters, or boundaries that safeguard it's rights to fishing, and other permissions extends some 12 nautical miles out.
Forests & Wildlife Preserves
Scattered throughout the Island of Puerto Rico is a network of vast forests and wildlife refuges. Various grades of tropical jungles including rain forests, mangrove forests, a variety of karst regions and subtropical dry lands feature a wide variety of plant and tree species, intriguing trails, caves, cliffs and several water-holes
northern region, eastern region, central region, southern region, sister islands and islets
The land on the north side of Puerto Rico is generally wetter and lush with vegetation than land on the south side. Ample rainfall and streams that flow down from La Cordillera Central chain contributes to this fertile environment. Forests along the north side include the Guajataca State Forest Reserve, Rio Abajo State Forest, Cambalache State Forest, Vega Alta State Forest and Piñones Forest.
The Guajataca State Forest Reserve covers an area, near Aguadilla, in the northwest karst region of Puerto Rico. The Rio Abajo State Forest Reserve, located in the north central part of the island, between Arecibo and Utuado, encompasses over 5,000 acres of karst woodlands, including limestone cave formations, trails and natural spring water holes, tied to a scenic backdrop of surrounding cliffs. The Reserve features the Camuy Caves, and Dos Bocas Lake. East of this region, located near Barceloneta, stands the Cambalache State Forest. It's wonderful display of tropical karst landscape is defined by numerous lush cone-shaped hills spread randomly across the land. Beyond this, just west of Dorado, is a relatively small woodland known as the Vega Alta State Forest. Piñones Forest is a subtropical woodland along the northeast region, just east of Isla Verde, San Juan.
El Yunque Rain Forest, known also as the Caribbean National Forest, rest in the north-most corner of the east coast. These 28,000 acres of wetlands are all that remain of the rain forest that covered much of the island more than five hundreds years ago. Cold mountain streams and waterfalls are plentiful. The National Forest of la Condesa lies just southwest of here. The State Forest of Ceiba is located adjacent to El Yunque, off the east coast of the Island. This forest features a subtropical dry woodland. The Humacao Wildlife Refuge is found South of Ceiba along the shore of the Humacao region. The Preserve includes the largest Pterocarpus trees in Puerto Rico and a lagoon system.
The Cordillera Central, is an extensive mountain range that transects Puerto Rico from east to west along the Island's central region. Here, huge mountain forests blanket the country side at several locations from the ridge. The temperature is a typical 70 to 75 degrees during the day. At night it can drop to a cool 60 degrees. River water at high elevations is clean enough to drink. Forests along the Cordillera Central include Maricao Forest, the Susua State Forest, Lago Lucchetti Wildlife Refuge, Monte Guilarte State Forest, Toro Negro Forest, and Carite Forest.
The Maricao Forest is typical of the island's woodlands. Situated along the west end of the Cordillera Central vein, Maricao encompasses a vast territory northwest of Susua State Forest. It features 845 species of flora, and 278 species of trees of which 123 are endemic. Susúa State Forest is located in the western expanse of the Cordillera Central foothills, opposite Lago Lucchetti Wildlife Refuge. The Guilarte Forest Reserve is also located in this region, just west of Adjuntas. This Reserve features a small eucalyptus forest, trails and 105 species of trees. North of the town of Villalba, midway along the Cordillera Central, is the Toro Negro Forest. It boosts the highest peak, 1338 m (4,398 ft), along the Cordillera Central and the highest geological structure in all the island. It is also home to two of the highest lakes of the land, Lake Matrullas and Lake Guineo. Here you will find the Salto de Dona Juana (waterfall) and the San Cristobal Canyon, which measures 750 feet. The Carite or Guavate Forest is located in the eastern region of the Cordillera Central, east of Cayey.
In general, there is less rainfall along the south side of the Cordillera Central Mountains, so the land on the south side of Puerto Rico is typically dryer than on the north side. This subtropical arid condition is evident in the Cactus, and scrub-brush flora and forests that flourish here. Forests along the south side of the island include the Punta Guaniquilla Reserve, Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge, Boqueron State Forest, La Parguera Nature Reserve, Guánica Dry Forest, Aguirre Forest Reserve, Punta Ballena Reserve, and Ines Maria Mendoza Nature Reserve.
At the southwest region of the island the Punta Guaniquilla Reserve and Bird Sanctuary portrays a good example of the diverse environments contained in these parts. In this arid heaven you will find lagoons, swamps, limestone and rock formations, caves, palm and mangrove forests, cactus and other scrub vegetation. At the southwest tip of the island in Boqueron, the Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge and the Boqueron State Forest lies separated by the Sierra Bermeja. On the coast of Lajas, La Parguera Nature Reserve includes mangrove keys, inlets and estuaries. Some 1,640 acres of subtropical dry land known as Guánica Forest is located in the region between Ponce and Lajas. The Forest has been declared an International Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO because of it's unique dry forest vegetation. The mangrove forest of the Punta Ballena Reserve is contiguous with the Guánica Dry Forest, and is also a biosphere reserve. Further east lies the Aguerre Forest Reserve, located between Arroyo and Salinas. The region features various canals and mangroves. The Ines Maria Mendoza Nature Reserve in Punta Yegua is a peninsula by the sea, located at the southeast tip of Puerto Rico. Ortegon trees of the evergreen variety flourish here.
Various sister islands and islets surrounding Puerto Rico's mainland serve as wildlife refuges. These preserved heavens include Isla De Mona Wildlife Refuge, Caja de Muertos Natural Reserve, Desecheo Island Wildlife Preserve and The Natural Reserve of Mosquito Port Bay.
Protected by the United States National Park Service and the Puerto Rican Natural Resources Department, la Isla de Mona Wildlife Refuge is located about 50 miles west of Cabo Rojo. This nature refuge is a well balanced ecosystem, and features many trails, limestone caves, cliffs and pristine shores. The variety of flora that thrives in this environment is matched only by that on the Galapagos Islands. The Island of Caja de Muertos is located 8.5 miles off Ponce's coast. The Natural Reserve includes caves, cliffs, coral reefs, and mangroves. Desecheo Island Federal Wildlife Preserve is located some 13 miles west of Rincon. This uninhabited island contains a well preserved marine ecosystem. The Natural Reserve of Mosquito Port Bay, in Vieques Island, includes one of the most brilliant bioluminescent bay in the world.
Caverns
About 189 formations that qualify as cave systems exist on the Island of Puerto Rico. A few of these areas are some of the most astonishing geological creations this side of the globe. The following describes some significant and unique caves on the Island.
Río Camuy Caves
In the karst region of the north central part of the Island, one of the most spectacular and popular cave formations exists along some 300-acres of porous limestone, known collectively as the Rio Camuy cave system. This area features subterranean river caves with attributes that include high ceilings and curving walls adorned with an assortment of crystalline stalactite formations, floors carpeted by various shaped stalagmites, subterranean waterfalls and miles of uncharted canals.
The caves were known to be a sacred place for the indigenous Taino Indians, who believed that man was born from these cavities. Today we know that the subterranean formations are the sum of 45 million years of gradual transformation. As the Camuy River flows across this region, it's constant force erodes the surrounding limestone rock and shapes the caves in the process.
Some popular cave sites in this region include the Rio Camuy Mine, where semi-precious stones are common. In the Cathedral Cave (named for it's high ceiling) ancient pictographs by Taino Indians are inscribed on cave walls. And finally, the 170-foot high Cueva Clara has become a popular point for rappelling and amateur exploration. Plants and fish exist in these caverns, and have adapted to these dark recesses by evolving physically.
Cueva del Infierno
Cueva del Infierno is located near the Rio Camuy Caves, and comprises some 2,000 of it's own caverns.
Cueva Del Indio
Cueva Del Indio is located on the north coast of Puerto Rico, just past the Hallows, in La Punta Caracoles. These ancient caves are know for the Indian Paintings inscribed on their walls.
La Cuerva del Viento
You'll find La Cuerva del Viento ("the cave of the wind"), west of the Río Camuy Cave Park, in the northern karst hills of the Guajataca Forest. This cave network includes 11 wind caves. Explorers can descend a ladder into a cavern where you'll find stalagmites, stalactites and other sediment formations.
Foza Aldea
Archaeological relics from the first century A.D. were found at cave sites, near the northeast coast around Foza Aldea. This finding yielded conclusive evidence that Puerto Rico has been inhabited for at least two thousand years.
Underwater caverns (Shacks Beach)
At the northwest coast near Shacks Beach, a maze of walls 40 feet deep are the framework for some underwater caverns.
Mona Island
Off the west coast mainland of Puerto Rico the uninhabited island of Mona hosts numerous caves.
Definitions:stalactite formations - a cone or cylinder shaped carbonate of lime, attached, like an icicle, to the ceiling or wall of a cavern. It is formed by the evaporation of dripping water from rocks above holding carbonate of lime in solution.
stalagmites - a cone-shaped deposit of carbonate of lime extending vertically from the floor of a cave, often forming beneath, and becoming continuous with, a stalactite above.
Accept for some minor fishing, Puerto Rico's natural wealth amounts to several rich soil types, and an abundance of mineral deposits.
Mineral Deposits
On the Island, opportunity for mineral production is considerable. The worth from minerals presently being mined draws well over 160 million annually.
Mining for minerals returns primarily construction materials, like cement, sand, gravel, and stone. In lesser quantities, but by no means less valuable, mineral production of deposits such as limestone, clay, copper, magnesium, mercury, zinc, lead, cobalt, chromium, nickel, iron ore, peat, graphite, salt, and tin also exist.
Surveys have uncovered concentrations amounting to 35 million lbs. of copper, 1,241 oz. of gold and 6,295 oz. of silver at the center of the island near Adjuntas (Puerto Rico’s Mining region), Utuado, Jayuya, and Lares. Puerto Rico also has potential for on-shore and off-shore crude oil production. The decision to exploit these minerals is constantly weighted against the social and ecological costs such as air pollution, water pollution, and disruption of the natural landscape and soil.
The Puerto Rican State Forest in Adjuntas is a good example of officially preserved land that had once been destined for open pit-mining operations. On September of 1996, about 700 acres of this region were handed over to the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources by the government of Puerto Rico’s Land Authority for public use.
Soil
When it comes to soil, Puerto Rico contains almost every major soil group of the earth. Tropical soils are considered uncultivable and of little agricultural worth. Yet, regions like Puerto Rico have traditionally provided high biomass products like bananas, coffee, sugar cane and tobacco.
Soil Classification
A scientific classification by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, summarizes soil in Puerto Rico into five general types: humid coastal plains, semiarid coastal plains, humid uplands, semiarid uplands, and humid upland valleys. Another classification by specialists at the University of Puerto Rico, summarizes the island's soils into coastal lowlands, alluvium, coastal plains, alluvium in terraces, upland dark, and upland reddish-purple.
Links to Soil surveys and current information:
- Soil surveys in Puerto Rico - On CD.
- Caribbean Area Soils Information - On line.
- Agronomic Use of Puerto Rico Soil Surveys (Spanish Version Only)
- Soil Survey of Caribbean National Forest and Luquillo Experimental Forest,
- Commonwealth of Puerto Rico - Interim Publication, 2002 (pdf)
- Historical Replica Humacao Soil Survey , 1977 (html intermediate page, report text in pdf.)
- Historical Replica of Lajas Valley Area, 1965 (html intermediate page, report text in pdf.)
- Historical Replica Area of Mayagüez, 1975 (html intermediate page, report text in pdf.)
- Representative Soil of Puerto Rico
- State Soils Photo Gallery - Bayamón -- Representative Soil of Puerto Rico.
- Bayamón series soil
- U.S. Geological Survey
Land Use
20% of Puerto Rico's land is forested, 38% is used for pastures, and 14% is cultivated for agriculture.
Hydrography
There exists over 1,200 bodies of water in Puerto Rico that can be classified as either rivers, lakes, lagoons, mangroves and streams. The description below includes those aquatic formations noteworthy for their class.
Rivers
Most of the island's rivers are narrow and shallow, extend relatively short distances, and for the most part, are not navigable by large vessels except in a few areas near the coast. There exists as many as 50 rivers most of which flow down from the northern mountain sides to the sea. Several of these bodies are utilized for electrical power and irrigation.
The northern rivers are longer, and have tranquil waters in comparison to the southern rivers. Rivers that flow from the north side of the Central Mountain Ranges sustain the lush coastal plain belt of the north. In the south where it is typically arid, smaller rivers and streams tend to dry up fast. In spite of this, heavy rainfall will quickly cause extreme flooding even under these circumstances.
Puerto Rico's longest rivers
include Grande de Añasco, Rio Culebrinas, Grande de Arecibo, Rio de La
Plata, Rio de Bayamón and Grande de Loíza. These rivers drain to the
north coast, except for Añasco and Culebrinas which drain to the west.
On the western region of the Island, Rio Grande de Añasco extends out
about 65 km, and is part of a system of rivers that flows down from the
Cordillera Central. The river Añasco flanks the south side of the town of
Añasco and ends at the west coast. Also in this region is the Rio
Culebrinas, which flows passed Lares and San Sebastian from 45 km in land,
and comes to an end at the west coast between Aguada and Aguadilla.
El Grande de Arecibo extends about 55 km. It flows from one leg of Los Dos Bocas Lake, and continues north all the way to the coast. Rio de La Plata extends about 80 km from north to south, practically transecting the Island. The river forms out of Lago Carite, in the eastern region of the central mountain range. Just above Naranjito, the river flows in and out of Lago La Plata. It passes near Toa Alta and Toa Baja, then flanks Dorado to the east before draining into the Atlantic. Rio Bayamón extends 40 km from Lago de Cidra to the Atlantic coast. It crosses Guaynabo and Bayamón on it's way. Rio Grande de Loíza extends about 65 km from Lago Loíza, and flows north, zigzagging across Trujillo Alto, Carolina and Loíza.
Lakes
In Puerto Rico the typical lake is man made and relatively small. The reservoirs were formed by damming the major rivers to produce hydroelectric power and water for land irrigation. Some significant lakes worth mentioning are scattered throughout the north, central and south regions of the island.
North Lakes
On the north side of the island there are many lakes situated throughout the interior. Located between Caguas, Gurabo and Trujillo Alto, Lake Loíza (Carraizo) covers an area of about 84 square kilometers, and it is by far the largest lake in Puerto Rico. Lake La Plata has an area of 67 square kilometers, and is the second largest. It's located several miles north of Naranjito in the northeast quadrant of Puerto Rico. The third largest lake, Dos Boca's, is situated less than 5 miles northeast of Utuado. You'll find lake Guajataca in the northwest quadrant near the Guajataca Forest, and south of Quebradillas.
Central Lakes
Some popular lakes can also be found in Puerto Rico's central region. Lake Caonillas covers an area of 19 square kilometers east of the town of Utuado. Lake Garzas is a small lake, situated in the Guilarte Forest and west of the town of Adjuntas. Located in the Toro Negro Forest on the Cordillera Central Mountain Range, Lake Guineo and Lake Matrullas are two of the highest lakes on the island. Lake Cidra has an area amounting to 3 square kilometers. This is one of the smallest lakes on the island. It's located just east of the town of Cidra. Finally, Lago Guayo lies between Adjuntas and Lares.
South Lakes
Lagoons
Noteworthy is a number of typical tropical lagoons located throughout the island. They include Laguna de Piñones and Laguna de Torrecillas in Piñones State Forest, Carolina; Laguna Los Corozos and Laguna San Jose off of Isla Verde, San Juan; Laguna Tortuguero in Manatí-Vega Baja; Laguna Joyuda, Laguna Cartagena and Laguna Boquerón, are all located in Cabo Rojo. You will also find Laguna de Guánica in Lajas; Laguna de las Salinas off of Ponce; Laguna de las Mareas in Guayama; Laguna Aguas Prietas in Fajardo; and Laguna Kiani and Laguna Anones, both located on the island of Vieques.
Mangroves, Thermal Pools & Streams
There are a few mangroves scattered throughout the island that are worth mentioning. In the southwest region, time has created an unique canal system in the mangroves of Lajas. At La Parguera Nature Reserve various inlets along the coast, offer an entrance to a maze of narrow channels known as the mangrove forest. Mangroves can also be found in Vieques and the Guanica state forest.
Other water masses known for their rare characteristics include "Los Baños de Coamo." These natural hot baths, located near the south central lake of Coamo feature natural thermal pools that are relaxing and invigorating.
There are more than 1,000 small streams on the island. Streams are plentiful especially after heavy rains. Subterranean streams are abundant, especially in the northwest karsts region.
Puerto Rico's climate varies by location. The Island has tropical weather at low altitude and subtropical at higher altitudes. Winds, mountains and sea temperatures also play a major roll in the variations of rainfall and temperature throughout the land.
Rainfall
During the hot months warm seawater (about 81° F) surrounding the island, release vapors, that sweep above the cooler mountains on northeast trade winds to form rain.
The rainy season occurs between May and December. A dryer period appears around December and can last till March. The north region, and especially the mountain areas, receives the most precipitation. The southwestern coastal region is characterized by a dryer term. This disparity is evident in the 189 inches of annual rain that falls over El Yunque Rain Forest in the north and the 40 inches that fall on the city of Ponce in the south.
Annual rainfall averages about 1,550 mm (161 inches) in the north, 910 mm (36 inches) in the south, 101-381 cm (40-150 inches) in coastal regions and 508 cm (200 inches) in the mountains.
Temperature
Though northeast trade winds regulate and cool the air considerably, the weather in Puerto Rico is typically warm, humid, with lots of sun, especially during the summer.
The average annual temperature varies from 78 to 82 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures along the interior, varies between 73 and 78 degrees Fahrenheit. The south is usually a few degrees higher than the north. The coolest temperatures on the island exist in the interior mountains.
Some record breaking temperatures in Puerto Rico include a recording of 4.4° C (40° F) in 1911 at Aibonito, and 39.4° C (103° F) in 1906 at San Lorenzo.
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The city of San Juan, receives some 1500 mm (some 59 in) of precipitation yearly. Average temperature ranges from 27° C (81° F) in July to 24° C (75 ° F) in January. |
Hurricanes
Puerto Rico faces its share of hurricanes, which commonly cross the Caribbean from the east. Sometimes these power-wheeling cyclones come close enough to do serious damage.
During hurricane season, these natural phenomena's are more common between August and October. Some have reached gale-force winds of over 200 mile per hour. Accompanied by torrential rain, these storms leave in their wake a trail of immense destruction. One of the most destructive hurricanes to reach Puerto Rico was San Ciriaco, which struck on Aug. 8, 1899.
Next to flooding, erosions (landslides) are ones of the greatest concerns when hurricanes hit. Roads can be blocked by debris, and wooden homes and other frail structures are no match for the enormous moving force. Small towns can be isolated for periods of time, leaving residents stranded without electricity and telephone service.
Evacuation plans put into affect by the Puerto Rico Civil Defense Department keeps fatalities to a minimum.
Drought
On the opposite end of the scale, periodic drought is another natural hazard occasionally facing the people in Puerto Rico. Uncommon, yet searing temperature and the lack of rainfall causes water levels in reservoirs to drop considerably enough to warrant water rationing.
Energy
Electricity
Puerto Rico uses thermal power plants, run
on refined petroleum, to generate most of the islands electricity. Less
than 1% of electricity is generated from hydroelectric technology. A
hydroelectric installation generates electricity by utilizing the stored
power derived from damming rivers. All of Puerto Rico's lake basins were
created as a result of this process. Electricity consumption across the
island amounts to 19.062 billion kWh (2000 Est.).
Energy Consumption
Oil is the dominant fuel in Puerto Rico. The amount of motor gasoline consumed is equivalent to 2,550,000 metric tons of coal. Energy Consumption is measured at 2,493 kwh per capita.
Numerous species of flora thrive in Puerto Rico. Common tropical species like the Coconut Palm and Banana tree are abundant all across the island. Species that are rare for the tropics, and those with traits exclusive to the Island are found in various areas of particular climates.
Some trees and shrubs are known for their radiant colored bloom. The Poinciana, a prickly tropical shrub with bright reddish blossoms, and the flamboyán, easily recognized by its blossoms of vivid color, are very popular around the island. The White Cedar looses its leaves beginning in April and blooms dazzling pink flowers by July. The Hibiscus (Thespesia grandiflora, Maga grandiflora and Montezuma) is the National Flower of Puerto Rico. Our national tree, the drought-resistant Ceiba or Silk-cotton grows primarily in the arid south. Some trees like the ancient Ausubo are a part of our islands history. Wood from the Ausubo was used to produce the structural beams in many of the historic buildings in Old San Juan.
Some trees like the Sugar Cane, Quenepa, and Mango grow produce that is simply delectably right off the branch. The popular tropical Coconut Palm and Small Banana (niños) tree also bare fruit. Others, like the Gandules, Avacado and Green Banana tree, have been a part of the Puerto Rican diet for generations.
You'll find unique and exotic species of flora in all of the Forests of Puerto Rico. The Caribbean National Forest (El Yunque) is no exception. Located in the northeastern section of the island, this lush 28,000-acre preserve contains some 240 varieties of trees and plants, including tree Ferns, Wild Orchids, Satinwood, Mahogany and Spanish Elm.
Life grows just about everywhere on the island. Even in the subterranean Camuy River Caves, up north. Here, beneath the karsts region there is very little light, and plants with almost no pigmentation, have found their place through ions of evolution.
Mangroves are found throughout the island's coasts and are most impressive at the Guánica Dry Forest. The Forest is located in the dry south, and harbors some 700 plant species, of which 48 are endangered and 16 exist exclusively on the island. Scrub brush, cactus and other scrub species thrive in this arid environment.
50 miles off the west coast of Puerto Rico, a variety of unique species, can be found on the uninhabited island of Mona.
In Puerto Rico, many species of fauna thrive from the heights of El Yunque Rainforest to the darkest recess of the Río Camuy caves.
Common livestock including cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs and fowl are the largest mammals to reside on the island. Iguanas and many small lizards are also natural inhabitants, though Iguana sightings have steadily grown rare on the mainland. The mongoose lives here as well, and was introduced to Puerto Rico as a means to control the rodent population on sugar cane plantations.
Of the few indigenous animals that live in Puerto Rico, the small (up to an inch long) Coquí frog is the most obvious if not the most popular. At night these tree dweller chant a cricket like chirp, "ko-kee," continuously in harmonious syncopation.
Another indigenous species, the rare Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata), is less visible to the public. The almost foot tall bird lives in several secluded areas of the Caribbean National Forest (El Yunque), and is recognized for it's bright green coat, red forehead and wing feathers with a prominent shade of blue. It is one of two hundred or so species of birds that either live or migrate here annually.
Caves such as the Río Camuy and El Cueva del Infierno are known for their caverns, and the wildlife that resides within these subterranean dwellings. Various animals and insects reside here, including over 13 species of bats, the coquí frog, and the "guavá" arachnid.
The most pristine environment for wildlife can be found on Mona Island, off the west coast of the mainland. Comparable only by the Galapagos, this wildlife haven harbors a multitude of species, some of which are exclusive to Puerto Rico.
Barracuda, kingfish, lobster, mackerel, mullet, tuna, oysters and big game fish are common along the coastal waters off Puerto Rico. You'll find the rare leatherback turtles nest-hole on the island of Culebra, and during the winter season humpback whales migrate off the west coast.
|
The national bird of Puerto Rico is the Stripe-headed Tanager (spyndalis zena) ("reina mora"). |
Society (past and present)
social and cultural influence & ethnicity, cultural contrasts, the locals, recreational activities, language, religion, population statistics.
Social, Cultural Influence and Ethnicity
Puerto Rico is a fusion of races and cultures. It is a dichotomy where old world traditions, and new world visions coincide in a blend of sound harmony. An inheritance of traditions, the employment of foreigners, the embrace of oppressed immigrants, and a close affiliation with the United States has played a major role in shaping the contemporary Puerto Rican.
Puerto Rican heritage can be traced back to our Taìno and Spanish forefathers. Many of the indigenous Taìnos who survived the onslaught by the Conquistadors eventually inter-married with the Spanish and settled the land. Much of the foundation of Puerto Rico's culture has its roots in the traditions that were passed down from these arrangements through the generations.
By the seventeenth century very little land and laborers were needed to farm coffee, a growing industry of the time. While slavery had only a minor role in the growth of agriculture, Puerto Rico also had it's share of African slaves, who were shipped to the island to labor on the plantations. In general, slavery never became an acceptable practice in the culture or economy of the island, and in later years slavery was abolished entirely. As a result, the island became a magnet for free Negroes and slaves seeking freedom. Eventually, Africans and their offspring's settled across Puerto Rico, and inter-married. During the early 1800s party loyalists fled persecution from the independence movements in South America and settled on the Island. More than half-a-dozen French families, from Louisiana and Haiti, migrated here as well. Scottish and Irish Immigrants also made their way from famine ridden countries and settled in Puerto Rico.
Throughout the mid-19th century Chinese, French, German and Italian workers, who came to the island to construct roads, eventually stayed and added to the racial mix. Americans began to influence Puerto Rico's culture through political, social and economic changes after the United States took possession of the island in 1898. Even after the US acquired Puerto Rico from Spain, Spanish immigrants continued to migrate to the island. Two of the largest migrations came in the 20th Century and include the arrival of thousands of Cubans, who fled the oppressive state of Fidel Castro in the 1960s, and the recent migrations of Dominicans, who found their way to the Island from an economically deprived Dominican Republic.
Even with these influence, the majority of Puerto Rico's inhabitants are of Hispanic background. Eighty percent of the population are of Spanish or mixed Spanish descent. Whites of mostly Spanish origin account for 80.5 % of the population, Blacks- 8%, Amerindian- 0.4%, Asian- 0.2% and mixed or other 10.9%. (1980 - Census)
The majority of Puerto Rico's cultural and sociological identity is derived from Taino and Spanish influences. This is apparent in the historical architecture, traditions, and common language of the people of Puerto Rico. Throughout history, a variety of cultures have been introduced into the population, and has impacted Puerto Rican lifestyles, significantly. As a result, as recently as the 19th century, many facets in Puerto Rican society have been challenged, dramatically. Modern architecture, super malls and super outlets are among the most recent and prominent products. With the advent of cable TV, and indomitable influences from the United States, new generations of Puerto Ricans are slowly immerging that immolates more and more closely to an American way of life.
Puerto Ricans are warm and hospitable people. They're also noble, very proud and passionate. They have a passion for just about anything from folklore to politics, but what they are most conscientious about is a sense respect. And this applies to both genders. So long as you treat a local with respect, you will literally get the shirt off his back, if you sincerely needed it! But, in no way should Puerto Ricans be interpreted as docile. They're far from it!
A celebration with food and music, or a minimum of strong coffee and pastry is a courtesy Puerto Ricans like to extend to a friendly guest.
The gap between generations is small. People of all ages social together in most festive occasions. Boys and girls are expected to comport themselves like ladies and gentlemen at all times. It might not be obvious, but parents keep a watchful eye on their young.
Most women greet their friends with a kiss on the cheek and a hug, or both. Men exchange a firm handshake, or extend a manly hug between close friends.
Puerto Rico has its share of aggressive drivers. Steer clear of heated traffic debates. It's also a good idea to avoid a discussion about statehood and politics. The average Puerto Rican feels very passionate when it comes to politics. Puerto Ricans are also genuinely passionate about there nationality. While they are legal citizens of the United States, most residents from the Island consider themselves Puerto Rican first, and regard Puerto Rico as their sole homeland. You may hear a local say "I’m as Puerto Rican as a coquí," (In Spanish: Soy de aquí como el coquí.) to express his nationality.
When they have time for some fun, Puerto Ricans enjoy their spectacular climate by basking under the warm sun on sandy beaches and refreshing ocean water. The locals also enjoy various sports including auto racing, baseball, basketball, boating, boxing cockfighting, fishing, golf, horse racing, jet skiing and tennis to name a few.
In addition to all of the U.S. government holidays available for locals to celebrate, Puerto Ricans can enjoy nine local holidays, which honor important leaders or events in the island's history. One of the most grandest celebration commemorates the Discovery of Puerto Rico on November 19th. Patron Saint festivals and Carnivals are also big ones. Some 78 municipalities hold patron saint festivals and carnivals in honor of their patron saints. Most events are held in the main square of each region, and feature activities that range from religious ceremonies and processions to whimsical parades with floats and locals dressed in traditional costumes. Activities also include street parties that feature shows, games, dancing to live music, and an opportunity to taste plenty of regional food. Some of the locals may dress in traditional costumes. Several towns also hold festivals and carnivals commemorating themes of notoriety special to that particular town or region. Themes range from a successful coffee harvests to the tradition of bobbin lace (mundillo) production.
There is also opportunity for locals to take in some cultural enlightenment through the many museums, galleries, theaters, opera houses and other enriching events that are produced regularly throughout the island.
But nothing can be more exiting than the nightlife fun that awaits all Adult Puerto Ricans starting from Thursdays, especially in the cities. Puerto Ricans love to dance, socialize with friends and grove to Latin, jazz, rock and just about every other category of popular music.
The government of Puerto Rico recognizes Spanish and English as official languages. While Spanish is the native language, you will find some English spoken especially in major tourist areas.
Misinformed Americans and people from other countries tend to group Latin American, South American, Central American, and Mexican languages under one dialect simply because they're derived from Spanish (Castilian) roots. it is incorrect to assume this of the Puerto Rican language and the other Latin American dialects. The Spanish that is spoken in Puerto Rico has similarities only to the languages spoken in the Dominican Republic and Cuba.
A 1980 study estimates that out of the total population 89% of males and 90% of females ages 15 and over can read and write.
Almost all Puerto Ricans come from some denomination of religious background. About 80 percent stem from a solid foundation in the teachings of the Roman Catholic faith. Other major Religions on the Island include Evangelism, Jehovah Witness and Pentecostal.
Population Statistics
The following statistical charts are estimates and should only be used as a guide.
population history, population density, distributions in major cities, growth rate, growth projection, age distribution, birth rate, death rate, major causes of death, infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, life expectancy, fertility rate, contraceptive use, marriage rate, divorce rate, family average size, hiv/aids, crime rate, migrations to the u.s., resources.
Population - Over 3,957,988 people inhabit the island of Puerto Rico (July 2002 est.). More than one-third of the population live in the metropolitan area of San Juan, which includes Carolina and Bayamón. Other large communities in Puerto Rico include Ponce, Caguas and Mayagüez.
|
Population History |
|
| Size | Year (est.) |
|
3,957,988 |
July 2002 |
|
3,937,316 |
July 2001 |
|
3,915,798 |
July 2000 |
|
3,887,652 |
1999 |
|
3,857,070 |
July 1998 |
|
3,828,506 |
July 1997 |
|
3,819,023 |
July 1996 |
|
3,812,569 |
July 1995 |
|
3,620,000 |
1993 |
|
3,580,000 |
1992 |
|
3,294,999 |
1991 |
|
3,522,037 |
1990 |
Population Density - Puerto Rico is a densely populated island with over 1,124 people per sq mi (1999 est.). The total urban population exceeds 2,664,000 or 72% and 28.8% of the people occupy rural areas. (1990)
|
Population Distribution in Major Cities (1990 est.) |
|
| City | Population Size |
|
San Juan |
426,800 |
|
Ponce |
159,200 |
|
Caguas |
92,400 |
|
Mayaguez |
83,000 |
|
Arecibo |
49,500 |
|
Population Growth Rate History of Puerto Rico |
|
| Size | Year (est.) |
|
0.51% |
2002 |
|
0.54% |
2001 |
|
0.56% |
2000 |
|
0.59% |
1999 |
|
0.68% |
1998 |
|
0.93% |
1997 |
|
0.10% |
1980-92 |
Population Growth Projection - It is estimated that 4,438,000 people will reside on the Island by 2010.
|
Population Age Distribution |
||||
|
Year (est.) |
Age Group |
% of Population |
Male |
Female |
|
2002 |
0-14 years |
23.5% |
476,726 |
453,782 |
|
15-64 years |
65.8% |
1,249,850 |
1,353,438 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10.7% |
180,053 |
244,139 |
|
|
2001 |
0-14 years |
23.73% |
478,441 |
455,800 |
|
15-64 years |
65.72% |
1,242,245 |
1,345,421 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10.55% |
177,083 |
238,326 |
|
|
2000 |
0-14 years |
24% |
480,100 |
457,684 |
|
15-64 years |
66% |
1,234,065 |
1,336,848 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10% |
174,383 |
232,718 |
|
|
July 1999 |
0-14 years |
24% |
482,111 |
459,940 |
|
15-64 years |
65% |
1,220,682 |
1,323,787 |
|
|
65 years plus |
11% |
173,133 |
227,999 |
|
|
July 1998 |
Under age 15 |
24% |
483,268 |
461,632 |
|
15-64 years |
65% |
1,206,385 |
1,310,406 |
|
|
65 years plus |
|
171,889 |
223,490) |
|
|
July 1997 |
Under age 15 |
25% |
485,782 |
463,226 |
|
15-64 years |
65% |
1,192,306 |
1,298,256 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10% |
170,170 |
218,766 |
|
|
July 1996 |
Under age 15 |
25% |
484,038 |
461,175 |
|
15-64 years |
65% |
1,201,841 |
1,279,707 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10% |
174,274 |
217,988 |
|
|
July 1995 |
Under age 15 |
25% |
466,596 |
489,127 |
|
15 - 64 |
65% |
1,195,785 |
1,274,765 |
|
|
65 years plus |
10% |
172,580 |
213,716 |
|
|
Birth Rate in Puerto Rico |
|
|
Births Per 1000 Population |
Year (est.) |
|
15.04 |
2002 |
|
15.26 |
2001 |
|
15.47 |
2000 |
|
15.9 |
1999 |
|
16.7 |
1998 |
|
17.21 |
1997 |
|
15.56 |
1996 |
|
15.92 |
1995 |
|
16.5 |
1994 |
|
16.93 |
1993 |
|
18 |
1991 |
|
18.3 |
1990 |
|
Death Rate in Puerto Rico |
|
|
Deaths Per 1000 Population |
Year (est.) |
|
7.82 |
2002 |
|
7.77 |
2001 |
|
7.74 |
2000 |
|
7.87 |
1999 |
|
8.08 |
1998 |
|
7.87 |
1997 |
|
7.46 |
1996 |
|
7.47 |
1995 |
|
7.93 |
1994 |
|
7.88 |
1993 |
|
7 |
1991 |
|
6.9 |
1990 |
|
Major Causes of Death in Puerto Rico (1993) |
|
|
Condition |
Deaths Per 100,000 Population |
|
cancers |
95.4 |
|
cerebrovascular disease |
38.0 |
|
diabetes |
55.1 |
|
heart and cardiovascular disease |
142.6 |
|
pneumonia and influenza |
29.2 |
|
Infant
Mortality Rate |
|
|
Deaths Per 1000 Population |
Year (est.) |
|
9.3 |
2002 |
|
9.51 |
2001 |
|
9.71 |
2000 |
|
10.79 |
1999 |
|
12.09 |
1998 |
|
11.2 |
1997 |
|
12.4 |
1996 |
|
12.8 |
1995 |
|
13.8 |
1994 |
|
14 |
1993 |
|
13.0 |
1991 |
Maternal
Mortality Rate - 12.6 deaths per 100,000 live births.
|
Life Expectancy at Birth (In Years) |
|||
|
Total Population |
Male |
Female |
Year (est.) |
|
75.96 |
71.5 |
80.66 |
2002 |
|
75.76 |
71.28 |
80.48 |
2001 |
|
75.55 |
71.05 |
80.3 |
2000 |
|
75.06 |
70.95 |
79.41 |
1999 |
|
74.2 |
69.58 |
79.11 |
1998 |
|
74.49 |
70.04 |
79.22 |
1997 |
|
75.38 |
71.13 |
79.89 |
1996 |
|
75.1 |
70 |
78 |
1995 |
|
Total Fertility Rate |
|
|
Children Born per Woman |
Year (est.) |
|
1.9 |
2002 |
|
1.9 |
2001 |
|
1.9 |
2000 |
|
1.94 |
1999 |
|
2.03 |
1998 |
|
2.1 |
1988 |
|
2.08 |
1997 |
|
1.94 |
1996 |
|
1.98 |
1995 |
|
2.04 |
1994 |
|
2.2 |
1991 |
Contraceptive Use - 70% of married women use some form of contraception.
Marriage Rate - 9.2 marriages per 1000 people
(1992 est.).
Divorce Rate - 4.47 per 1000 people.
Family Average Size - 3.5 people.
HIV/AIDS - Number of people living with HIV/AIDS: 7,397 (1997)
Crime Rate - All metropolitan areas experience a share of crime. Puerto Rico is no exception. According to a 1996 statistic, the murder rate was 25 per 100,000 people. Crime rates are lower outside metropolitan areas.
Puerto Rican Migration to the United States
Puerto Ricans are legal citizens of the United States and do not require a work visa to live and/or work in the United States. 2.7 million Puerto Ricans reside in the United States, primarily in northeast cities. (1990 Census on Population and Housing) About one half of the Puerto Ricans living in the U.S. are second and third generation migrants. It is estimated that more Puerto Ricans live in New York City than in San Juan. Recently, Orlando, Florida has become the latest Mecca for Puerto Ricans both on the island and in the U.S. In addition, many Puerto Ricans have returned to Puerto Rico from the US, mainly because of social disenchantment with American life and shrinking economic opportunities.
|
Migration Rate |
|
|
Migrants per 1,000 Population |
Year (est.) |
|
-2.12 |
2002 |
|
-2.13 |
2001 |
|
-2.14 |
2000 |
|
-2.15 |
1999 |
|
-1.83 |
1998 |
|
0 |
1997 |
|
-6.35 |
1996 |
|
-6.81 |
1995 |
|
-7.29 |
1994 |
|
-7.75 |
1993 |
Link Resources on Population
-
1990 Census of Population and Housing - Summary Population and Housing Characteristics
-
Bureau of the Census IDB Data Access
-
Components of Growth for Puerto Rico and Insular Areas for 1990-1999
Government & Politics
political history, amendment process, government characteristics, branches of government, political parties, similarities and dissimilarities with the u.s.
To begin to understand the rights and privileges afforded to the people of Puerto Rico and the bases for contemporary politics across the Island, one has to go back to the early 20th century and the Foraker Act. The Foraker Act was passed in 1900 by the United States Congress, and consists of several conditions imposed on the island, that are still in affect today. These provisions included Puerto Rico's inclusion and use of the U.S. monetary system. Puerto Rico was also expected to abide by the tariff provisions of the U.S. and practice free trade between the two countries.
Also under this Act, Puerto Ricans were not obligated to pay federal taxes. The tax gift sounded good on face value, but there is another side to this coin--one that stems from the legendary and famous historic American principle of "no taxation without representation." Because Puerto Ricans were not being taxed, they were also legally deprived of their say in American policy, and indirectly their own. Additional political freedoms for the people of Puerto Rico in the form of a Bill of Rights came in 1917 under the Jones Act. This decree also granted Puerto Ricans American citizenship.
In 1941, under the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration, Rexford Guy Tugwell became the last American governor to preside over Puerto Rico. In 1946, then President Truman, replaced Governor Tugwell with Jesùs Piñero-the first Puerto Rican ever to hold the office of governor elective. Two years later in 1948, Muñoz Marìn became governor, the first elected governor of Puerto Rico's history.
It was under the Muñoz administration that Puerto Rico finally shed it's colonial status with the U.S.. Beginning with Public Law 600, approved in Washington July 1950, the people of Puerto Rico were granted opportunity to organize a government based on a constitution of their own making. In 1951 Puerto Rican voters approved the law, 3 to 1 in favor.
Puerto Rico's constitution was drawn up immediately by an elected convention, and by March 3, 1952, voters accepted it in a referendum. The document was approved by Congress in July 3, and it was signed into law by President Truman. By July 25, 1952 Puerto Rico was officially a Commonwealth (Estado Libre Associado or free associated state).
The new arraignment made allowances for the United States to continue to take charge of defense matters. The postal services, and other critical agencies operating in Puerto Rico were also left under the control of the U.S. The conditions of the Foraker and Jones Acts remained intact and in affect. Puerto Rico would have a political observer in Washington, and would be entitled to elect their own political officials back home.
Puerto Rico's legislature or a constitutional convention may propose an amendment to the constitution. In order for it to pass an amendment must be approved by a majority of persons voting in an election.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is a free self-governing state that has a special association with the United States, hence in Spanish, "Estado Libre Asociado." Conventionally, whenever one references the island regarding official matters, acts and laws, Puerto Rico is cited as if it were part of the United States.
It has characteristics of both a state of the union and an independent country. But, while Puerto Rico has authority over much of its internal affairs, there are various areas in society that are managed and regulated by U.S. federal agencies. Areas generally controlled by the U.S. Federal Government include air control, agriculture, citizenship, commerce, communications including radio and television, customs administration, declarations of war, emigration, foreign relations, highways, immigration, interstate trade, legal procedures pertaining to the constitutionality of laws, maritime laws, military bases, military services including the U.S. army, navy and air force, mining and minerals, monetary system, nationality, postal system, social security and treaties. Puerto Rico is also subject to most laws and regulations adhere to In the United States.
Puerto Rico has no U.S. diplomatic representation in the traditional sense. A delegate is elected by popular vote in Puerto Rico to reside as a representative in the U.S. House of Representatives for a four-year term with all the rights of a member of Congress. This "Resident Commissioner" serves as a representative for Puerto Rico, but has no vote in the formulation of federal legislation.
Puerto Rico has a Republican form of Government that includes an Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branch.
Executive
The Executive branch consists of a chief executive, or governor. Residents of Puerto Rico elect the governor, who serves a four-year term by popular vote and may be reelected any number of times. A Cabinet for the various executive departments is chosen by the governor and endorsed by the legislature. The secretary of state succeeds the governor in the event of death, resignation, or impeachment.
In addition, Puerto Rico is divided into 78 municipalities (Spanish: municipios). Each municipality is governed by an elected mayor and overseen by a municipal assembly. These municipalities include Adjuntas, Aguada, Aguadilla, Aguas Buenas, Aibonito, Anasco, Arecibo, Arroyo, Barceloneta, Barranquitas, Bayamon, Cabo Rojo, Caguas, Camuy, Canovanas, Carolina, Catano, Cayey, Ceiba, Ciales, Cidra, Coamo, Comerio, Corozal, Culebra, Dorado, Fajardo, Florida, Guanica, Guayama, Guayanilla, Guaynabo, Gurabo, Hatillo, Hormigueros, Humacao, Isabela, Jayuya, Juana Diaz, Juncos, Lajas, Lares, Las Marias, Las Piedras, Loiza, Luquillo, Manati, Maricao, Maunabo, Mayaguez, Moca, Morovis, Naguabo, Naranjito, Orocovis, Patillas, Penuelas, Ponce, Quebradillas, Rincon, Rio Grande, Sabana Grande, Salinas, San German, San Juan, San Lorenzo, San Sebastian, Santa Isabel, Toa Alta, Toa Baja, Trujillo Alto, Utuado, Vega Alta, Vega Baja, Vieques, Villalba, Yabucoa, and Yauco.
Legislative
Legislative Power resides in Puerto Rico's bicameral legislative assembly, the Senate Chamber and the House of Representatives. Delegates from each committee are elected by the people to four year terms.
The Senate seats 27 members, which include 19 Delegates from the Popular Democratic Party, 7 Delegates from the New Progressive Party, and 1 Delegate from the Puerto Rican Independence Party. Of the members 2 are elected per electoral district (there are 8 senatorial districts), and 11 reflect the proportion of the population in various districts.
The House of Representatives seats 51 members, which include 30 Delegates from the Popular Democratic Party, 20 Delegates from the New Progressive Party, and 1 Delegate from the Puerto Rican Independence Party. Of the members 1 is elected per representative district (there are 40 representative districts) and 11 reflect the proportion of the population in various districts.
In order to prevent any party from controlling two thirds of the house, two seats are given up by each house to the opposition.
Judiciary
Puerto Rico's legal system is rooted in Spanish and U.S. law. The Judicial System is headed by a Supreme Court, Puerto Rico’s highest tribunal. A chief justice and six associate justices reside over the court until the age of 70. The framework of the Judicial System comprises a Superior Court, a Court of Appeals, Civil and Criminal District Court, and a Municipal Court, serving 12 judicial districts with 37 municipal judges.
The superior court, consists of 108 judges who reside for a term of 12-years. The superior court is also referred to as the major trial court. The district court is similar to those in the U.S. One or more district judges can reside over this court. In most cases, the Governor appoints all Judges and the Senate approves it.
In San Juan two district judges and a procurator reside over a U.S. Federal Court. They are appointed by the President of the United States.
On the island, political standing is a topic of incessant debate among Puerto Ricans. For the last couple of decades, the quest for statehood has been on the rise, yet inspirations that grow from the dreams of an independent Island churns in the hearts of most Puerto Rican's. All one has to do is observe an assembly of Puerto Ricans at any event to see the tremendous pride residents have for their island and their nationality.
As of 2003 Puerto Rico’s leading political parties include the Popular Democratic Party, which was founded in 1938, and supports the current commonwealth system; the New Progressive Party, which was founded in 1967, and advocates U.S. statehood for the island; the Independence Party, fully emerged in 1946 and seeks a Puerto Rico independent from the United States.
Smaller political groups exist around the island and include the Armed Forces for National Liberation (FALN); Volunteers of the Puerto Rican Revolution; Boricua Popular Army (also known as the Macheteros); and, Armed Forces of Popular Resistance.
Puerto Rico's Similarities
and Dissimilarities with the U.S.
Puerto Ricans enjoy most of the rights and privileges afforded to all Americans. They have common citizenship with the U.S., and thus experience most of the liberties and obligations that come with this status. These islanders make use of the U.S. monetary system and are required to contribute to social security. From the age of 18 residents of Puerto Rico acquire the right to vote in political elections, though this is limited to elections held on the Island. Residents are ineligible to vote in U.S. presidential and vice president elections. Puerto Rico also lacks voting representation in either house of the U.S. Congress.
Puerto Rico is protected by the U.S. Armed Forces. It's residents can be drafted and have meet the obligation to fight in every U.S. war since World War I. And, like any State of the Union, to a lesser degree, Puerto Rico receives federal aid for social and infrastructure programs. Puerto Ricans are required to pay taxes only to their local government and are exempt from Internal Revenue Code. In other words, except for federal employees and members of the U.S. Armed Forces, residents of Puerto Rico are not required to pay federal income taxes.