Abstract

Protein families can be used to understand many aspects of genomes, both their "live" and their "dead" parts (i.e. genes and pseudogenes). Surveys of genomes have revealed that, in every organism, there are always a few large families and many small ones, with the overall distribution following a power-law. This commonality is equally true for both genes and pseudogenes, and exists despite the fact that the specific families that are enlarged differ greatly between organisms. Furthermore, because of family structure there is great redundancy in proteomes, a fact linked to the large number of dispensable genes for each organism and the small size of the minimal, indispensable sub-proteome. Pseudogenes in prokaryotes represent families that are in the process of being dispensed with. In particular, the genome sequences of certain pathogenic bacteria (Mycobacterium leprae, Yersinia pestis and Rickettsia prowazekii) show how an organism can undergo reductive evolution on a large scale (i.e. the dying out of families) as a result of niche change. There appears to be less pressure to delete pseudogenes in eukaryotes. These can be divided into two varieties, duplicated and processed, where the latter involves reverse transcription from an mRNA intermediate. We discuss these collectively in yeast, worm, fly, and human. The fly has few pseudogenes apparently because of its high rate of genomic DNA deletion. In the other three organisms, the distribution of pseudogenes on the chromosome and amongst different families is highly non-uniform. Pseudogenes tend not to occur in the middle of chromosome arms, and tend to be associated with lineage-specific (as opposed to highly conserved) families that have environmental-response functions. This may be because, rather than being dead, they may form a reservoir of diverse "extra parts" that can be resurrected to help an organism adapt to its surroundings. In yeast, there may be a novel mechanism involving the [PSI+] prion that potentially enables this resurrection. In worm, the pseudogenes tend to arise out of families (e.g. chemoreceptors) that are greatly expanded in it compared to the fly. The human genome stands out in having many processed pseudogenes. These have a character very different from those of the duplicated variety, to a large extent just representing random insertions. Thus, their occurrence tends to be roughly in proportion to the amount of mRNA for a particular protein and to reflect the extent of the intergenic sequences. Further information about pseudogenes is available at http://genecensus.org/pseudogene