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Russia

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E

Religion

During most of the Soviet era religious expression was strictly discouraged and the Communist Party controlled religious institutions. In the late 1980s, however, the government began to ease its restrictions on religion, and a 1990 law granted Russians far more religious freedom. Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, religious following has increased and there has been a resurgence of traditional religions, particularly Orthodox Christianity (see Orthodox Church).

The ancestors of today’s Russians adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 10th century. It is now the country’s primary religion. About half of the population belongs to the Russian Orthodox Church, and members are dispersed throughout the country. However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Nonetheless, the church is widely respected by both believers and nonbelievers, who see it as a symbol of Russian heritage and culture. The state officially observes Orthodox holidays, and many politicians attend major church festivals. The church is divided, however, on its role in post-Soviet society. Conflict also exists between an anti-Semitic, highly nationalistic faction within the church and another faction that advocates a more tolerant, ecumenical approach to worldly affairs.

Muslims form the second largest religious group in Russia. They are concentrated mostly in the ethnic republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan in the middle Volga region, and in the republics of Chechnya, Ingushetia, Alania (North Ossetia), Kabardino-Balkaria, and Dagestan. There are also relatively small populations of Jews, Protestants, Catholics, and Buddhists. Jews and Christians are dispersed throughout the country. Buddhists live chiefly in the republics of Buryatia and Tuva on the Russian border with Mongolia and in Kalmykia on the northwest shore of the Caspian Sea.

Despite the reemergence of traditional religions, most Russians do not adhere strictly to a single belief. Instead, they combine traditional faiths with other alternative beliefs. Witchcraft and astrology are popular, especially among young people. Russians have also turned to numerous new beliefs, sects, and religious denominations. Foreign missionaries and other proselytizers have introduced a wide variety of religious beliefs and New Age philosophies (see New Age Movement).



The growing popularity of foreign religions prompted concern among Russian lawmakers. In 1997 the government revised the 1990 religious freedom law to categorize religions into those that were part of Russia's historical development and those that were not. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism were identified as Russia’s only traditional religions. The law limits the activities of organizations that represent any other religious faith. These organizations must register annually with the government for a period of 15 years before they attain the higher status. During this time they cannot publish, distribute, or teach religious material, although they can engage in charitable activities.

F

Education

Education in Russia advanced significantly during the Soviet period. In 1918 the Soviet government instituted free, compulsory schooling, which enabled most Russians to receive a good basic education. As a result, Russia has an extremely high literacy rate. More than 99 percent of the population over age 15 is literate.

F1

History of Education

During most of the Soviet period, the Soviet government tightly controlled the educational system. Schools emphasized skill building and indoctrination with communist ideology, and teachers were expected not only to educate students but also to shape their personalities to the communist ideal. Placement of teachers was controlled centrally, with new teachers assigned to teaching positions based on regional needs. All schools followed a national curriculum. Outside the schools, students were exhorted to join youth organizations sanctioned by the Communist Party. Public education was free at the elementary and secondary levels. Tuition for preschool and postsecondary institutions was nominal if it was charged at all. Private schools were prohibited. Various educational reforms were implemented during the Soviet period, most notably in the final years of the USSR. Beginning in 1985 the national curriculum was revised to allow for greater flexibility of studies under the glasnost ('openness') policies of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.

In 1992 Russia adopted a new education law that legalized private schools and homeschooling. This law also gave educators the right to choose their own textbooks and to determine other aspects of instruction. Private publishing, which did not exist during the Soviet period, has expanded rapidly, although new textbooks are still not widely available. The responsibility to mold students to a prescribed moral and civic ideal has been largely removed from the sphere of schools.

F2

Structure of Education

Russia inherited a well-developed, comprehensive system of education from the Soviet period, with an extensive network of preschool, elementary, secondary, and higher educational institutions. Enrollment in preschools, which is optional, has dropped since the Soviet period, as tuition became more expensive after 1991. Free, compulsory education begins at age 6, when children enter primary school for an intensive course of study from grades one to four. Intermediate education begins with grade five and continues through grade nine. Children can then enter upper-level schools or vocational-technical programs, which include on-the-job training. The majority of students are instructed in the Russian language. Other non-Russian languages are taught to various degrees, usually only for the first few years of instruction.

Undergraduate training in higher educational institutions generally involves a four- or five-year course of study, after which students may enroll in a one- to three-year program of graduate training. Graduate students who successfully complete their courses of study, comprehensive examinations, and the defense of their dissertations receive candidate of science degrees, which are roughly equivalent to doctoral degrees in the United States. A higher degree, the doctor of sciences, is awarded to established scholars who have made outstanding contributions to their disciplines.

F3

Current State of Education

Rather than a network of many small or medium-sized schools, the Soviet government developed a smaller number of very large facilities, which are inadequate to meet Russia’s education needs. Because of a lack of space, students must attend schools in shifts in almost one-third of Russia's schools. The physical condition of the buildings, which was poor during the late Soviet period, has deteriorated further since 1991. Many schools lack heating, plumbing, and other basic necessities. Disparities in conditions have widened since 1991, as schools have become increasingly reliant on local support from public and private sponsors. Many schools have specialized, either to attract sponsors or to meet the needs of current sponsors, and reformers have sought to refocus the curriculum around the needs of students.

Since 1991 the system of higher education has undergone considerable change. Private schools, some operated by religious organizations, have opened in large numbers. Public institutions of higher education, once heavily supported by the state, have had to cover a much larger share of their operating costs. In order to attract support from potential sponsors, regional authorities upgraded more than 100 teacher-training colleges to universities or academies, which are more prestigious. As a result, new teacher-training institutes were created to ensure that Russia trains an adequate number of future educators.

The most prominent Russian universities are Moscow State University, Saint Petersburg State University, Kazan’ State University, and Novosibirsk State University. Other important universities are located in Rostov-na-Donu, Nizhniy Novgorod, Tomsk, Vladivostok, and Voronezh. In addition to universities and institutes, Russia has one of the world’s foremost organizations devoted to scholarly research, the Russian Academy of Sciences.

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