Overall geographical setting: Sintra Cascais Natural Park (PNSC).The surface of PNSC is approximately 145 km² and is situated along the Atlantic coast, some 20 km west of Lisbon.Geographical coordinates: between 38 ^o, 40 N and 39^o 00 N latitude, and 9^o 15 W and 9^o, 30 W longitude and the major altitude is 528 m, and the minor is 0 m.PNSC can be divided in 3 distinct geomorphologic units:

·       Planalto de S. João das Lampas (part of "Terra Saloia")

·       Várzea de Colares

·       Serra de Sintra

The Parque Natural de Sintra-Cascais, situated in the northern margin of the Lisbon Metropolitan Area, includes the territory of 2 municipalities, Sintra and Cascais, subdivided in 7 parishes. The northern part of the Park (11 307ha) lies inside the municipality of Sintra, the southern inside the municipality of Cascais as (3 276 ha), making a total surface of 14 583 ha.

As for the municipality of Sintra, the PNSC includes the whole parish of Colares and partly the parishes of Sta. Maria and S. Miguel, S. Martinho, S. Pedro de Penaferrim and S. João das Lampas. As for the municipality of Cascais, the PNSC includes the parishes of Alcabideche and Cascais.

The PNSC is characterized by a large diversity of landscapes, compared to its relative small dimensions. Inside its territory a rich and valuable cultural and natural patrimony occurs. This has been internationally recognized by several international conservation networks. The UNESCO classified a large part of the area as a World Heritage Landscape and the European Union placed a large part under the “Habitats Directive” as a Site of Community Importance (SIC) within the Natura 2000 network.

The most important geomorphologic event in the study area is the eruptive orogenesis of the Serra de Sintra (Eruptive Massif of Sintra or Maciço Eruptivo de Sintra, MES). This event occurred in the Creteceous period, over 90 million years ago.

 As a result of the contact between the sedimentary and magmatic rocks, a metamorphic aureole exists around the massif. In this way three main groups of formations can be distinguished:

Sedimentary rocks; corresponding with limestones and marls mostly of Jurassic, Creteceous or Tertiary origin, Pleistocenic sands, silts, and scees of beaches, Pleistocenic consolidated dunes, and Holocenic sands from shifting dunes, fixed dunes, beaches and alluvial deposits. The limestones and marls are the geological matrix of the territory, both north and south of the plutonic massif. The most conspicuous coastal area with both Pleistocenic and Holocenic dune and sand beach, is more or less situated between Fontanelas/Almoçageme and Cabo Raso. The alluvial deposits are mainly found along the rivers.

Magmatic rocks; both intrusive and extrusive rocks represent a very diverse set of granites, sienites, gabbros, diorites, basalts amongst others. They originated from two distinct geological entities: the Eruptive Massif of Sintra and the veins of the Vulcanic Complex of Lisbon.

Metamorphic rocks; originated from the immediate contact between the sedimentary rocks and the magamatic rocks., either from the Eruptive Massif of Sintra or the veins of the Vulcanic Complex of Lisbon. Examples are the rocks that are commonly known as “Calcários de S. Pedro” and the schists of Ramalhão  (“ Xistos do Ramalhão”).

Sintra’s eruptive massif rises from the Estremenien sedimentary platform it is one of the largest orographic accidents with more or less acids soils.

Based on the soils classification of Portugal (Cardoso, 1965) and with base in the complementary soils cartography (IHERA) rising of 1975, with information about the quality of the soil in relation to the potential for biomassa production is considered:

In the mountain they prevail the soils litólicos in phase delgada, of weak productive capacity.

To north of the MES, the agriculture still exists in diferent soil types: limestone soils, regosoils, some “podolizados”,some areas with fertile clay soils (barros),and aluvionar soils in valleys bottoms.

To south, the prevalient soils are of weak fertility, namely: argiluviados in thin phase and stony, and regossolos psamiticos in the dunar system. and some litholic and limestone soils in thin phase.

Two major factors are important to understand the climatic regime. First there is the proximity of the Atlantic and second there is Serra de Sintra that acts as a condensation barrier.

The ocean has a temperate influence, mitigating the thermal amplitudes and controlling the elevated level of atmospheric humidity. The Serra, in its turn, functions as a condensation barrier to the clouds and the maritime fogs, establishing an asymmetrical climate of its slopes.

The lowest temperatures are found in the Serra zone (due to altitude) and land inwards (due to higher degree of continentality). The mean daily air temperature varies between 12,5 and 16 °C. Precipitation shows two major situations. There is a relative dry area close to the coast (between ca. 400-600 mm) and a more humid one land inwards (600-1000). In the mountain rainfall goes from ca. 1000-1200 mm/year.

An additional important phenomenon in the area is the frequent occurrence of fog. Fog acts as a kind of hidden precipitation causing condensation on the leaves of plants. According to Daveau et al. (1985) in Portugal there are three types of littoral zones related to fog, namely one south of Cabo da Roca, one north of Cabo da Roca and a southern type along the Algarvian coast. Our area includes two types of which the northern type is the most prominent. The northern type is characterized by a strong penetration of fog in summer, weakening the Mediterranean character. The direction of the wind is predominantly NW (Alcoforado 1984). It is noted that the vicinity of the turning point to the southern fog-type might have consequences for the local climate and the distribution of plants. It is noted that at very short distances of less than a few kilometers the precipitation regime and fog regime changes dramatically.

According to Pinto da Silva (1989) the native flora of the Serra de Sintra includes 901 species. About half of them is regarded Mediterranean or West-Mediterranean, 11% belongs to the Atlantic-Mediterranean element, 5% to the Atlantic, 18% to the Eurasiatic (and Holarctic) element, 6% to the cosmopolitan species or species with unknown origin, and finally the endemic element (Cabo da Roca, Serra de Sintra, Estremadura, Lusitanian, Lusitano-Galician, Lusitano-Hispanian) count for 10%.

Exclusive endemic floristic elements for the area are Omphalodes kuzinskyanae, Armeria pseudarmeria, Silene cintrana and Dianthus cintranus subsp. cintranus.

In addition to the 901 autochthonous species, another 149 species that have been introduced seem to be more or less naturalized. The majority of them comes from the Americas (32%). The others are of Euro-Asiatic origin (24%), or Mediterranean or Macaronesian (15%) or Paleotropical (Cape11%, others 8%) Australian (7%) and unknown countries.

Some of the introduced species cause huge problems to the conservation of autochthonous species. This problem will be dealt with in another work-package.

In the PNSC, the more or less autochthonous flora endures in areas with difficult access, small sites along the coast and in the Serra, and in other areas close to the hedges, along the roads, the margins of agricultural terrain, abandoned agricultural lands, along rivers, etc. that all function as a shelter for many species in the region, or in other words as a place for safekeeping the region’s biodiversity.

The Potential Natural Vegetation is defined as the steady plant community which would be present in an area, as a consequence of the progressive succession, if there were no human influences. In practice, potential vegetation is considered synonymous to climax and to primitive vegetation (not altered yet by man). We must distinguish between the climatophilous natural potential vegetation and the permanent plant communities of the edaphophilous series (Rivas-Martínez 2000).

Within the territory of the PNSC the following series have been identified (Costa et al. 2002):

The luvisols and calcic cambisols are occupied by the vegetation series of Quercus faginea subsp. broteroi. The climax community is the Arisaro-Quercetum broteroi occurring under both meso- and thermomediterranean conditions.

Viburno tini-Oleetum sylvestris is the climax community on vertisols, south of the Serra. The thermo- to mesomediterranean series of the Viburno tini-Oleeto sylvestris sigmetum exists of the following major subseral stages: Viburno tini-Oleetum sylvestris, Rubo ulmifoliae-Prunetum insititioides, Asparago albi-Rhamnetum oleoides, and Carici depressae-Hyparrhenietum sinaicae.

The top of the thermo-mesomediterranean climax series on siliceous soils is formed by the Asparago aphylli-Quercetum suberis, community dominated by the Cork oak (Quercus suber).

Potential vegetation of the higher altitudes of the Sera de Sintra consists of woodland dominated by Quercus robur and Quercus pyrenaicae. These refer to two associations. The Arbuto-Quercetum pyrenaicae climax occurs on siliceous soils under humid to sub-humid mesomediterranean conditions. and the Viburno tini-Quercetum roboris climax community can be expected under humid to hyperhumid thermotemperate to (inferior) mesomediteranean conditions growing on soils derived from granite or schist.

As a result of the harsh maritime conditions, climax vegetation close to the coastline does not exist of forest, but of scrub, dominated by Juniperus phoenicea subsp. turbinata. This scrub occurs under thermo- to mesomediterranean conditions with ombrotypes varying from dry to sub-humid. The psammophilic Juniper community in the dunes and other sandy substrates has been described as Osyrio-Juniperetum turbinatae, the saxicolous Juniper community from rocky substrates is described as Querco cocciferae-Juniperetum turbinatae.

The edapho-hygrophilous vegetation of depressions and river valleys can in general be assigned to the order of Eurosiberian and Mediterranean riparian deciduous galleries (Populetalia albae). This order includes formations with Salix, Populus, Fraxinus angustifolia (Populenion albae and Fraxino angustifoliae-Ulmenion minoris)

Rare and endangered animal species that lives in the Natural Park. These include the peregrine Falco peregrinus, the Owl Bubo bubo (both inhabitants of the coastal hillsides), the Mediterranean horseshoe–bat Rhinolophus euryale and the lataste Vipera latastei.

The actual vegetation of the PNSC reflects the strong influence of human occupation. The history of human occupation dates back to paleolithic times (traces found in Assafora, Magoito, Serra de Sintra). After the arrival of man, agro-pastoral activities opened up the landscape bringing about the substitution and degradation of the climax vegetation. It is assumed that a kind of semi-natural vegetation originated from the agro-pastoral system. The next steps in human intervention and degradation of the semi-natural vegetation must have been the introduction of species from all over the world, the afforestation, the construction of romantic gardens, mansions etc., the development of the leisure industry and more recently the strongly increased urbanization and paradoxically the decreasing agricultural activities such as pasturing and crop-farming.

Shrublands

The subseral stages of the forests include a number of heathlands, dwarfscrub and shrub communities of three different classes namely Calluno-Ulicetea, Cisto-Lavanduletea and Rosmarinetea.

In addition there are broom fields or forest fringe shrublands of two classes, namely Cytisetea scopario-striati and Rhamno-Prunetea.

Grasslands

Therophytic grasslands: Helianthemetea guttati

Perennial xerophytic and mesophytic grasslands: Festuco-Brometea, Poetea bulbosae, Sedo-Scleranthetea, Lygeo-Stipetea, Stipo giganteae-Agrostietea castellanae.

Meadows:  Molinio-Arrhenatheretea

Herbaceous fringe and tall forb vegetation: Galio-Urticetea, Anthrisco caucalidis-Geranietea purpurei, Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei

 Synanthropic vegetation: Artemisietea vulgaris, Pegano-Salsoletea, Polygono-Poetea annuae, Stellarietea mediae

Chasmophytic vegetation: Adiantetea , Asplenietea trichomanis, . Parietarietea

Epiphytic and scree vegetation: Anomodonto-Polypodietea, . Phagnalo-Rumicetea indurati

Halophilous vegetation: Crithmo-Staticetea, Juncetea maritimi, Saginetea maritimae, . Salicornietea fruticosae

Vegetation of coastal sand dunes: Ammophiletea,  Cakiletea maritimae

Amphibious  ephemeral vegetation:  Bidentetea tripartitae,. Isoeto-Nanojuncetea

Vegetation of swamps and water margins: Phragmito-Magnocaricetea

Fresh-water vegetation:  Lemnetea

Shrublands

The subseral stages of the forests include a number of heathlands, dwarfscrub and shrub communities of three different classes namely Calluno-Ulicetea, Cisto-Lavanduletea and Rosmarinetea.

In addition there are broom fields or forest fringe shrublands of two classes, namely Cytisetea scopario-striati and Rhamno-Prunetea.

Grasslands

Therophytic grasslands: Helianthemetea guttati

Perennial xerophytic and mesophytic grasslands: Festuco-Brometea, Poetea bulbosae, Sedo-Scleranthetea, Lygeo-Stipetea, Stipo giganteae-Agrostietea castellanae.

Meadows:  Molinio-Arrhenatheretea

Herbaceous fringe and tall forb vegetation: Galio-Urticetea, Anthrisco caucalidis-Geranietea purpurei, Trifolio-Geranietea sanguinei

 Synanthropic vegetation: Artemisietea vulgaris, Pegano-Salsoletea, Polygono-Poetea annuae, Stellarietea mediae

Chasmophytic vegetation: Adiantetea , Asplenietea trichomanis, . Parietarietea

Epiphytic and scree vegetation: Anomodonto-Polypodietea, . Phagnalo-Rumicetea indurati

Halophilous vegetation: Crithmo-Staticetea, Juncetea maritimi, Saginetea maritimae, . Salicornietea fruticosae

Vegetation of coastal sand dunes: Ammophiletea,  Cakiletea maritimae

Amphibious  ephemeral vegetation:  Bidentetea tripartitae,. Isoeto-Nanojuncetea

Vegetation of swamps and water margins: Phragmito-Magnocaricetea

Fresh-water vegetation:  Lemnetea