1.
Royal Assent
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Royal assent is the method by which a countrys constitutional monarch formally approves an act of that nations parliament, thus making it a law or letting it be promulgated as law. Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies, however, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the Governor-General merely signs the bill, in Canada, the Governor-General may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill. Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, the last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was during the rule of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on the 12th of August 1854. The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967, Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. -the sovereign may delay the bills assent through the use of his or her powers in near-revolutionary situations. -the sovereign may refuse royal assent on the advice of his or her ministers, under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often maintain the support of parliament and are the ones who obtain the passage of bills, it is highly improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in practice, royal assent is always granted. The Monarch does not have the power to withhold a Bill from assenting, the last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Annes reign in 1708. The so-called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, in 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorization. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire, the King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process, the power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of, during the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliaments approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1707, on the advice of her ministers, her assent from a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a passed by the British parliament. During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament, the first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than did previous monarchs. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers, thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms
Royal Assent
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George VI grants royal assent to laws in the Canadian Senate, 19 May 1939. Seated beside him is his consort, Queen Elizabeth.
Royal Assent
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Start of the parchment roll of the Reform Act 1832, with the clerk's record of the royal assent of King William IV written above the bill, reading in full Le Roy Veult soit baillé aux Seigneurs. A cette Bille avecque des amendemens les Seigneurs sont assentuz. A ces Amendemens les Communes sont assentuz.
Royal Assent
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Henry VIII introduced a new method of granting royal assent.
2.
Commonwealth realm
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Subsequently, India and Pakistan and Ceylon became Dominions. By the early 1950s, in order to reflect the equality between the countries in that group, each came to be known as a realm. The word was used in Britains proclamation of Elizabeth II as queen in 1952 and was adopted for the modern royal styles and titles under the legislation enacted by the individual countries. The principle was applied to countries as they became Commonwealth realms. The phrase Commonwealth realm, though used officially, is not a statutory term, the number of independent countries in the Commonwealth of Nations all sharing the same person as monarch reached 18 between 1983 and 1987. The Commonwealth realms are, for purposes of international relations, sovereign states, political scientist Peter Boyce called this grouping of countries associated in this manner, an achievement without parallel in the history of international relations or constitutional law. Since each realm has the person as its monarch, the diplomatic practice of exchanging ambassadors with letters of credence. Diplomatic relations between the Commonwealth realms are thus at a cabinet level only and high commissioners are exchanged between realms, a high commissioners full title will thus be High Commissioner for Her Majestys Government in. Opinion on the prospect of the coming to fruition is mixed. This means that in different contexts the term Crown may refer to the extra-national institution associating all 16 countries, from a cultural standpoint, the sovereigns name and image and other royal symbols unique to each nation are visible in the emblems and insignia of governmental institutions and militia. By 1959, it was being asserted by Buckingham Palace officials that the Queen was equally at home in all her realms and this convention was first applied to the abdication of Edward VIII in 1936. For expediency and to avoid embarrassment, the British government had suggested that the Dominion governments automatically regard the monarch of the UK, whoever this may be, as their monarch also. Sir Maurice Gwyer, first parliamentary counsel in the UK, reflected this position and these changes came into effect on 26 March 2015. Agreement among the realms does not, however, mean the succession laws cannot diverge, the parliament of South Africa, however, passed its own legislation—His Majesty King Edward the Eighths Abdication Act, 1937—which backdated the abdication there to 10 December. The Irish Free State recognised the kings abdication with the Executive Authority Act 1936 on 12 December, according to Anne Twomey, this demonstrated the divisibility of the Crown in the personal, as well as the political, sense. For E H Coghill, writing as early as 1937, it proved that the convention of a line of succession is not of imperative force. It is generally agreed that any alteration of succession by the UK would not have effect in all the realms. Following the accession of George VI to the throne, the United Kingdom created legislation that provided for a regency in the event that the monarch was not of age or incapacitated
Commonwealth realm
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Elizabeth II is the reigning sovereign of each of the 16 Commonwealth realms
Commonwealth realm
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The Commonwealth realms, shown in blue. Former Commonwealth realms or Dominions are shown in red
Commonwealth realm
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Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh pose at Windsor Castle with the Queen's fifteen governors-general in April 2002
Commonwealth realm
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Charles, Prince of Wales (left), heir apparent to Queen Elizabeth II; his eldest son, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge (centre), the second in the line of succession; and Charles' second son, Prince Henry of Wales (right), then third in line (now fifth)
3.
Duchy of Lancaster
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The Duchy of Lancaster is, since 1399, the private estate of the British sovereign as Duke of Lancaster. The principal purpose of the estate is to provide a source of independent income to the Sovereign, the estate consists of a portfolio of lands, properties, and assets held in trust for the Sovereign, and is administered separately from the Crown Estate. The Duchy of Lancaster is one of two duchies, the other is the Duchy of Cornwall, which provides income to the Prince of Wales. In the financial year ending 31 March 2015, the estate was valued at about £472 million, the net income of the Duchy is paid to the reigning Sovereign as Duke of Lancaster, it amounts to about £16 million per year. As the Duchy is an asset of the Crown held in trust for future Sovereigns. The Duchy of Lancaster is not subject to tax, although the Sovereign has voluntarily paid both income and capital gains tax since 1993. As such, the income received by the Privy Purse, of which income from the Duchy forms a significant part, is taxed once official expenditures have been deducted. Since the Local Government Act 1972, The Queen in Right of the Duchy appoints the High Sheriffs and Lords Lieutenant in Greater Manchester, Merseyside, and Lancashire. The Duchy of Lancaster was created for a son of King Edward III, John of Gaunt. As the Lancaster inheritance it dates to 1265, when Henry III granted his son, Edmund, lands forfeited by Simon de Montfort. In 1266, the estates of Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby, in 1267 the estate was granted as the County, Honour and Castle of Lancaster. In 1284 Edmund was given the Manor of Savoy by his mother, Eleanor of Provence, Edward III raised Lancashire into a county palatine in 1351, and the holder, Henry of Grosmont, Edmunds grandson, was created Duke of Lancaster. After his death a charter of 1362 conferred the dukedom on his son-in-law John of Gaunt, Earl of Lancaster, and the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten for ever. The first act of Henry IV was to declare that the Lancastrian inheritance be held separately from the possessions of the Crown. The Duchy thereafter passed to the monarch and in 1760 its separate identity preserved it from being surrendered with the Crown Estates in exchange for the civil list. It is primarily a landed inheritance belonging to the reigning sovereign, in 2011, the Duchy established a rebalancing asset plan and sold most of the Winmarleigh estates farms and donated a plot of land to the Winmarleigh Village Hall committee by June 2012. The duchy is the property of the monarch and has been since 1399. The chief officer is the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, the monarch derives the privy purse from the revenues of the Duchy
Duchy of Lancaster
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Standard of the Duchy of Lancaster
4.
Duchy of Cornwall
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The Duchy of Cornwall is one of two royal duchies in England, the other being the Duchy of Lancaster. If the monarch has no children, the rights and responsibilities of the duchy belong to The Crown. The current duke is Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales, the principal activity of the duchy is the management of its land totalling 135,000 acres or 550 km2. Nearly half of the holdings are in Devon, with large holdings in Cornwall, Herefordshire, Somerset. The duchy also has a financial investments portfolio, for the fiscal year ending 31 March 2013, the duchy was valued at £763 million, and annual profit was £19 million, a revenue surplus gain of 4. 1% from the previous year. The Duchy Council meets twice a year, the duchy also exercises certain legal rights and privileges across Cornwall, including some that elsewhere in England belong to the crown. The duke appoints a number of officials in the county and acts as the authority for the main harbour of the Isles of Scilly. The government considers the duchy to be a body and therefore exempt from paying corporation tax. Additional charters were issued later by Edward III, the duchy consisted of the title and honour, and the land holdings that supported it financially. The duchy estate, which was based on the holdings of the earls, did not comprise the whole of the county. The extent of the estate has varied as various holdings have been sold and acquired over the years, under the charter, the manors of the earldom passed to the duchy. The original 17 manors, all in Cornwall, are known as the antiqua maneria and those outside Cornwall given to the duchy at its creation are known as the forinseca maneria, with estates incorporated later becoming known as the annexata maneria. We have invested him with the said Principality, Duchy, and Earldom, with the death of Prince Arthur in 1502, the Princes Council became defunct. From 1547 to 1603, there was no male heir to hold the title of duke. The council was revived in 1611 to deal with a food crisis, on the death of King Charles I, the Crown lands came under the control of Parliament, this lasted until the restoration of King Charles II in 1660. In 1975, Charles established the Duke of Cornwall’s Benevolent Fund to benefit south west communities, in 1988, West Dorset District Council allocated land in the ducal estate, west of Dorchester, for housing development, which became known as Poundbury. The Duchy Originals company was set up in 1992 to use produce from farms on the ducal estate, Duchy Originals was licensed out to Waitrose in 2009 after losses in 2008. In 2006, Llwynywermod was purchased by the Duchy as a residence for the Duke in Wales, under the Land Registration Act 2002, the Duchy was required by October 2013 to have filed with the Land Registry mineral rights given to the Duchy in 1337
Duchy of Cornwall
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The largest rural portfolio office at Newton St Loe, near Bath. This is the office of the Eastern District, centralised finance and property services, and the Estate Surveyor.
5.
Governor General of Canada
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The Governor General of Canada is the federal viceregal representative of the Canadian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The commission is for a period of time—known as serving at Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the normal convention. Beginning in 1959, it has also been traditional to rotate between anglophone and francophone incumbents, once in office, the governor general maintains direct contact with the Queen, wherever she may be at the time. The office began in the 16th and 17th centuries with the Crown-appointed governors of the French colony of Canada followed by the British governors of Canada in the 18th and 19th centuries, subsequently, the office is, along with the Crown, the oldest continuous institution in Canada. Throughout this process of gradually increasing Canadian independence, the role of governor general took on additional responsibilities, finally, in 1947, King George VI issued letters patent allowing the viceroy to carry out almost all of the monarchs powers on his or her behalf. The current governor general is David Johnston, who has served since 1 October 2010, johnstons wife—who is thus the viceregal consort—is Sharon Johnston. The Government of Canada spells the title governor general without a hyphen, the Canadian media still often use the governor-general spelling. As governor is the noun in the title, it is pluralized, thus, governors general, moreover, both terms are capitalized when used in the formal title preceding an incumbents name. The position of general is mandated by both the Constitution Act,1867, and the letters patent issued in 1947 by King George VI. As such, on the recommendation of his or her Canadian prime minister and that individual is, from then until being sworn-in, referred to as the governor general-designate. Besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor general-designate, the governor general will then give a speech, outlining whichever cause or causes he or she will champion during his or her time as viceroy. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The prime minister may recommend to the Queen that the viceroy remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor general may also resign, and two have died in office, the sovereign has unrestricted freedom of choice. We leave that to Her Majesty in all confidence, however, between 1867 and 1931, governors general were appointed by the monarch on the advice of the British Cabinet. Thereafter, in accordance with the Statute of Westminster 1931, the appointment was made by the sovereign with the direction of his or her Canadian ministers only. Until 1952, all governors general were also members of the Peerage or sons of peers. These viceroys spent a limited time in Canada, but their travel schedules were so extensive that they could learn more about Canada in five years than many Canadians in a lifetime
Governor General of Canada
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Incumbent David Lloyd Johnston CC CMM COM CD FRSC(hon) FRCPSC(hon) since 1 October 2010
Governor General of Canada
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Vincent Massey (far left), the first Canadian-born person appointed to the viceregal post since Confederation.
Governor General of Canada
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Michaëlle Jean reciting the oaths of office as administered by Puisne Justice Michel Bastarache, 27 September 2005
Governor General of Canada
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Georges Vanier, Canada's first Francophone governor general
6.
Prince of Wales
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Prince of Wales was a title granted to princes born in Wales from the 12th century onwards, the term replaced the use of the word king. Since the 13th century, the title is granted to the apparent to the English or British monarch. The title is granted to the heir apparent as a personal honour or dignity. The title Earl of Chester is always given in conjunction with that of Prince of Wales, the Prince of Wales usually has other titles and honours. The wife of the Prince of Wales is entitled to the title Princess of Wales, Prince Charless first wife, Diana, used that title but his second wife, Camilla, uses only the title Duchess of Cornwall because the other title has become so popularly associated with Diana. The Prince of Wales is the heir apparent of the monarch of the United Kingdom, no formal public role or responsibility has been legislated by Parliament or otherwise delegated to him by law or custom, either as heir apparent or as Prince of Wales. He has also represented the Queen and the United Kingdom overseas at state, for most of the post-Roman period, Wales was divided into several smaller states. Before the Norman conquest of England, the most powerful Welsh ruler at any time was generally known as King of the Britons. In the 12th and 13th centuries, this evolved into Prince of Wales. In Latin, the new title was Princeps Walliae, and in Welsh it was Tywysog Cymru, the literal translation of Tywysog is leader. Only a handful of native princes had their claim to the overlordship of Wales recognised by the English Crown, the first known to have used such a title was Owain Gwynedd, adopting the title Prince of the Welsh around 1165 after earlier using rex Waliae. In 1240, the title was inherited by his son Dafydd ap Llywelyn. Instead he styled himself as Prince of Wales around 1244, the first Welsh prince to do so, in 1246, his nephew Llywelyn ap Gruffudd succeeded to the throne of Gwynedd, and used the style as early as 1258. In 1267, with the signing of the Treaty of Montgomery, three Welshmen, however, claimed the title of Prince of Wales after 1283. The first was Madog ap Llywelyn, a member of the house of Gwynedd and his revolt was suppressed, however, after the Battle of Maes Moydog in March 1295, and the prince was imprisoned in London. It is Owain Glyndŵr, however, whom many Welsh people regard as being the last native Prince, on 16 September 1400, he was proclaimed Prince of Wales by his supporters, and held parliaments at Harlech Castle and elsewhere during his revolt, which encompassed all of Wales. It was not until 1409 that his revolt in quest of Welsh independence was suppressed by Henry IV. However, the story may well be apocryphal, as it can only be traced to the 16th century, and, in the time of Edward I, the English aristocracy spoke Norman French, not English
Prince of Wales
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Incumbent HRH The Prince Charles since 26 July 1958
Prince of Wales
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Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales
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Edward of Caernarfon
Prince of Wales
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Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince
7.
Duke of Cornwall
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Duke of Cornwall is a title in the Peerage of England, traditionally held by the eldest son of the reigning British monarch, previously the English monarch. The Duchy of Cornwall was the first duchy created in England and was established by charter in 1337. The present duke is the Prince of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II and his wife, Camilla, is the current Duchess. According to legend, Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall under King Uther Pendragon, Uther killed Gorlois and took Igraine, the result of their union was the future King Arthur. Edward, the Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III, was made the first Duke of Cornwall in 1337, after Edward predeceased the King, the duchy was recreated for his son, the future Richard II. Under a charter of 1421, the passes to the sovereigns eldest son. Cornwall was the first dukedom conferred within the Kingdom of England, the dukedom of Cornwall can only be held by the oldest living son of the monarch who is also heir apparent. In the event of a Duke of Cornwalls death, the title merges in the Crown even if he left surviving descendants, the monarchs grandson, even if he is the heir apparent, does not succeed to the dukedom. Similarly, no female may ever be Duke of Cornwall, even if she is heir presumptive or heir apparent to the throne. However, if a Duke of Cornwall should die without descendants and has no sister, his next brother obtains the duchy. It is possible for an individual to be Prince of Wales, the title Prince of Wales is the traditional title of the heir apparent to the throne, granted at the discretion of the Sovereign, and is not restricted to the eldest son. For example, King George IIs heir apparent, the future George III, was Prince of Wales, James Francis Edward Stuart, son of James II, was born Duke of Cornwall in 1688. Although his father lost the throne, James Francis Edward was not deprived of his own honours, on a Jacobite perspective, on his fathers death in 1701 the duchy of Cornwall was merged in the Crown. On a Hanoverian perspective, it was as a result of his claiming his fathers lost thrones that James was attainted for treason on 2 March 1702, the current Duke of Cornwall is Charles, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Queen Elizabeth II, the reigning monarch. Charles was officially proclaimed Duke of Cornwall at Launceston Castle in 1973. As part of his feudal dues there was a pair of gloves, gilt spurs and greyhounds, a pound of pepper and cumin, a bow, one hundred silver shillings, wood for his fires. The Dukes second wife, Camilla, whom he married on 9 April 2005 at the Guildhall in Windsor, is the current Duchess of Cornwall and she is also Princess of Wales but does not use that title. Should there be no Duke of Cornwall at any time, the income of the Duchy goes to the Crown, the Duchy includes over 570 square kilometres of land, more than half of which lies in Devon
Duke of Cornwall
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HRH The Prince of Wales, the current Duke of Cornwall
8.
Earl of Chester
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The Earldom of Chester was one of the most powerful earldoms in medieval England, extending principally over the counties of Cheshire and Flintshire. Since 1301 the title has generally been granted to heirs-apparent to the English throne, the County of Cheshire was held by the powerful Earls of Chester from the late eleventh century, and they held land all over England, comprising the honour of Chester. By the late twelfth century the earls had established a position of power as quasi-princely rulers of Cheshire that led to the establishment of the County Palatine of Chester. Such was their power that the Magna Carta set down by King John did not apply to Cheshire, the earldom passed to the Crown by escheat in 1237 on the death of John the Scot, Earl of Huntingdon, seventh and last of the Earls. It was annexed to the Crown in 1246, by that time, the Earldom of Chester consisted of two counties, Cheshire and Flintshire. This continued until the time of King Henry VIII, since 1301, the Earldom of Chester has always been conferred on the Princes of Wales. Briefly promoted to a principality in 1398 by King Richard II, whereas the Sovereigns eldest son is born Duke of Cornwall, he must be made or created Earl of Chester. Prince Charles was created Earl of Chester on 26 July 1958, the independent palatinate jurisdiction of Chester survived until the time of King Henry VIII, when the earldom was brought more directly under the control of the Crown. The palatinate courts of Great Sessions and Exchequer survived until the reforms of 1830, the importance of the County Palatinate of Chester is shown by the survival of Chester Herald in the College of Arms for some six hundred years. The office, currently held by Timothy Hugh Stewart Duke, has anciently been nominally under the jurisdiction of Norroy King of Arms, total income was £41812 3/4 from Cheshire and £18160 from Flintshire. See Prince of Wales for further Earls of Chester, Earl of Chester was one of the GWR3031 Class locomotives that were built for and run on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915. The Victoria County History of Chester, university of London Institute of Historical Research
Earl of Chester
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Arms of the Earl of Chester: Azure, three garbs (sheafs of wheat) or
9.
Prince and Great Steward of Scotland
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Prince and Great Steward of Scotland are two of the titles of the heir apparent to the throne of the United Kingdom. Princess of Scotland is the wife of the apparent to the throne. The current holder is the wife of The Prince Charles. The title of Prince of Scotland originated in a time when Scotland was a separate from England. The title was held by the apparent to the Scottish throne, in addition to his being Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles. The title of Prince of Scotland originated from a charter granting the Principality of Scotland to the future James I of Scotland, during the reign of James III, permanency was enacted to the title. In modern times, the Prince remains in these lands, the Abolition of Feudal Tenure etc. Act 2000, however, abolished most remaining feudal duties and privileges attaching to the Principality, prior to the 2000 Act the Principality was entirely feued out to tenants and brought in a small income. All title deeds in Ayrshire and Renfrewshire required to be sealed with the Princes seal, revenue gained from feudal dealings were counted as income for the Duchy of Cornwall, a more substantial estate held by the heir to the throne. Since that date it has been enjoyed by the Sovereigns eldest son, the titles Prince and Great Steward of Scotland are normally conjoined in legislation. In the Scottish Parliament such consent is signified by a member of the Scottish Government, when the Sovereign had no son, there has been uncertainty as to who should bear and use the titles and enjoy the revenues of the Principality. The matter remains unresolved, but is unlikely to be of significance for some time
Prince and Great Steward of Scotland
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HRH The Prince Charles, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland
10.
Bicameralism
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A bicameral legislature is one in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers or houses. As of 2015, somewhat less than half of the national legislatures are bicameral. Often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods, which vary from country to country and this can often lead to the two chambers having very different compositions of members. However, in many Westminster system parliaments, the house to which the executive is responsible can overrule the other house, some legislatures lie in between these two positions, with one house only able to overrule the other under certain circumstances. For example, one house would represent the aristocracy, and the other would represent the commoners as was the case in the Kingdom of England. Others, such as France under the Ancien Régime had a legislature known as the Estates General, which consisted of separate chambers for the clergymen, the nobility. The Founding Fathers of the United States also favoured a bicameral legislature, the idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that, this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence, the Senate was created to be a stabilising force, elected not by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more sort of republican nobility—and a counter to what Madison saw as the fickleness. He noted further that the use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with system and with more wisdom. Madisons argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, the Senate was chosen by state legislators, and senators had to possess a significant amount of property in order to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In fact, it was not until the year 1913 that the 17th Amendment was passed, as part of the Great Compromise, they invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate would have states represented equally, and the House would have them represented by population. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British three-tier model, nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. An example of controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Canadian Senate or the election of the Senate of France. The relationship between the two chambers varies, in cases, they have equal power, while in others. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments, the latter tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems. In the United States both houses of the U. S and this is due to their original location in the two-story building that was to house them. In Canada, the country as a whole is divided into a number of Senate Divisions, each with a different number of Senators, Senators in Canada are not elected by the people but are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister
Bicameralism
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The bicameral legislature of the United States is housed in the Capitol, a building with two wings. The north wing (left) houses the Senate, while the south wing (right) houses the House of Representatives.
11.
Hansard
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Hansard is the traditional name of the transcripts of Parliamentary Debates in Britain and many Commonwealth countries. It is named after Thomas Curson Hansard, a London printer and publisher, though the history of the Hansard began in the British parliament, each of Britains colonies developed a separate and distinctive history. Before 1771, the British Parliament had long been a highly secretive body, the official record of the actions of the House was publicly available, but there was no record of the debates. The publication of remarks made in the House became a breach of Parliamentary privilege, as the populace became interested in parliamentary debates, more independent newspapers began publishing unofficial accounts of them. Several editors used the device of veiling parliamentary debates as debates of fictitious societies or bodies, the names under which parliamentary debates were published include Proceedings of the Lower Room of the Robin Hood Society and Debates of the Senate of Magna Lilliputia. The Senate of Magna Lilliputia was printed in Edward Caves The Gentlemans Magazine, the names of the speakers were carefully filleted, for example, Sir Robert Walpole was thinly disguised as Sr. R―t W―le. In 1771 Brass Crosby, who was Lord Mayor of the City of London, had brought him a printer by the name of John Miller who dared publish reports of Parliamentary proceedings. He released the man, but was ordered to appear before the House to explain his actions. Crosby was committed to the Tower of London, but when he was brought to trial, several judges refused to hear the case and after protests from the public, Crosby was released. Parliament ceased to punish the publishing of its debates as harshly, partly due to the campaigns of John Wilkes on behalf of free speech, there then began several attempts to publish reports of debates. Among the early successes, the Parliamentary Register published by John Almon and John Debrett began in 1775, cobbetts avocation for the freedom of the press was severely punished by the British Government. On June 5,1810 William Cobbett stood trial for libel for an article he wrote against the British Government which was published by Thomas Curson Hansard. Cobbett was found guilty, upon the fullest and most satisfactory evidence, the sentence was described by J. C Trewin as vindictive. Cobbetts Parliamentary Debates became Hansard Parliamentary Debates, abbreviated over time to the now familiar Hansard, from 1829 the name Hansard appeared on the title page of each issue. Neither Cobbett nor Hansard ever employed anyone to take notes of the debates. For this reason, early editions of Hansard are not to be relied upon as a guide to everything discussed in Parliament. The last attempt at a rival was The Times which published debates in the 1880s. In 1878 a subsidy was granted to the Hansard press and at that point reporters were employed, despite hiring contract reporters there were still widespread complaints about the accuracy of the debates
Hansard
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Hansard title page from 1832
Hansard
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Sample of Hansard from The House of Commons, 1895. Shows sample of several members speaking as described in the text.
Hansard
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Cover page of Hansard for the Province of Ontario, February 12, 1953
12.
Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice
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Erskine May, Parliamentary Practice is a parliamentary authority originally written by British constitutional theorist and Clerk of the House of Commons, Thomas Erskine May. Since its first publication in 1844, the book has frequently been updated with Erskine May editing nine editions of the book in his lifetime, updates have continued into the present day, the 24th edition was published on 30 June 2011. The work has been influential outside the United Kingdom, particularly in countries which use the Westminster system, book I, Constitution, Powers, and Privileges of Parliament. Chapter II, Power and Jurisdiction of Parliament collectively, rights and Power of each of its constituent parts. Chapter III, General view of the Privileges of Parliament, Power of commitment by both Houses for Breaches of Privilege, causes of commitment cannot be inquired into by Courts of Law, nor the prisoners admitted to bail. Acts construed as Breaches of Privilege, different punishments inflicted by the two Houses. Chapter IV, Privilege of Freedom of Speech confirmed by the ancient law of Parliament and by statute, its nature, chapter V, Freedom from Arrest or Molestation, its antiquity, limits, and mode of enforcement. Privilege of not being impleaded in civil actions, of not being liable to be summoned by subpoena or to serve on juries, commitment of Members by Courts of Justice. Privilege of witnesses and others in attendance on Parliament, chapter VI, Jurisdiction of Courts of Law in matters of Privilege. Book II, Practice and Proceedings in Parliament, election and Royal Approbation of the Speaker of the Commons. Queens Speech, and Addresses in answer, places of Peers and Members of the House of Commons. Attendance on the service of Parliament, office of Speaker in both Houses. Questions superseded by Adjournment, or by reading the Orders of the Day, chapter IX, Amendments to Questions, and Amendments to proposed Amendments. Chapter X, The same Question or Bill may not be offered in a Session. Chapter XI, Rules of Debate, Manner and time of speaking, Rules and orders to be observed by Members in speaking, mode of dividing in both Houses. Chapter XIII, Committees of the whole House, General rules of proceeding, Chairman, Motions and Debate, chapter XIV, Appointment, Constitution, Powers and Proceedings of Select Committees in both Houses. Chapter XV, Witnesses, Modes of Summons and Examination, Administration of Oaths, chapter XVI, Communications between the Lords and Commons, Messages and Conferences, Joint Committees, and Committees communicating with each other. Chapter XVII, Communications from the Crown to Parliament, Their forms and character, How acknowledged, Addresses to the Crown, Messages to Members of the Royal Family, chapter XVIII, Proceedings of Parliament in passing Public Bills, Their several stages in both Houses
Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice
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24th edition
Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice
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1st edition
13.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
Elizabeth II
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The Queen in March 2015
Elizabeth II
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Princess Elizabeth aged 3, April 1929
Elizabeth II
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Princess Elizabeth aged 7, painted by Philip de László, 1933
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth in Auxiliary Territorial Service uniform, April 1945
14.
Monarchy in Alberta
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By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, Canadas monarchy operates in Alberta as the core of the provinces Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. As such, the Crown within Albertas jurisdiction is referred to as the Crown in Right of Alberta, Her Majesty in Right of Alberta and it is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the provinces government. The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and this arrangement began with the granting of Royal Assent to the 1905 Alberta Act and continued an unbroken line of monarchical government extending back to the late 18th century. However, though Alberta has a government headed by the Queen, as a province. The viceroy resides in a home provided by the provincial Crown. Members of the family have owned property in a private capacity, for example, King Edward VIII owned Bedingfield Ranch, near Pekisko, High River. Monuments around Alberta mark some of those visits, while others honour a royal personage or event, at the various levels of education within Alberta there also exist a number of scholarships and academic awards either established by or named for members of the Royal Family. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, her image thus being used to signify government authority, a royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, without referring to any specific monarch. A request was made by Premier Ralph Klein for the Queen of Canada to give assent to a bill in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in May 2005. That assertion, however, was contested by Professor and Senior Director of Interdisciplinary Programs at the University of Alberta, symbols of Alberta Monarchy Ministry of Education. The Monarchy in Alberta, Teacher and Student Resource, culture and Community Spirit > Heritage and Museums > Provincial Archives of Alberta > Reference Services > Royal Visits - Textual Records. Culture and Community Spirit > Heritage and Museums > Provincial Archives of Alberta > Reference Services > Royal Visits photos, culture and Community Spirit > Heritage and Museums > Provincial Archives of Alberta > Reference Services > Royal Visits - Film and Video Sources
Monarchy in Alberta
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Queen in Right of Alberta
Monarchy in Alberta
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Coat of arms of Alberta
Monarchy in Alberta
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The Queen of Canada (centre) with her vice-regal representative, the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta, Norman Kwong (left), and her Alberta premier, Ralph Klein (right), at the official celebrations of Alberta 's centenary, May 23, 2005
Monarchy in Alberta
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Effigy of Queen Victoria on the Second Boer War monument in Victoria Park, Calgary
15.
Monarchy in Ontario
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By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, Canadas monarchy operates in Ontario as the core of the provinces Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. It is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, the Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. This arrangement began with the 1867 British North America Act, however, though Ontario has its own government, of which the Lieutenant Governor, as the Queens representative, Ontario is not itself a kingdom. The Lieutenant Governor resides in his or her own private residence, the Queen and her relations reside at a hotel when in Ontario. Monuments around Ontario mark some of those visits, while others honour a royal personage or event, the main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, her image thus being used to signify government authority. A royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, without referring to any specific monarch. Further, though the monarch does not form a part of the constitutions of Ontarios honours, they do stem from the Crown as the fount of honour, list of royal visits to Hamilton, Ontario Symbols of Ontario Monarchy Archives of Ontario. A Celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II
Monarchy in Ontario
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Queen in Right of Ontario
Monarchy in Ontario
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Coat of arms of Ontario
Monarchy in Ontario
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Queen Elizabeth II in Toronto, 2010
Monarchy in Ontario
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The Great Seal of Ontario, held by the lieutenant governor and entrusted by him or her to the Attorney General of Ontario
16.
Monarchy in New Brunswick
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By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, Canadas monarchy operates in New Brunswick as the core of the provinces Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. As such, the Crown within New Brunswicks jurisdiction is referred to as the Crown in Right of New Brunswick, Her Majesty in Right of New Brunswick and it is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the provinces government. The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and this arrangement began with the 1867 British North America Act, and continued an unbroken line of monarchical government extending back to the early 16th century. However, though New Brunswick has a government headed by the Queen, as a province. Monuments around New Brunswick mark some of those visits, while others honour a royal personage or event, examples include the Royal New Brunswick Rifle Association, which received its royal prefix from Queen Elizabeth II in 1983. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, her image thus being used to signify government authority, a royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, without referring to any specific monarch. Queen Elizabeth II journeyed to New Brunswick to celebrate the bicentennial in 1984. While at the Legislative Building, the Queen issued a Royal Warrant augmenting the provinces coat of arms with its present crest, supporters, compartment, motto
Monarchy in New Brunswick
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Queen in Right of New Brunswick
Monarchy in New Brunswick
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Coat of arms of New Brunswick
Monarchy in New Brunswick
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King George III, in whose honour New Brunswick is named, and who founded Saint John via royal charter
Monarchy in New Brunswick
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Lake George, named for King George III
17.
Monarchy in Nova Scotia
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By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, the Canadian monarchy operates in Nova Scotia as the core of the provinces Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. As such, the Crown within Nova Scotias jurisdiction is referred to as the Crown in Right of Nova Scotia, Her Majesty in Right of Nova Scotia and it is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the provinces government. The Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and this arrangement began with the 1867 British North America Act and continued an unbroken line of monarchical government extending back to the late 16th century. However, though Nova Scotia has a government headed by the Queen, as a province. Monuments around Nova Scotia mark some of those visits, while others honour a royal personage or event, examples include the Royal Nova Scotia International Tattoo, which is under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth II and received its royal prefix from her in 2006. The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, her image thus being used to signify government authority, a royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, without referring to any specific monarch. Only slightly later, King James VI and I laid claim to what is today Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, James son, Charles I, later issued the Charter of New Scotland, which created the Baronets of Nova Scotia, many of which continue to exist today. Over the course of the 17th century, the French Crown lost via war and treaties its Maritimes territories to the British sovereign. After he departed in 1800, he remained remembered for his deeds, for the bicentennial in 1983 of the arrival of the first Empire Loyalists in Nova Scotia, Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, and his wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, attended the celebrations. Symbols of Nova Scotia Monarchy Royal Visits to Nova Scotia
Monarchy in Nova Scotia
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Queen in Right of Nova Scotia
Monarchy in Nova Scotia
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Coat of arms of Nova Scotia
Monarchy in Nova Scotia
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A Nova Scotia stamp issued between 1851 and 1857 bears the royal crown at its centre
Monarchy in Nova Scotia
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Port Royal, named in honour of King Henry IV
18.
Monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador
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By the arrangements of the Canadian federation, the Canadian monarchy operates in Newfoundland and Labrador as the core of the provinces Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. It is thus the foundation of the executive, legislative, the Crown today primarily functions as a guarantor of continuous and stable governance and a nonpartisan safeguard against the abuse of power. This arrangement began with the granting in 1949 of Royal Assent to the Newfoundland Act, however, though Newfoundland and Labrador has a separate government headed by the Queen, as a province, Newfoundland and Labrador is not itself a kingdom. Government House in St. Monuments around Newfoundland and Labrador mark some of those visits, the main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign herself, her image thus being used to signify government authority. A royal cypher or crown may also illustrate the monarchy as the locus of authority, by commission under the Royal Prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the island of Newfoundland on 5 August 1583. By the mid-1660s, however, the French Crown had also laid claim to half of the same area. Following two referendums in 1948, the island joined Canadian Confederation the next year, making it the province to do so by authority of the Canadian monarch. Princess Mary, Princess Royal, in 1964 marked the 50th anniversary of the departure of the first contingent of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment from St. Johns to the battlefields of World War I, symbols of Newfoundland and Labrador Monarchy
Monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador
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Queen in Right of Newfoundland and Labrador
Monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador
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Coat of arms of Newfoundland and Labrador
19.
List of Canadian monarchs
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Listed here are the monarchs who reigned over the French and British colonies of Canada, followed by the British Dominion of Canada, and finally the present-day sovereign state of Canada. However, some sources put this date at 1534 when the word Canada was first used to refer to the French colony of Canada. Monarchical governance subsequently evolved under a succession of French, British. Since the first claim by Henry VII, there have been 33 sovereigns of Canada, since then, the Canadian Crown has been legally distinct from those of the other Commonwealth realms, with its own separate and distinct monarch. In 1931 the Canadian Crown emerged as an independent entity from that of the British Crown due to the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Canadian monarchs consort—his or her spouse—has no constitutional status or power, but is a member of the Canadian Royal Family
List of Canadian monarchs
List of Canadian monarchs
List of Canadian monarchs
List of Canadian monarchs
20.
Edward VII
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Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910. The eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, before his accession to the throne, he served as heir apparent and held the title of Prince of Wales for longer than any of his predecessors. During the long reign of his mother, he was excluded from political power. He travelled throughout Britain performing ceremonial duties, and represented Britain on visits abroad. His tours of North America in 1860 and the Indian subcontinent in 1875 were popular successes, as king, Edward played a role in the modernisation of the British Home Fleet and the reorganisation of the British Army after the Second Boer War. He reinstituted traditional ceremonies as public displays and broadened the range of people with whom royalty socialised and he died in 1910 in the midst of a constitutional crisis that was resolved the following year by the Parliament Act 1911, which restricted the power of the unelected House of Lords. Edward was born at 10,48 in the morning on 9 November 1841 in Buckingham Palace and he was the eldest son and second child of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was christened Albert Edward at St Georges Chapel, Windsor Castle and he was named Albert after his father and Edward after his maternal grandfather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn. He was known as Bertie to the family throughout his life. As the eldest son of the British sovereign, he was automatically Duke of Cornwall, as a son of Prince Albert, he also held the titles of Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester on 8 December 1841, Earl of Dublin on 17 January 1850, a Knight of the Garter on 9 November 1858, and a Knight of the Thistle on 24 May 1867. In 1863, he renounced his rights to the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha in favour of his younger brother. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were determined that their eldest son should have an education that would prepare him to be a constitutional monarch. At age seven, Edward embarked on an educational programme devised by Prince Albert. Unlike his elder sister Victoria, Edward did not excel in his studies and he tried to meet the expectations of his parents, but to no avail. Although Edward was not a diligent student—his true talents were those of charm, sociability and tact—Benjamin Disraeli described him as informed, intelligent, after the completion of his secondary-level studies, his tutor was replaced by a personal governor, Robert Bruce. After an educational trip to Rome, undertaken in the first few months of 1859, he spent the summer of that year studying at the University of Edinburgh under, among others, in October, he matriculated as an undergraduate at Christ Church, Oxford. Now released from the strictures imposed by his parents, he enjoyed studying for the first time
Edward VII
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Coronation portrait by Sir Luke Fildes
Edward VII
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Portrait of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, by Winterhalter, 1846
Edward VII
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Edward at Niagara Falls, 1860
Edward VII
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Edward and Alexandra on their wedding day, 1863
21.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
George V
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Coronation portrait by Sir Luke Fildes, 1911
George V
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George as a young boy, 1870
George V
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George, 1893
George V
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York Cottage at Sandringham House: George and his wife lived here from 1893 to 1926.
22.
Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
Viceroy
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Francisco de Almeida, first viceroy of Portuguese India
Viceroy
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Royal, noble and chivalric ranks
Viceroy
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Louis Mountbatten, last viceroy of India
23.
Lieutenant governor (Canada)
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Similar positions in Canadas three territories are termed Commissioners and are representatives of the federal government, however, not the monarch directly. In the Canadian context, there are numerous, and not mutually agreeable, various acts in the Canadian constitution and numerous provincial websites typically indicate Lieutenant Governor of, likely due to the primacy of those positions in their respective jurisdictions. However, The Canadian Style indicates Lieutenant-Governor, though lieutenant-governors when pluralized, the Guide to Canadian English Usage equivocates somewhat, indicating upper case only when used in and associated with a specific provincial lieutenant governor or name, not generally, and varied use. In French, the term is always hyphenated, also, as governor is the main noun in the title, it is the word that is pluralized, thus, it is lieutenant governors, rather than lieutenants governor. There have been two Black and several Aboriginal lieutenant governors, norman Kwong, Lieutenant Governor of Alberta from 2005 to 2010, was Chinese-Canadian and David Lam, the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia from 1988 to 1995, was Hong Kong-Canadian. Former Lieutenant Governor of Quebec Lise Thibault used a wheelchair, while David Onley, besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a lieutenant governor-designate. The lieutenant governor then receives the insignia of the order or orders. A lieutenant governor may also resign and some have died in office, the office is the core of authority in a province. While they continue to be appointed by the general, the lieutenant governors are considered to be direct representatives of the sovereign. The Governor-in-Council of both Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are also tasked to appoint in the Queens name the judges of the courts of probate. The lieutenant governor alone is also mandated to summon the legislature. Beyond that, the viceroy carries out the other conventional parliamentary duties in the sovereigns stead, including reading the Speech From the Throne, if the governor general withholds the Queens assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. R. Altogether, lieutenant governors had also withheld Royal Assent to bills 28 times, the last example of the former was, however, in 1945 and the latter in 1961. The provincial viceroys have been said to be, outside of Quebec, a focus of community ideals and he or she will host members of the Canadian Royal Family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and is also tasked with fostering national unity and pride. In the exercise of duties, the lieutenant governors may sometimes receive advice from the Department of Canadian Heritage Ceremonial. During a provincial election, a lieutenant governor will curtail these public duties, further, the lieutenant governors present the Vice-Regal and Commissioners Commendation to individuals who offer their service—paid or volunteer—to the viceregal offices. As the personal representative of the monarch, a lieutenant governor follows only the sovereign in the order of precedence. Per the orders constitutions, the lieutenant governors, except for that of Quebec and they also upon installation automatically become a Knight or Dame of Justice and a Vice-Prior in Canada of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem
Lieutenant governor (Canada)
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A meeting of Canada's lieutenant governors in September 1925; standing, from left to right: Henry William Newlands, Walter Cameron Nichol, Frank Richard Heartz, James Albert Manning Aikins; seated, left to right: James Robson Douglas, Narcisse Pérodeau, Henry Cockshutt, and William Frederick Todd
Lieutenant governor (Canada)
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George Stanley (left), designer of the Canadian national flag and Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick from 1981 to 1987, with his wife, Ruth
Lieutenant governor (Canada)
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Ray Lawson, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario from 1946 to 1952, wearing second-class court uniform
Lieutenant governor (Canada)
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Albert Edward Matthews, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, whom Mitchell Hepburn avoided completely throughout the latter's service as premier
24.
Constitution of Canada
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The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law in Canada, the countrys constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It is one of the oldest working constitutions in the world, the constitution outlines Canadas system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens and those in Canada. Canadian constitutional law relates to the interpretation and application of the constitution, the Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes a number of pre-confederation acts and unwritten components as well. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details, the first semblance of a constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The act renamed the portion of the former French province of New France as Province of Quebec. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War of Independence and sent a wave of British loyalist refugees northward to Quebec, the winter of 1837–38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as One dominion under the name of Canada, Canada West, Canada East, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1870, British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. The Yukon Territory was created by Parliament in 1898, followed by Alberta, the Dominion of Newfoundland, Britains oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada as a province in 1949. An Imperial Conference in 1926 that included the leaders of all Dominions and representatives from India, Newfoundland never ratified the statute, so it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed in the mid-1930s. Canada did ratify the statute, but had requested an exception because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on a formula for the Canadian constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved, in the interim, the British parliament periodically passed enabling acts with respect to amendments to Canadas constitution, this was never anything but a rubber stamp. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Queen Elizabeth II proclaimed both acts as law on 17 April 1982, Constitution Act,1982, included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the charter, there were various statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, the charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law, the act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions and made amendment of the constitution significantly more difficult. Since the act, amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the portion of the Canadian constitution. This was an Act of the British parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867 and it outlined Canadas system of government, which combines Britains Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty
Constitution of Canada
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A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the British North America Act, 1867
25.
Queen's Bench
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The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall
Queen's Bench
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Westminster Hall, meeting place of the Court of King's Bench (England) from 1215 until the King's Bench was abolished in England in 1875
Queen's Bench
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Illuminated initial membrane, with portrait of Elizabeth I, Court of King's Bench: Coram Rege Roll (Easter Term, 1584)
26.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
Royal charter
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King's College, now the University of Toronto, was founded with the issuance of this royal charter
Royal charter
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The Hudson's Bay Company building in Montreal
Royal charter
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The emblem of the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong
27.
Crown corporations of Canada
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Canadian Crown corporations are enterprises owned by the Sovereign of Canada. Crown corporations have a long standing presence in the country and have been instrumental in the formation of the state. They can provide services required by the public that otherwise would not be viable as a private enterprise. Some Crown corporations are expected to be profitable organisations, while others are non-commercial, further, in the federal sphere, certain Crown corporations can be an agents or non-agent of the Queen in Right of Canada. One with agent status is entitled to the same prerogatives, privileges. The Crown is thus responsible for the actions of these organisations. Prior to the formation of Crown corporations as presently understood, much of what later became Canada was settled and governed by a type of entity called a chartered company. These companies were established by a charter by the Scottish, English, or French crown. They fulfilled the roles of promoting government policy abroad and making a return for shareholders. The first colonies on the island of Newfoundland were founded in this manner, Canadas most famous, and influential chartered company, was the Hudsons Bay Company, founded on May 2,1670, by royal charter of King Charles II. The HBC thus often being the point of first contact between the government and First Nations. By the late 19th century, however, the HBC lost its monopoly over Ruperts Land, the first major Canadian experience with directly state-owned enterprises came during the early growth of the railways. When four British colonies joined to create the Canadian federation in 1867, as well, the construction of the Intercolonial Railway between them was one of the terms of the new constitution. The first section of this entirely government-owned railway was completed in 1872, western Canadas early railways were all run by privately owned companies backed by government subsidies and loans. By the early century, however, many of these had become bankrupt. Provincial Crown corporations also re-emerged in the twentieth century, most notably in the selling of alcohol. Virtually all the provinces used this system at one point, the largest of these government liquor businesses, the Liquor Control Board of Ontario, was by 2008 one of the worlds largest alcohol retailers. Resource and utility companies also emerged at this time, notably Ontario Hydro in 1906, Alberta Government Telephones in 1906, provincial governments also re-entered the railway business as in Northern Alberta Railways in 1925 and what later became BC Rail in 1918
Crown corporations of Canada
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The Hudson's Bay Company coat of arms.
28.
History of monarchy in Canada
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The history of monarchy in Canada stretches from pre-colonial times through to the present day. Through both these lineages, the present Canadian monarchy can trace back to the Anglo-Saxon period and ultimately to the kings of the Angles. Kings and queens reigning over Canada have included the monarchs of France, those of the United Kingdom, throughout the 18th century, via war and treaties, the Canadian colonies of France were ceded to King George III. The colonies were confederated by Queen Victoria in 1867 to form the Dominion of Canada, Canada later became a fully independent country through the Constitution Act of 1982 proclaimed by Elizabeth II, the Queen of Canada. The French monarch also moved quickly and it was in 1602 that Aymar de Chaste was appointed as Viceroy of Canada to represent King Henry IV, the Acadians refused, and were subsequently deported from the area in what became known as the Great Upheaval. This was regarded by American colonists as one of the Intolerable Acts that together led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. This conflict led some 46,000 people loyal to the Crown—dubbed United Empire Loyalists—to flee north from the United States, continuing today, Ontario residents descended from these original refugees retain the post-nominals UE, standing for United Empire. This makes me much doubt their remaining long dependent, Prince William arrived in Canada in July 1786, when he stated of the country, and more specifically, St. Johns, truly deplorable. A most dreadful, inhospitable and barren country, though, he changed his opinion after meeting the local women. He also became, in 1787, the first member of the Royal Family to visit Quebec, the Prince lived at Quebec City, where he oversaw the establishment of the Holy Trinity Anglican Cathedral, a project of personal interest to his father, the King. In 1792, when the first elections for the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada took place, Prince Edward was said to have climbed up to where he could be heard and addressed the crowd, stating, Part then in peace. I urge you to unanimity and accord, let me hear no more of the odious distinctions of English and French. You are all His Britannic Majestys beloved Canadian subjects and it was reportedly the first time the word Canadian, which had previously been reserved only for Francophones, was used in a manner that included all colonialists. Almost twenty years later, Prince Edwards only legitimate daughter, Victoria, was born on 24 May 1819, at Kensington Palace. However, Edward died shortly thereafter, leaving Victoria as heir to the throne until, upon the death of William IV, at the 1864 Charlottetown Conference, the deligates agreed unanimously that the new federation should be a constitutional monarchy. By the mid-1860s, neither the nor the location of the capital of the hypothetical new union had been settled. The proposal, however, caused worries in the Foreign and Colonial Office in London that such a title would provoke the republican United States, the new constitution vested in the Queen responsibility for peace, order, and good government, as DArcy McGee had desired. In practice, though, the Second Reform Act,1867, in the same year, Ruperts Land was ceded to the Crown in Right of Canada from the Hudsons Bay Company, pulling it into the jurisdiction of the Northwest Territories
History of monarchy in Canada
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Painting of the Four Mohawk Kings, done during their visit with Queen Anne in 1710
History of monarchy in Canada
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Louis XV in 1748; the last King of France to rule in what is now Canada
History of monarchy in Canada
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1834 Edward Scriven engraving of Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn
History of monarchy in Canada
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Prince Edward (later King Edward VII) at the house of Sir John Rose on Sherbourne St., in Toronto, 1860
29.
Debate on the monarchy in Canada
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Debate between monarchists and republicans in Canada has been taking place since before the countrys confederation in 1867, though it has rarely been of significance since the rebellions of 1837. Open support for republicanism only came from the Patriotes in the early 19th century, the Red River Métis in 1869, in 2005 it was estimated that only 0. 6% of the population was actively engaged in any debate about a republic. The Monarchist League of Canadas chief executive officer, Robert Finch, stated the greatest threat to the monarchy is not republicanism, in the early 19th century, reform-minded groups began to emerge in the British colonies in Canada. From them rose William Lyon Mackenzie, who, along with Louis-Joseph Papineau, was the first prominent proponent of a republican Canada. Still, in the lead-up to Confederation in 1867, there did take place debate over whether the new polity should adopt a republican or monarchical form of government and it makes him feel a little superior. Davidson was lambasted in the Canadian press and by many indignant Canadians for her comment, debates over the monarchy and its place in Canada took place through the 1960s and 1970s, following the rise of Quebec nationalism. Republican options were discussed following the sovereigntist Parti Québécois election to power in Quebec, however, the non-Quebecer attendees at the 1968 constitutional conference agreed that the monarchy had worked well and was not a matter for discussion. Decades later, David Smith stated that the government at the time had misperceived the complexity of the Crown failed. It was also theorized that Canadians had a sense of distrust for politicians, more pressing issues to deal with. Political scholar David Smith expressed his thoughts on how the Canadian monarchy had benefited from this dearth of discussion, im not saying that the monarchy must be abolished, but it will take some thought, especially on its usefulness and relevance. Two years later, Andrew Coyne called for importing not just a King of Canada, polls on the Canadian monarchy have been regularly conducted, since the 1990s, typically coinciding with a royal tour or other major royal event. In 2008, Peter Boyce wrote that successive polls since the 1990s showed an increasing disaffection with the monarchy, polls on the institution have been accused of using inconsistent and sometimes ambiguous wording. Monarchists assert the use of the inaccurate word British in a question on the Canadian monarchy skews the results. It has also noted, and confirmed by polls, that Canadians are not well educated about the monarchy. In 2002, the majority polled thought the prime minister was head of state, both republicans and monarchists in Canada have noted this fact in relation to polls on the monarchy. This statement was reflected in the four opinion polls conducted in 1970, the Canadian Institute of Public Opinion asked nationally, Do you think Canada should continue to pay allegiance to The Queen, or do you think we should become a republic with an elected president. To this, 50% opted for retention of the status quo, 33% favoured a republic, older persons were the strongest advocates for the monarchy than any other age group, although those in their 20s also gave their preference for the Crown. A1993 poll by Angus Reid Group asked thinking about the monarchys role here in Canada, all things considered, to which 45. 5% of respondents favoured the answer preserve connection and 54. 5% favoured abolish connection
Debate on the monarchy in Canada
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William Lyon Mackenzie, the first prominent proponent of a republican Canada
Debate on the monarchy in Canada
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Former deputy prime minister and minister of the Crown, John Manley
30.
Monarchy of Australia
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The monarchy of Australia is a form of government in which a hereditary king or queen serves as the nations sovereign. The present monarch is Elizabeth II, styled Queen of Australia and she is represented in Australia by the governor-general, in accordance with the Australian constitution and letters patent from the Queen. In each of the states, the monarch is represented by a governor, the Australian monarch, besides reigning in Australia, separately serves as monarch for each of 15 other Commonwealth nations known as realms. This developed from the colonial relationship between these countries and the United Kingdom, but they are now independent of each other and are legally distinct. Likewise, on all matters relating to any Australian state, the monarch is advised by the ministers of the Crown of that state, the British government is thus considered a foreign power in regard to Australias domestic and foreign affairs. The sovereigns Australian title is currently Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of Australia and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Typically, the monarch is styled King or Queen of Australia and is addressed as such when in Australia or performing duties on behalf of Australia abroad, prior to 1953, the title had simply been the same as that in the United Kingdom. Australia, however, wished to have the United Kingdom mentioned as well, thus, the resolution was a title that included the United Kingdom but, for the first time, also separately mentioned Australia and the other Commonwealth realms. The passage of a new Royal Style and Titles Act by the Parliament of Australia put these recommendations into law, Queen Elizabeth II signed her assent at Government House, Canberra, on 19 October 1973. Australia does not pay any money to the Queen, either for personal income or to support the royal residences outside Australia, only when the Queen is in Australia does the Australian government support her in the performance of her duties. This rule applies equally to members of the Royal Family. Succession is according to British laws that have incorporated into Australian law. By adhering to the Statute of Westminster in 1942, Australia agreed to change its rules of only in agreement with the UK. Parallel proclamations are made by the governors in each state, regardless of any proclamations, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. The legal personality of a component of the Australian state is expressed by reference to the sovereign. In criminal prosecutions, the state as a party is named as The Queen—for instance. However, the prosecutors themselves are referred to as representing the Crown, more commonly and conveniently, however, the entity is referred to directly—for example, as The Commonwealth or The State of New South Wales or simply New South Wales
Monarchy of Australia
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Queen of Australia
Monarchy of Australia
Monarchy of Australia
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Postage stamp with portrait of the Queen, 1953
Monarchy of Australia
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Charles, Prince of Wales, is the heir apparent to succeed the Queen.
31.
Governor-General of Australia
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The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia is the representative in Australia of the Australian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Governor-General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia, when travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia, and of the Queen of Australia, so is treated as a head of state. The Governor-General is supported by a staff headed by the Official Secretary to the Governor-General, a Governor-General is not appointed for a specific term, but is generally expected to serve for five years subject to a possible short extension. Since 28 March 2014, the Governor-General has been General Sir Peter Cosgrove, from Federation in 1901 until 1965,11 out of the 15 Governors-General were British aristocrats, they included four barons, three viscounts, three earls, and one prince. Since then, all but one of the Governors-General have been Australian-born, as of 2017, only one Governor-General, Dame Quentin Bryce, was a woman. The selection of a Governor-General is a responsibility for the Prime Minister of Australia, the candidate is approached privately to confirm whether they are willing to accept the appointment. The prime minister advises the monarch to appoint his nominee. This has been the procedure since November 1930, when James Scullins proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government, Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime ministers direct advice. Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections, despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullins recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood. However, Scullin stood firm, and, on 29 November, the King agreed to Isaacss appointment and this right to not only advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers. This, among other things, led to the Statute of Westminster 1931, having agreed to the appointment, the monarch then permits it to be publicly announced in advance, usually several months before the end of the current Governor-Generals term. During these months, the person is referred to as the Governor-General-designate, the actual appointment is made by the monarch. Governors-General have during their tenure the style His/Her Excellency the Honourable, since May 2013, the style used by a former Governor-General is the Honourable, it was at the same time retrospectively granted for life to all previous holders of the office. From the creation of the Order of Australia in 1975, the Governor-General was, ex officio, Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order, and therefore became entitled to the post-nominal AC. In 1986 the Letters Patent were amended again, and Governors-General appointed from that time were again, ex officio, until 1989, all Governors-General were members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus held the additional style the Right Honourable for life. The same individuals were also usually either peers, knights, or both, in 1989, Bill Hayden, a republican, declined appointment to the British Privy Council and any imperial honours. Dame Quentin Bryce was the first Governor-General to have had no title or pre-nominal style. Until 2015, the honour continued after the retirement from office of the Governor-General, formerly, the Governor-General automatically became a knight or dame upon being sworn in
Governor-General of Australia
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The letters patent issued by Queen Victoria in 1900 creating the office of governor-general
Governor-General of Australia
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Flag of the Governor-General of Australia
Governor-General of Australia
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Governor-general's Holden WM Caprice with St. Edward's Crown on the number plate
Governor-General of Australia
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The Earl of Hopetoun, the first governor-general, 1901–1903
32.
Australian House of Representatives
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The Australian House of Representatives is one of the two Houses of the Parliament of Australia. It is referred to as the house, with the Senate being referred to as the upper house. The House is almost always dissolved earlier, usually alone but sometimes in a double dissolution of both Houses, a member of the House may be referred to as a Member of Parliament, while a member of the Senate is usually referred to as a Senator. The government of the day and by extension the Prime Minister must achieve, the House of Representatives currently consists of 150 members, elected by and representing single member districts, known as electoral divisions. The number of members is not fixed, but can vary with boundary changes resulting from electoral redistributions, the most recent overall increase in the size of the House, which came into effect at the 1984 election, increased the number of members from 125 to 148. It reduced to 147 at the 1993 election, returned to 148 at the 1996 election, each division elects one member using full-preference Instant-runoff voting. This was put in place after the 1918 Swan by-election, which Labor unexpectedly won with the largest primary vote, the Nationalist government of the time changed the lower house voting system from first-past-the-post to full-preference preferential voting, effective from the 1919 general election. This system has remained in place since, allowing the Coalition parties to safely contest the same seats, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act of 1900 established the House of Representatives as part of the new system of dominion government in newly federated Australia. The House is presided over by the Speaker, Members of the House are elected from single member electorates. One vote one value legislation requires all electorates to have approximately the number of voters with a maximum 10% variation. However, the quota for the number of voters in an electorate is determined by the number of voters in the state in which that electorate is found. Meanwhile, all the states except Tasmania have electorates approximately within the same 10% tolerance, voting is by the preferential system, also known as instant-runoff voting. A full allocation of preferences is required for a vote to be considered formal and this allows for a calculation of the two-party-preferred vote. Under Section 24 of the Constitution, each state is entitled to members based on a quota determined from the latest statistics of the Commonwealth. These statistics arise from the census conducted under the auspices of section 51, the parliamentary entitlement of a state or territory is established by the Electoral Commissioner dividing the number of the people of the Commonwealth by twice the number of Senators. This is known as the Nexus Provision, the reasons for this are twofold, to maintain a constant influence for the smaller states and to maintain a constant balance of the two Houses in case of a joint sitting after a double dissolution. The population of state and territory is then divided by this quota to determine the number of members to which each state. Under the Australian Constitution all original states are guaranteed at least five members, the Federal Parliament itself has decided that the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory should have at least one member each
Australian House of Representatives
Australian House of Representatives
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Australian House of Representatives
Australian House of Representatives
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House of Representatives' entrance
Australian House of Representatives
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Inside the House of Representatives
33.
Party whip (Australia)
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Unlike in the United Kingdom, Australian whips do not hold official office, but they are recognised for parliamentary purposes. In practice, Australian whips play a role than their counterparts in the United Kingdom. The role of the whip becomes more critical the lower the majority the government has in the house of Parliament. Liberal Party whips are appointed by the leader of the party, for Labor and the Liberals, the chief whip is assisted by two deputy whips. Similar arrangements exist in the six state and the two self-governing territory parliaments, Whips are essential to the day-to-day running of the house. They assist the party business managers arrange the order of business on the floor and they also draw up lists of speakers in debates, which assist the occupant of the chair in deciding whom to call on. The whips play the role in managing business in the parallel debating chamber. The Government Chief Whip has the power as ministers and parliamentary secretaries to move business motions. This right was extended with the creation of the chamber to facilitate movement of business between it and the floor of the House of Representatives. The right can also be exercised by another whip acting on the Chief Whips behalf, Whips also play a central role in voting. During each vote, whips ensure that their party members are present. Acting as tellers, the whips also count the votes, in a typical vote in the House of Representatives, where the Government and Opposition are on opposite sides, each will provide two tellers. One Government whip and one Opposition whip will count the votes in favour of the motion, in the Senate, each side provides one whip. Whips have been a part of the Federal Parliament since its beginning with much the function as today. Early in its first session in 1901, each of the three parliamentary parties elected one whip in the House of Representatives, Labor and the Free Trade Party each appointed a whip in the Senate as well. Those appointments survived the fall from government and merger with National Labor to form the Nationalist Party. The practice continued until 1923, when the Nationalists and Country Party formed a coalition, unlike later practice, the senior whip was the one who had served longer as whip. By the 1950s, the Country Party whip was always junior, when the UAP and Country Party formed a new coalition following the 1931 election, they resumed the practice of each party appointing one of two Government whips
Party whip (Australia)
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Components
34.
Clerk of the Australian House of Representatives
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The Clerk of the House of Representatives of the Parliament of Australia is responsible for managing the Parliamentary Department of the House of Representatives. The Clerk is an administrative officer under the Parliamentary Service Act 1999. The term of the Clerk of the House of Representatives is now limited by law to 10 years, the Department also undertakes activities to promote the work of the House in the community and is responsible for the conduct of the Parliaments international and regional relations. As at 30 June 2014, the Department had a staff of 154, the Clerk of the Australian House of Representatives conducts the election for Speaker
Clerk of the Australian House of Representatives
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Components
35.
Prime Minister of Australia
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The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government of Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet, the office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition. Despite this, in practice it is the most powerful position in Australia. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor-General of Australia, almost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives. However, there is no requirement that the prime minister sit in the House of Representatives. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed minister was John Gorton. Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015, the Prime Minister and Treasurer are traditionally members of the House, but the Constitution does not have such a requirement. Before being sworn in as a Minister of the Crown, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable for life, the senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia. The Prime Minister is, like ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor-General. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to hand in the commission, in the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, the Governor-General can terminate the commission. Despite the importance of the office of minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply Prime Minister, except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry, Page was the leader of the smaller party in the governing coalition, the Country Party. He held the office for three weeks until the UAP elected a new leader, Robert Menzies, in August 1941 Menzies resigned as prime minister. In July 1945 John Curtin died suddenly and his deputy, Frank Forde, was sworn in the next day as prime minister, although the Labor Party had not had an opportunity to meet and elect a new leader. Forde served for eight days until Ben Chifley was elected leader, Chifley was then sworn in, replacing Forde, who became Australias shortest-serving prime minister. Harold Holt disappeared while swimming on 17 December 1967 and was declared presumed dead on 19 December, the governor-general, Lord Casey, commissioned the Leader of the Country Party, John McEwen, to form a government until the Liberal Party elected a new leader
Prime Minister of Australia
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Incumbent Malcolm Turnbull since 15 September 2015
Prime Minister of Australia
Prime Minister of Australia
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The first Prime Minister of Australia, Edmund Barton (sitting second from left), with his Cabinet, 1901.
Prime Minister of Australia
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Prime Ministers Curtin, Fadden, Hughes, Menzies and Governor-General The Duke of Gloucester 2nd from left, in 1945.
36.
List of Australian Senate appointments
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This is a list of appointments to the Australian Senate, which is the upper house of the Parliament of Australia, filling casual vacancies, from the Senates creation in 1901 until the present day. There is a second list of elections and appointments to the Senate. Section 15 of the Australian Constitution requires the parliament of the relevant state to choose a replacement and this is done in a joint sitting of the upper and lower house. Prior to 29 July 1977, the filing of casual vacancies was complex, while senators were elected for a six year term, people appointed to a casual vacancy only held office until the earlier of the next election for the House of Representatives or the Senate. It was a convention that the state parliament choose a replacement from the same political party as their predecessor. Replacement senators for the Australian Capital Territory or the Northern Territory are chosen by the relevant territory legislature, where the legislature is not in session, the choice is made by the Chief Minister of the ACT or the Administrator of the NT. Prior to the passage of legislation, replacement territory senators were chosen by a joint sitting of both houses of the Federal Parliament, under s.9 of the Senate Act 1973. Some of these have actually sat in the Senate and participated in proceedings however the High Court has held that their presence did not invalidate the proceedings of the Senate, Parliament of Australia - Senate vacancies Casual vacancies in the Australian Parliament
List of Australian Senate appointments
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Components
37.
Women in the Australian House of Representatives
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There have been 114 women in the Australian House of Representatives since the establishment of the Parliament of Australia. Women have had the right to vote and sit in parliament since 1902, however the first woman to enter the House of Representatives was Dame Enid Lyons in 1943. At that election, the first woman member of the Senate was also elected, by contrast, the House of Representatives has had women members continuously only since 1980. All states and territories have been represented by women in the House of Representatives, in the 45th Australian Parliament there are 43 women. Numbers and proportions are as they were directly after the relevant election, state-based Coalition parties that caucus with one of the major parties have been included in the Liberals or Nationals totals. Women in the Australian Senate Women and government in Australia Parliamentary Handbook of the Commonwealth of Australia, Women in Parliament Women in the Current Parliament
Women in the Australian House of Representatives
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Components
38.
Joint meetings of the Australian Parliament
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This article is about Joint meetings of the Australian Parliament. Australia has a federal parliament, consisting of the Senate. Subject to the Constitution of Australia, each House has its own rules, standing orders and procedures, its own presiding officer, however, there are some occasions when the two Houses have come together as a single body. The Constitution makes provision for a joint sitting as part of a procedure to resolve legislative deadlocks between the House of Representatives and the Senate. Section 57 provides that, under circumstances where there is a deadlock over a bill. This is followed by an election, and the bill may be put to the separate Houses of the newly elected parliament for reconsideration. If this still fails to resolve the deadlock, the bill may be considered by a joint sitting, if passed by the joint sitting, the bill will be treated for all purposes as if it had been separately passed by the two Houses. The only time such a joint sitting has occurred was on 6-7 August 1974, casual vacancies for ACT or NT senators are now filled by the ACT Legislative Assembly or the NT Legislative Assembly respectively, under Section 44 of the Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918. The joint sitting was addressed by the Governor-General, Sir William Deane, during World War II, the Parliament met in secret on a number of occasions, to hear confidential reports on the progress of the war. There is no Hansard record of the proceedings, both Houses met in secret joint sittings on 20 February 1942,3 September 1942, and 8 October 1942. The House of Representatives met in secret on 13 December 1940,29 May 1941, general Douglas MacArthur is sometimes reported to have addressed the Parliament during World War II. If he addressed the secret joint sittings, this was not officially recorded, later addresses to joint sittings were from U. S. Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, and President of China Hu Jintao. Source, Australias Parliament House—more than 25 years in the making, each of the three members of the delegation also addressed the House
Joint meetings of the Australian Parliament
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Components
39.
Matter of public importance
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A matter of public importance is a term used in the Australian Parliament where a subject is put forward for debate by the parliament. The opportunity is defined under standing order 75 and it can be put forward by a Senator in the Senate or a member of the House of Representatives. This must be supported by a number of Senators or Members before the discussion can begin. In the Australian Senate, five Senators are required to support by standing. MPIs are often used by parties to draw attention to government failures or areas that are politically sensitive for the government. A single Senator is limited to 10 minutes discussion, mark Coulton MP- Matter of Public Importance- NSW Floods
Matter of public importance
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Components
40.
Royal assent
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Royal assent is the method by which a countrys constitutional monarch formally approves an act of that nations parliament, thus making it a law or letting it be promulgated as law. Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies, however, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the Governor-General merely signs the bill, in Canada, the Governor-General may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill. Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, the last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was during the rule of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on the 12th of August 1854. The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967, Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. -the sovereign may delay the bills assent through the use of his or her powers in near-revolutionary situations. -the sovereign may refuse royal assent on the advice of his or her ministers, under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often maintain the support of parliament and are the ones who obtain the passage of bills, it is highly improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in practice, royal assent is always granted. The Monarch does not have the power to withhold a Bill from assenting, the last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Annes reign in 1708. The so-called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, in 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorization. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire, the King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process, the power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of, during the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliaments approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1707, on the advice of her ministers, her assent from a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a passed by the British parliament. During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament, the first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than did previous monarchs. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers, thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms
Royal assent
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George VI grants royal assent to laws in the Canadian Senate, 19 May 1939. Seated beside him is his consort, Queen Elizabeth.
Royal assent
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Start of the parchment roll of the Reform Act 1832, with the clerk's record of the royal assent of King William IV written above the bill, reading in full Le Roy Veult soit baillé aux Seigneurs. A cette Bille avecque des amendemens les Seigneurs sont assentuz. A ces Amendemens les Communes sont assentuz.
Royal assent
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Henry VIII introduced a new method of granting royal assent.
41.
Australian federal election, 2016
–
It was the first double dissolution election since the 1987 election and the first under a new voting system for the Senate that replaced group voting tickets with optional preferential voting. After a week of vote counting, still no party had won seats in the 150-seat House of Representatives to form a majority government. Many political commentators predicted a hung parliament such as occurred at the 2010 election, Turnbull claimed victory later that day. In the closest federal majority result since the 1961 election, the ABC declared on 11 July that the incumbent Coalition would be able to form a majority government. In the 150-seat House of Representatives, the one-term incumbent Liberal/National Coalition government was re-elected with a reduced 76 seats, the Coalitions victory marked the first time since 2004 that a government had been reelected with an absolute majority in the House of Representatives. Resulting from the national two-party swing against the government, the Labor opposition picked up a significant number of previously government-held seats − totaling 69 seats, on the crossbench the Greens, the Nick Xenophon Team, Katters Australian Party, and independents Wilkie and McGowan won a seat each. On 19 July the Australian Electoral Commission announced a re-count for the Coalition-held, at the start of the Herbert re-count, Labor led by eight votes. The AEC announced on 31 July that Labor had won Herbert by 37 votes, the final outcome in the 76-seat Australian Senate took over four weeks to complete despite significant voting changes. Earlier in 2016, legislation changed the Senate voting system from a single transferable vote with group voting tickets to an optional-preferential single transferable vote. The final Senate result was announced on 4 August, Liberal/National Coalition 30 seats, Labor 26 seats, Greens 9 seats, One Nation 4 seats and Nick Xenophon Team 3 seats. Former broadcaster and founder of the Justice Party Derryn Hinch, won a seat, while Jacqui Lambie, Liberal Democrat David Leyonhjelm, the number of crossbenchers increased by two to a record 20. The Liberal/National Coalition will require at least nine additional votes to reach a Senate majority and this approach differs to the recount method, whereby the Senators who would have been elected in a normal half-Senate election are allocated a six-year term instead. By choosing the order elected method rather than the recount method, Labor, independents, Andrew Wilkie, Cathy McGowan Members in italics did not re-contest their House of Representatives seats at this election. Notes 1 As a result of the 2015 boundary redistribution, the New South Wales Liberal-held seats of Barton, Dobell,2 A re-count commenced on 19 July in the Queensland division of Herbert. Prior to the re-count, Labor was provisionally ahead of its LNP candidate by eight votes, on 31 July the Australian Electoral Commission announced Labor had won Herbert by 37 votes. The LNP was considering a challenge to the result. The final Senate result was announced on 4 August, the Labor opposition won 26 seats, a gain of one − a Senator in Western Australia. The number of crossbenchers increased by two to a record 20, the Liberal/National Coalition will require at least nine additional votes to reach a Senate majority, an increase of three
Australian federal election, 2016
–
All 150 seats in the Australian House of Representatives 76 seats needed for a majority 40 (of the 76) seats in the Australian Senate
Australian federal election, 2016
42.
Double dissolution
–
A double dissolution is a procedure permitted under the Australian Constitution to resolve deadlocks in the bicameral Parliament of Australia between the House of Representatives and the Senate. A double dissolution is the circumstance in which the entire Senate can be dissolved. Similar to the United States Congress, but unlike the British Parliament, governments, which are formed in the House of Representatives, can be frustrated by a Senate determined to reject their legislation. If the conditions are satisfied, the Prime Minister can advise the Governor-General to dissolve both houses of Parliament and call a full election, if the legislation is passed by the joint sitting, then the legislation is deemed to have passed both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The 1974 joint sitting remains the only occurrence in federal Australian history, historically, a double dissolution election has been called in lieu of an early election, with the formal trigger bill not playing a significant role during the subsequent election campaign. But such dissolution shall not take place six months before the date of the expiry of the House of Representatives by effluxion of time. If a bill is passed by a majority of the total membership of the joint sitting. The only time this procedure was invoked was in the 1974 joint sitting, the double dissolution provision comes into play if the Senate and House twice fail to agree on a piece of legislation. The conditions stipulated by section 57 of the Constitution are, The trigger bill originated in the House of Representatives, three months elapsed between the two rejections of the bill by the Senate. The second rejection occurred in the session as the first, or the subsequent session. There is no provision for resolving deadlocks with respect to bills that have originated in the Senate and are blocked in the House of Representatives. However, as the 1975 constitutional crisis demonstrated, the Governor-General is not compelled to follow the Prime Ministers advice. In these cases, he or she must be satisfied that the conditions specified in the Constitution apply. As a High Court Chief Justice Barwick observed in a decision in Cormack v Cope, There have been 7 double dissolutions. However, a joint sitting following a double dissolution pursuant to section 57 has only taken place once, in 1914, the Joseph Cook Commonwealth Liberal Party sought to abolish preferential employment for trade union members in the public service, resulting in a double dissolution on 30 July 1914. In the election on 5 September 1914 the government was defeated by the opposition, Andrew Fishers Australian Labor Party, the repeal was opposed by the Labor Party in the Senate. Parliament was dissolved on 19 March 1951, in the election on 28 April 1951, the government was returned with a reduced majority in the lower house, but now with a majority in the Senate. The Commonwealth Bank Bill was presented to Parliament again on 26 June 1951, in 1974, the Gough Whitlam Labor government was unable to pass a large number of bills through a hostile Senate
Double dissolution
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Australia
43.
Single transferable vote
–
The single transferable vote is a voting system designed to achieve proportional representation through ranked voting in multi-seat organizations or constituencies. The exact method of reapportioning votes can vary, Hare–Clark is the name given to STV in lower house elections in two Australian states and territories, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. The name is derived from Thomas Hare, who developed the system, and the Tasmanian Attorney General, Andrew Inglis Clark, Hare–Clark has been changed to use rotating ballot papers. Although the New South Wales Legislative Council and the Senate have reformed their electoral systems to abolish group tickets, STV is the system of choice of groups such as the Proportional Representation Society of Australia, the Electoral Reform Society in the United Kingdom and FairVote in the USA. STV has had its widest adoption in the English-speaking world, as of 2010, in government elections, STV is used for, In British Columbia, Canada, STV was recommended for provincial elections by the BC Citizens Assembly on Electoral Reform. In a 2005 provincial referendum, it received 57. 69% support and it was not adopted, however, because it fell short of the 60% threshold requirement the Liberal government had set for the referendum to be binding. For a more complete list, see History and use of the single transferable vote, when STV is used for single-winner elections, it is equivalent to the instant-runoff voting method. STV used for elections is sometimes called proportional representation through the single transferable vote. STV usually refers to the version, as it does in this article. In Australia STV is known as the Hare–Clark Proportional method, while in the United States it is called choice voting. In STV, each voter ranks the list of candidates in order of preference, in the most common ballot design, they place a 1 beside their most preferred candidate, a 2 beside their second most preferred, and so on. The completed ballot paper contains an ordinal list of candidates. The Droop quota is an extension of requiring a 50% +1 majority in single-winner elections, for example, at most 3 people can have 25% +1 in 3-winner elections,9 can have 10% +1 in 9-winner elections, and so on. If fractional votes can be submitted, then the Droop quota may be modified so that the fraction is not rounded down, thus the quota is a positive but not necessarily an integer value. An STV election starts with every voters first choice, according to the following steps, if any such elected candidate has more votes than the quota, the excess votes are transferred to other candidates. Votes that would have gone to the go to the next preference. This can be done in several ways, if no-one new meets the quota, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and those votes are transferred to each voters next preferred candidate. This process repeats until either a winner is found for every seat or there are as many seats as remaining candidates, there are variations, such as how to transfer surplus votes from winning candidates and whether to transfer votes to already-elected candidates
Single transferable vote
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Carl Andræ
44.
Two-party-preferred vote
–
For the purposes of TPP, the Liberal/National Coalition is usually considered a single party, with Labor being the other major party. Typically the TPP is expressed as the percentages of votes attracted by each of the two parties, e. g. Coalition 45%, Labor 55%, where the values include both primary votes and preferences. The TPP is an indicator of how much swing has been required to change the result, taking into consideration preferences. The TPP assumes a two-party system, i. e. that after distribution of votes from less successful candidates, however, in some electorates this is not the case. The two-candidate-preferred vote is the result after preferences have been distributed, using instant-runoff voting, for electorates where the two candidates are from the major parties, the TCP is also the TPP. For electorates where these two candidates are not both from the parties, preferences are notionally distributed to the two major parties to determine the TPP. In this case the TPP differs from the TCP, and is not informative, TPP results above seat-level, such as a national or statewide TPP, are also informative only and has no result on the election outcome. The New South Wales lower house uses optional-preference instant runoff voting – with some votes giving limited or no preferences, TPP/TCP does not occur in the Tasmanian lower house or the Australian Capital Territory due to a different system altogether, the Hare-Clark proportional voting system. Aside from Tasmania, TPP/TCP is not used in any other houses in Australia. Australia originally used first-past-the-post voting as used by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, federal election full-preference instant-runoff voting has been in existence since its introduction by the government after the 1918 Swan by-election. The system has allowed the two parties to compete in many seats without splitting the conservative vote in three-cornered-contests. Even in landslide conservative election wins such as 1975 or 1996 and it is increasingly uncommon for seats to be contested by more than one Coalition candidate, by 2010 only three seats were contested by more than one Coalition candidate, all in New South Wales. Preferences have also been of significant relevance to the DLP, the Democrats, One Nation, the Greens, not distributing preferences was historically common in seats where a candidate received over 50 percent of the primary vote. Full preference distributions have occurred in all seats since 1983, South Australian state elections have boundaries strategically redrawn before each election with a fairness aim based on the prior election TPP vote, the only state to do so. Whilst every seat has a TCP result, seats where the parties have come first. In seats where the parties do not come first and second, differing TPP. When only one of two major parties contest a seat, such as at some by-elections, only a TCP result is produced, swings in Australian parliaments are more commonly associated with the TPP vote. At the 2013 federal election,11 of 150 seats returned differing TPP and TCP figures, the tallying of seat TPP results gives a statewide and/or national TPP vote
Two-party-preferred vote
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Instant-runoff voting method. TPP/TCP vote is calculated when two candidates remain.
45.
List of Australian federal by-elections
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This is a list of by-elections and scheduled by-elections for the Australian House of Representatives from its creation in 1901 until the present day. When a member of the House of Representatives resigns, he or she would normally tender the resignation to the Speaker, the Speaker has a discretion as to when to call a by-election and may not call one at all, for example, if a general election is imminent. At least 33 days must elapse between the issue by the Speaker of a writ and the date of a by-election, a by-election must take place on a Saturday. Brackets around a date indicate that the candidate was unopposed when nominations closed and these candidates were declared elected unopposed with effect from the date of the closing of nominations, and there was no need to hold a by-election
List of Australian federal by-elections
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Commonwealth
46.
Caretaker government of Australia
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Under normal circumstances, there is no separate appointment of a caretaker government. The incumbent Prime Minister simply puts the government into caretaker mode and it was a unique set of circumstances, leading to a unique solution. The caretaker convention also precludes public servants from making any political statements while the government is in caretaker mode, the Prime Minister can however resign office and advise the Governor-General or Governor at any time to appoint a new government. The operation of the Australian political system ensures that a Cabinet is always maintained, a document entitled Guidance on Caretaker Conventions is administered by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Section 1.6 indicates that these conventions are not legally binding, in practice, any flouting of the conventions by a caretaker government would immediately come to light, and could go against them in the election campaign. There are occasions when major appointments or decisions cannot wait until after the election, Caretaker provisions explicitly recognise that after the dissolution of parliament, the business of government must continue and that ordinary matters of administration must be addressed. Provisions allow for the operations of all government departments. However, the caretaker conventions impose some restrictions on the conduct of the caretaker government, the conventions broadly include the following, The Government will cease taking major policy decisions except on urgent matters and then only after formal consultation with the Opposition. The conventions apply to the making of decisions, not to their announcement, accordingly, the conventions are not infringed if decisions made before dissolution are announced during the caretaker period. However, when possible, decisions would normally be announced ahead of dissolution, the Government will cease making major appointments of public officials but may make acting or short-term appointments. The Government will avoid entering major contracts or undertakings during the caretaker period, the Government ordinarily seeks to defer such major international negotiations, or adopts observer status until the end of the caretaker period. The Australian Public Service adopts a neutral stance while continuing to advise the Government, there are several cases, notably the pricing of Opposition election promises, in which the APS conducts an investigation and report for the benefit of the electorate at large. If the incumbent prime minister will after an election continue to command a majority of seats in the House of Representatives, the nominated successor accepts the invitation and undertakes to inform the Governor-General when the new Ministry is in a position to be sworn in. That can be delayed by the counting of votes in contested seats or by the processes by which ministers are chosen under the relevant partys rules. In the meantime, the government continues in office until the government is sworn in. In most cases, several weeks can elapse between an election and the swearing-in of a new government and that lasted until Whitlams full ministry was sworn in on 19 December. The first election for the new Parliament of Australia was not held until 29 and 30 March 1901, in June 1914, a double dissolution election was called for 5 September, with the incumbent government duly going into caretaker mode. However, Britain declared war against Germany in August, and Australia went onto a war footing, the caretaker conventions had to be relaxed because of the state of war, with the support of all major parties
Caretaker government of Australia
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Components
47.
New Zealand Parliament
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The New Zealand Parliament is the legislative branch of New Zealand, consisting of the Queen of New Zealand and the New Zealand House of Representatives. Before 1951, there was a chamber, the New Zealand Legislative Council. The Parliament was established in 1854 and is one of the oldest continuously functioning parliaments in the world, the House of Representatives is a democratically elected body whose members are known as Members of Parliament. It usually consists of 120 MPs, though sometimes due to overhang seats. 70 MPs are elected directly in electorate seats and the remainder are filled by list MPs based on each partys share of the party vote, Māori were represented in Parliament from 1867, and in 1893 women gained the vote. New Zealand does not allow sentenced prisoners to vote, the Parliament is closely linked to the executive branch. The House of Representatives has met in the Parliament Buildings located in Wellington, Parliament funds the broadcast of its proceedings through Parliament TV, AM Network and Parliament Today. It was based on the Westminster model and had a house, called the House of Representatives. The members of the House of Representatives were elected under the first-past-the-post voting system, originally Councillors were appointed for life, but later their terms were fixed at seven years. In 1951, the Council was abolished altogether, making the New Zealand legislature unicameral, under the Constitution Act, legislative power was also conferred on New Zealands provinces, each of which had its own elected Legislative Council. These provincial legislatures were able to legislate for their provinces on most subjects, over a twenty-year period, political power was progressively centralised, and the provinces were abolished altogether in 1876. Four Māori electorates were created in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament, originally the New Zealand Parliament remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire. One historical speciality of the New Zealand Parliament was the country quota, from 1889 on, districts were weighted according to their urban/rural split. The country quota was in effect until it was abolished in 1945 by a mostly urban-elected Labour government, the New Zealand Parliament is sovereign with no institution able to over-ride its decisions. The ability of Parliament to act is, legally, unimpeded, for example, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a normal piece of legislation, it is not superior law as codified constitutions are in some other countries. The only thing Parliament is limited in its power are on some entrenched issues relating to elections and these issues require either 75% of all MPs to support the bill or a referendum on the issue. The Queen of New Zealand is one of the components of Parliament—formally called the Queen-in-Parliament and this results from the role of the monarch to sign into law the bills that have been passed by the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives was established as a house and has been the Parliaments sole chamber since 1951
New Zealand Parliament
New Zealand Parliament
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New Zealand Parliament Pāremata Aotearoa
New Zealand Parliament
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New Zealand Parliament Buildings
48.
Monarchy of New Zealand
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The Crown is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the New Zealand government, which is a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. Most of the powers are exercised by the elected parliamentarians, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them. The New Zealand monarchy has its roots in the British Crown, from which it has evolved to become a distinctly New Zealand institution, however, the Queen is the only member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. New Zealand shares the same monarch with the other 15 monarchies in the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations, supports of the monarchy argue it costs New Zealand taxpayers only a small outlay for royal engagements and tours and the expenses of the governor-generals establishment. Monarchy New Zealand states his figure is one dollar per person per year. Thus, New Zealands line of succession remains identical to that of the United Kingdom, as such, the rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by a constitutional amendment. The Constitution Act 1986 specifies that should a regent be installed in the United Kingdom, upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony—hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary, though, for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor-general on behalf of the Executive Council of New Zealand. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. One of the first post-Second World War examples of New Zealands status as an independent monarchy was the alteration of the title by the Royal Titles Act 1953. This is one of the key differences from the Queens role in England and this is done in reciprocation to the sovereigns Coronation Oath, wherein he or she promises to govern the Peoples of. According to their laws and customs. Though this power stems from the people, all New Zealanders live under the authority of the monarch, the government of New Zealand is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her Executive Council. In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the advice tendered is typically binding, meaning the monarch reigns. The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs, the sovereign or the governor-general conducts treaties, alliances, the governor-general, on behalf of the Queen, also accredits New Zealand high commissioners and ambassadors, and receives similar diplomats from foreign states. In addition, the issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative, the Crown is further responsible for summoning, proroguing, and dissolving the House of Representatives, after which the governor-general usually calls for a general election. The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, however, she does not personally rule in judicial cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the Queens name by Officers of Her Majestys Court
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Queen of New Zealand
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Coat of arms of New Zealand
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Charles, Prince of Wales, is the heir apparent to the New Zealand throne
Monarchy of New Zealand
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The ministers of the Fifth Labour Government with then Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright, 20 October 2005
49.
New Zealand Legislative Council
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The Legislative Council of New Zealand was the first legislature of New Zealand from 1841 and upper house of the General Assembly of New Zealand from 1853 until 1950. Unlike the lower house, the New Zealand House of Representatives, originally, the Legislative Council consisted of the Governor, Colonial Secretary and Colonial Treasurer. The Legislative Council had the power to issue Ordinances, statutory instruments, with the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Legislative Council became the upper house of the General Assembly in 1853. The Legislative Council was intended to act as a revising chamber and it could not initiate bills, and was prohibited from amending money bills. The model for the Legislative Councils role was the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 provided for councillors to be appointed for life terms by the Governor. In 1891, life membership was replaced by a term by the new Liberal Party government of John Ballance. Ballance had considerable difficulty in achieving his reform of the Council, ballances victory is seen as establishing an important precedent in the relationship between Governor and Prime Minister. The structure of the Legislative Council prior to 1891 was therefore similar to that of the Canadian Senate, the title The Honourable could be retained from 1894 by a councillor with not less than ten years service if recommended by the Governor. This privilege was extended to one member, William Montgomery, in 1906, and it was specified in the Constitution Act 1852 that the Council would consist of at least ten members. Although not actually a part of the Act, instructions were issued that the number of members should not exceed fifteen, one member was to be selected as Speaker of the Legislative Council, corresponding roughly to the position of Speaker of the House of Representatives. A quorum of five members was established, the first appointments to the Legislative Council were made in 1853, when twelve members were called to the upper house. Gradually, the number of members was raised, and the limit was eventually abolished. The Council reached a peak of 53 members in 1885 and 1950, the Legislative Council was generally less representative of the New Zealand public than was the House of Representatives. Women were not eligible to serve as councillors until 1941, two, Mary Anderson and Mary Dreaver, were appointed in 1946 by the First Labour Government. In 1950 when the First National Government appointed the suicide squad to vote the council out of three women were included, Cora Louisa Burrell, Ethel Marion Gould and Agnes Louisa Weston. The first two Māori councillors were appointed in 1872, not long after the creation of the Māori electorates in the House, Mokena Kohere, a convention was established that there should always be Māori representation on the Council. A number of proposals were made that the Legislative Council should be elected, in 1914, a reform proposal to establish a 42 or 43 member council elected by proportional representation for six years was introduced by the Liberals, but postponed due to World War I. In 1920 it was no longer favoured by the Reform government then in power, but the 1914 Act remained like a sword of Damocles suspended above the nominated upper house, available at will or whim to any succeeding government
New Zealand Legislative Council
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Legislative Council of New Zealand
New Zealand Legislative Council
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Arms of New Zealand, 1911–1956
50.
New Zealand House of Representatives
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The New Zealand House of Representatives is the sole chamber of the legislature of New Zealand. The House and the Queen of New Zealand together constitute the New Zealand Parliament, the House of Representatives passes all laws, provides ministers to form a cabinet, and supervises the work of the Government. It is also responsible for adopting the states budgets and approving the states accounts, the House of Representatives is a wholly democratically elected body, usually consisting of 120 members known as Members of Parliament. Members are elected for limited terms, holding office until Parliament is dissolved, a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of MPs. If no majority is then a minority government can be formed with a confidence. The chamber was created by the British New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which established a legislature, however the upper chamber. Parliament received full control over all New Zealand affairs in 1947 with the passage of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act, the seat of the House of Representatives is Parliament House in Wellington, the capital city. The House of Representatives takes the House of Commons of the United Kingdom as its model, the New Zealand Parliament is based on the Westminster system. As a democratic institution, the role of the House of Representatives is to provide representation for the people. The executive branch of the New Zealand government draws its membership exclusively from the House of Representatives, although it does not elect the Prime Minister, the position of the parties in the House of Representatives is of overriding importance. By convention, a minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of. Thus, whenever the office of prime minister falls vacant, the governor-general appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally the leader of the largest party and this support is immediately tested through a motion of confidence. The House of Representatives normally consists of 120 members, known as Members of Parliament, the Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives has overall charge of the administration of the House, and presides over sittings. Seating in the chamber is arranged in a horseshoe pattern. The Speaker of the House sits in a chair at the open end of the horseshoe. Following the example of the British House of Commons, members of Government are seated on the hand of the Speaker. MPs are assigned seating on the basis of the seniority in a party caucus, for example, the prime minister sits on the front row, in the fourth seat along from the Speaker. The 51st New Zealand Parliament is the current sitting of the House and its membership was elected at the 2014 general election and, so far, one subsequent by-election
New Zealand House of Representatives
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New Zealand Parliament Buildings
New Zealand House of Representatives
51.
Speaker of the New Zealand Legislative Council
–
The Speaker of the Legislative Council was the chair of New Zealands upper house, the Legislative Council. The position corresponded roughly to that of Speaker of the House of Representatives and it was abolished in 1951, along with the Legislative Council itself. Eighteen people held the office of Speaker since the creation of the Legislative Council, three had previously been Prime Minister. One had previously been Speaker of the House of Representatives, a list of Speakers is below. 1 Also served as Prime Minister2 Previously Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives3 Reappointed at end of members term † Speaker died in office, constitution of New Zealand New Zealand Legislative Council
Speaker of the New Zealand Legislative Council
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New Zealand
52.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
–
The Prime Minister of New Zealand is the head of government of New Zealand. The current prime minister is Bill English of the National Party, the prime minister is the most senior government minister, and chairs cabinet meetings. The office exists by a convention, which originated in New Zealands former colonial power. The convention stipulates that the Governor-General of New Zealand must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Representatives and this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The title prime minister had made its first formal appearance in the 1873 Schedule of the Civil List Act and this was changed in 1869 to premier. That title remained in use for more than 30 years, being changed by Richard Seddon to prime minister in 1901 during his tenure in office. Following the declaration of New Zealand as a dominion in 1907, the office of prime minister is not defined by codified laws, but by unwritten customs known as constitutional conventions which developed in Britain and were replicated in New Zealand. The Prime Minister is leader of the cabinet, and takes a coordinating role, the Cabinet Manual 2008 provides an outline of the prime ministers powers and responsibilities. The post of minister is, like other ministerial positions. However, the convention has long since established that the prime minister must have. Historically, this has meant that the prime minister is the parliamentary leader of the largest political party in the House of Representatives. By constitutional convention, the minister holds formal power to advise the sovereign. As head of government, the prime minister alone has the right to advise the governor-general to, Appoint, dismiss, call elections by advising the governor-general to dissolve parliament. The governor-general may reject the advice to dissolve parliament if the minister has recently lost a vote of confidence. The prime minister is regarded by convention as first among equals and they do hold the most senior post in government, but are also required to adhere to any decisions taken by cabinet, as per the convention of cabinet collective responsibility. The ability to appoint and dismiss ministers, furthermore, the MMP electoral system has complicated this, as the prime minister may have to consult with another party leader. The influence a prime minister is likely to have as leader of the dominant party and these powers may give more direct control over subordinates than is attached to the prime ministers role. The power gained simply from being central to most significant decision-making, in addition, like all other ministers and members of parliament, the prime minister receives annual allowances for travel and lodging, as do the prime ministers spouse and children
Prime Minister of New Zealand
–
Incumbent John Key since 19 November 2008
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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Arms of Her Majesty's New Zealand Government
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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Henry Sewell, regarded as New Zealand's first premier.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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William Hall-Jones, the first New Zealand premier to be titled "Prime Minister".
53.
Ministers of the New Zealand Government
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Ministers, in the New Zealand government, are members of parliament who hold ministerial warrants from the Crown to perform certain functions of government. This includes formulating and implementing policies and advising the Governor-General, ministers collectively make up the executive branch of the New Zealand state. The formal powers of the executive are exercised through the Executive Council, when the Executive Council resolves to issue an order, and the order is signed by the Governor-General, it becomes legally binding. A minister is generally charged with supervising a particular aspect of the governments activities, sometimes, people may be appointed ministers without being given any specific role — they are known as ministers without portfolio. Such appointments have become rare today, although sometimes a person may be appointed to a sinecure portfolio such as Minister of State for similar purposes, the appointment of ministers is officially made by the Governor-General, who must sign a ministerial warrant before it officially comes into effect. Originally, the Executive Council functioned as a group to the Governor. The various ministers serving on the Council, such as the Colonial Secretary, when Parliament was established, however, many believed that they would soon replace these appointed officials, with ministerial positions being given to members of Parliament instead. The Acting Governor, Robert Wynyard, did not agree, however, the issue was controversial, and ended with the Acting Governor attempting to suspend the 1st New Zealand Parliament. Later, in the 2nd New Zealand Parliament, Parliament was victorious, Henry Sewell became Colonial Secretary, Dillon Bell became Colonial Treasurer, Frederick Whitaker became Attorney-General, and Henry Tancred became a minister without portfolio. Since then, all ministers have been appointed from among the ranks of Parliament, later, Parliament made further gains, with the convention being established that the Governor-Generals actions in the Executive Council were bound by the advice that ministers gave. Today, the Executive Council is not used for deliberation - rather, Cabinet is a separate meeting of most government ministers, and formally presents proposals to the whole Executive Council only when a decision has already been reached
Ministers of the New Zealand Government
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New Zealand
54.
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
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The Leader of the Opposition in New Zealand is the politician who, at least in theory, commands the support of the non-government bloc of members in the Parliament of New Zealand. In the debating chamber the Leader of the Opposition sits directly opposite the Prime Minister, the current Leader of the Opposition is Andrew Little, the Leader of the Labour Party. By convention, the Leader of the Opposition is the leader of the largest party of the Opposition, the Leader of the Opposition does not have a large official role, as most of the posts functions are ceremonial. Nevertheless, there are ways in which the Leader of the Opposition participates directly in affairs of state. The Leader of the Opposition also receives a higher salary than other members of the Opposition, for much of the countrys early history, the role was not a formal one. It was only when the Liberal Party was formed that any unified leadership appeared in Parliament, john Ballance, leader of the Liberals is usually considered the first Leader of the Opposition in the modern sense. When Ballance led the Liberals into government in 1891, they faced no opposition in a party sense. However, their opponents gradually coalesced around a leader, William Massey, who became Opposition leader in 1903, and in 1909 became the first leader of the new Reform Party. After this, the Leader of the Opposition would always be the leader of the largest party in the House of Representatives that had not undertaken to support the Government of the day. One notable exception to this was during World War I, when the opposition Liberal Party accepted the governing Reform Partys offer to form a wartime coalition, Prime Minister Massey also extended the offer to the new Labour Party who rejected it. This made Labour the largest party not in government, however their leader Alfred Hindmarsh was not recognized as the Leader of the Opposition, joseph Ward, who became Deputy Prime Minister in the wartime cabinet still retained the title, albeit in name only. During the 1910s and 1920s, the role of Opposition alternated between the Liberal and Reform parties, after the 1925 Election there was no official Leader of the Opposition until Rex Mason of Labour won the seat of Eden in the by-election held on 15 April 1926. Labour became superseded the Liberals as the opposition and their leader Harry Holland became Leader of the Opposition. The 1928 General Election put United in government for the last time, Reform then became the Opposition, however in 1931 Reform entered into coalition with the Liberals, and Labour then became the Opposition, despite being the third party. With the introduction of the MMP voting system, first used in the 1996 general elections, now, though the leader of the largest non-Government party still becomes the Leader of the Opposition, there will usually be several parties who are in opposition. An example of this arose after the 2002 general elections, when the National Party gained only 27 seats and this prompted calls from a number of parties, notably New Zealand First and the Greens, for the abolition or reform of the post. It was argued by these parties that the position had become an anachronism in the modern multi-party environment, however, with the resurrection of the National Party in the 2005 general election, a more traditional relationship between Government and Opposition has been restored. A table of Leaders of the Opposition is below, the table begins in 1891, when the first real political party was founded
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
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New Zealand
55.
Official Opposition (New Zealand)
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Her Majestys Loyal Opposition, or commonly the Official Opposition, in New Zealand is usually the largest political party or coalition which is not a member of the ruling government. This means that the party, while still involved with the political process in New Zealand. This is usually the second-largest party in a house, although in certain unusual circumstances it may be the largest party or even a third or fourth party. The Opposition aims to hold the government accountable and to present itself to the electorate as a government in waiting. For example, during Question Time, Opposition spokespersons will ask questions of Ministers with the aim of highlighting a weakness or embarrassing the government and this is complicated more by parties which occasionally act with the government and at other times vote against it. The unusual positioning that developed after the 2005 election further complicated the idea of opposition, Parties and Members of Parliament outside the government which do not work with the official Opposition party are said to sit on the cross-benches. Grand coalitions have been formed only twice in New Zealand, the first was the War Cabinet of 1915–1919, involving the Reform and Liberal Parties, under the leadership of Reform Prime Minister William Massey. The second was the Coalition Government of 1931–1935 to combat the Great Depression, in both cases, Labour formed the official opposition. The Labour Party currently form the Official Opposition, below is a list of the shadow cabinets of New Zealand from 1965 to the present date
Official Opposition (New Zealand)
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New Zealand
56.
50th New Zealand Parliament
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The 50th New Zealand Parliament was elected at the 2011 general election. It had 121 members, and was in place from December 2011 until September 2014, the first sitting of the 50th Parliament was held on 20 December 2011, where members were sworn in and Lockwood Smith was elected Speaker of the House. This was followed by the speech from the throne on 21 December, John Key continued to lead the Fifth National Government. Following the resignation of Smith, David Carter was elected Speaker, the Parliament was elected using the mixed-member proportional representation voting system. Members of Parliament represent 70 geographical electorates,16 in the South Island,47 in the North Island and 7 Māori electorates, the remaining 51 members were elected from party lists using the Sainte-Laguë method to realise proportionality. The Representation Commission is tasked with reviewing electorate boundaries every five years following each New Zealand census, the last review was undertaken in 2007 following the 2006 census, and the electorate boundaries determined then were used in both the 2008 and 2011 general elections. The next census was scheduled for 8 March 2011, but it was postponed due to the disruption caused by the 22 February 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The new date for the census was 5 March 2013, a total of twenty general and five Maori electorates remained unchanged. The 2011 New Zealand general election was held on Saturday,26 November 2011, one hundred and twenty-one MPs were elected to the New Zealand House of Representatives,70 from single-member electorates, including one overhang seat, and 51 from party lists. Since the 1996 election, New Zealand has used the Mixed Member Proportional voting system, a referendum on the voting system was held at the same time as the election, in which 57. 8% of voters voted to keep the MMP voting system. A total of 3,070,847 people were registered to vote in the election, with over 2.2 million votes cast and a turnout of 73. 83%—the lowest turnout since 1887. New Zealand First, having won no seats in 2008 due to its failure to reach the 5% threshold or win an electorate. Nationals confidence and supply partners in the 49th Parliament meanwhile suffered losses, preliminary results indicated that ACT New Zealand won less than a third of the party vote it received in 2008, reducing from five seats to one. The Māori Party was reduced from five seats to three, as the party split between the Māori Party and former Māori Party MP Hone Harawiras Mana Party. United Future lost party votes, but retained their one seat in Parliament, the poor results for both the Labour Party and ACT resulted in changes to their leaderships. ACT leader Don Brash failed to get re-elected to Parliament due to the party vote. On 10 December, the results were published after the counting of the special votes. The main changes were that the National Partys vote share had decreased to 47. 31%, the Green Party vote rose to 11. 06%, which gained it one seat and is now eligible for 14 seats
50th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
57.
Elections in New Zealand
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New Zealand is a representative democracy. Members of the House of Representatives, commonly called Parliament, normally gain their parliamentary seats through nationwide general elections, general elections are usually held every three years, they may be held at an earlier date in the event of a vote of no confidence or other exceptional circumstances. A by-election is held to fill a vacancy arising during a parliamentary term, the next general election will take place on 23 September 2017. New Zealand has a multi-party system due to proportional representation, the most significant constitutional change in 20th century New Zealand was the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1993. The Chief Electoral Office and the Electoral Commission co-ordinate the electoral system, Local government politicians, including mayors, councillors and District Health Boards are voted in during the local elections, held every three years. These elections used single transferable vote and first past the post systems in 2007. The first national elections in New Zealand took place in 1853, womens suffrage was introduced in 1893, with New Zealand being the first modern country to do so. New Zealand general elections occur when the Prime Minister requests a dissolution of Parliament, theoretically, this can happen at any time, although a convention exists whereby Prime Ministers do not call early elections unless they have no reasonable alternative. Elections always take place on a Saturday, so as to minimise the effect of work or religious commitments that could inhibit people from voting, Voting happens at various polling stations, generally established in schools, church halls, sports clubs, or other such public places. Polling booths are set up in hospitals and rest homes for use by patients. The 2005 election made use of 6,094 such polling stations, voters may vote at any voting station in the country. Advance voting is available in the two weeks before election day, if voters cannot physically get to a polling place, they may authorise another person to collect their ballot for them. Overseas voters may vote by mail, fax, internet or in person at NZ embassies, disabled voters can choose to vote via a telephone dictation service. Voters are encouraged to bring them the EasyVote card sent to them before each election, which specifies the voters name, address. However, this is not required, voters may simply state their name, the voting process uses printed voting ballots. After the voting paper is issued, the voter goes behind a cardboard screen, the voter then folds their paper and places in their electorates sealed ballot box. Voters who enrol after the rolls have been printed, voting outside their electorate, according to a survey commissioned by the Electoral Commission, 71% of voters voted in less than 5 minutes and 92% in less than 10 minutes. 98% of voters are satisfied with the waiting time, New Zealand has a strictly enforced election silence, campaigning is prohibited on election day
Elections in New Zealand
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Sample of an EasyVote card
Elections in New Zealand
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New Zealand
Elections in New Zealand
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Ballot boxes at the Linwood Library, Christchurch, for the 2014 election. The white leftmost box is for special votes, with the orange boxes being for ordinary votes for the (from left to right) Te Tai Tonga, Port Hills, Christchurch Central and Christchurch East electorates. A voting screen can be seen to the left.
Elections in New Zealand
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Orange Guy
58.
Next New Zealand general election
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The 2017 New Zealand general election is scheduled to be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 to determine the membership of the 52nd New Zealand Parliament. The current Parliament was elected on Saturday,20 September 2014, unless an early election is called or the election date is set to circumvent holding a by-election, a general election is held every three years. The last election was held on Saturday,20 September 2014, the Governor-General must issue writs for an election within seven days of the expiration or dissolution of the current Parliament. The writs for the 2014 election were returned on 10 October 2014, as a result, the 51st Parliament will expire, if not dissolved earlier, on Tuesday,10 October 2017. Consequently, the last day for issuance of writs of election is 17 October 2017, the writs must be returned within 50 days of their issuance, which will be Wednesday,6 December 2017. Because polling day must be a Saturday and two weeks is generally required for the counting of votes, the last possible date for the next general election is Saturday,18 November 2017. On 1 February 2017, Prime Minister Bill English announced that the election would be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 and this will be the first election that both major parties, Labour and National are contesting under new leadership since 1975. Key dates relating to the election will typically be as follows. New boundaries are not due until early 2019, after the 2018 census, polling booths may now use electronic electoral rolls to mark off voters. Counting of advance votes may now start earlier at 9, 00am, contact information of sitting MPs, such as business cards and signage on out-of-Parliament offices, has been clarified as not constituting election advertising. Election advertising is now prohibited in or near advance polling booths. Election hoardings may now be erected nine weeks before the election, parties are no longer allocated free airtime on Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand to broadcast opening and closing addresses. At the 2014 general election, the seats were won with a plurality of less than 1000 votes. Seventeen existing Members of Parliament have announced that they will not stand for re-election, trevor Mallard announced in July 2016 that he will not contest Hutt South, but will run as a list-only candidate, with the intention of becoming Speaker of the House. Political parties registered with the Electoral Commission on Writ Day can contest the election as a party. Each such party can submit a party list to contest the party vote, as of 6 March 2017, fourteen political parties are registered and can contend the general election. During the three month regulated period prior to election day, parties and candidates have limits on how much they may spend on election campaigning and it is illegal in New Zealand to campaign on election day itself. A party contesting all 71 electorates is therefore permitted to spend $2,975,200 on election campaigning, all electorate candidates are permitted to spend $26,200 each on campaigning over and above their partys allocation
Next New Zealand general election
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All 120 seats (plus any overhang) in the House of Representatives 61 seats needed for a majority
Next New Zealand general election
Next New Zealand general election
Next New Zealand general election
59.
Mixed-member proportional representation
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Mixed-member proportional representation is a hybrid two-tier voting system. MMP was originally used to elect representatives to the German Bundestag and it was used in Romania, in the 2008 and 2012 legislative elections. MMP is a method that uses party list proportional representation as its proportional component. It is considered a system, which is a distinct voting system. An electoral system is mixed if more than one formula is employed to distribute legislative seats, biproportional apportionment, first used in Zürich in 2006, is a hybrid method for adjusting an elections result to achieve overall proportionality. In Germany, where it is used on the level and on most state levels. In the United Kingdom such systems used in Scotland, Wales, in the Canadian province of Quebec, where an MMP model was studied in 2007, it is called the compensatory mixed-member voting system. In most models the voter two votes, one for a constituency representative and one for a party. In the original variant used in Germany, both votes were combined into one, so voting for a representative automatically meant also voting for the representatives party. Most of Germany changed to the variant to make local MPs more personally accountable. Voters can vote for the person they prefer for local MP without regard for party affiliation. In the 2005 New Zealand election, 20% of local MPs were elected from electorates which gave a different party a plurality of votes, in each constituency, the representative is chosen using a single winner method, typically first-past-the-post. Most systems used closed party lists to elect the non-constituency MPs, depending on the jurisdiction, candidates may stand for both a constituency and on a party list, or may be restricted to contend either for a constituency or for a party list, but not both. If a candidate is on the party list, but wins a constituency seat, in Bavaria the second vote is not simply for the party but for one of the candidates on the partys regional list, Bavaria uses seven regions for this purpose. A regional open-list method was recommended for the United Kingdom by the Jenkins Commission. This can be done by the largest remainder method or a highest averages method, subtracted from each partys allocation is the number of constituency seats that party won, so that the additional seats are compensatory. If a party wins more FPTP seats than the proportional quota received by the party-list vote, in most German states, but not federally until the federal election of 2013, balance seats are added to compensate for the overhang seats and achieve complete proportionality. In the last election in Scotland, the highest averages method resulted in a majority government for the Scottish National Party with only 44% of the party vote, however, Scotland uses the term Additional Member System which, like MMP can either be proportional or semi-proportional
Mixed-member proportional representation
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Ballot for electoral district 252, Würzburg, for the 2005 German federal election. Constituency vote on left, party list vote on right.
60.
First-past-the-post voting
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First-past-the-post voting method is one of several plurality voting methods. It is a common, but not universal, feature of voting methods with single-member electoral divisions, the method is widely used in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and most of their current and former colonies and protectorates, and a few other countries. There is some confusion between highest vote, majority vote and plurality voting methods, all three use a first-past-the-post voting method, but there are subtle differences in the method of execution. First-past-the-post voting is used in two-round systems and some exhaustive ballots. First-past-the-post voting methods can be used for single- and multiple-member electoral divisions, in a single-member election, the candidate with the highest number – not necessarily a majority – of votes is elected. The two-round voting method uses a first-past-the-post voting method in each of the two rounds, the first round determines which two candidates will progress to the second, final-round ballot. In a multiple-member, first-past-the-post ballot, the first number of candidates – in order of highest vote, if there are six vacancies, then the first six candidates with the highest vote are elected. The Electoral Reform Society is a pressure group based in the United Kingdom which advocates abolishing the first-past-the-post method for all national and local elections. It argues FPTP is bad for voters, bad for government and it is the oldest organisation concerned with electoral methods in the world. States other than Maine and Nebraska use a form of simple plurality, first-past-the-post voting. Under a first-past-the-post voting method the highest polling candidate is elected, in this real-life example, Tony Tan obtained a greater number than the other candidates, and so was declared the winner, even though majority of voters did not vote for him. It is more likely that a party will hold a majority of legislative seats. In the United Kingdom,18 out of 23 general elections since 1922 have produced a single-party majority government. For example, the 2005 United Kingdom general election results in Great Britain are as follows, It can be seen that Labour took a majority of seats, 57%, the largest two parties took 69% of votes and 88% of seats. Meanwhile, the smaller Liberal Democrat party took more than a fifth of votes, another example would be the UK General Election held on 7 May 2015, Here, the Conservatives took 51% of the seats with only 37% of the vote. It should be noted that the Liberal Democrats also suffered under first-past-the-post, the benefits of FPTP are that its concept is very easy to understand, and ballots can be easily counted and processed. Alternative methods such as rank-based voting require far more work or processing power to tabulate results than a single choice, supporters of FPTP argue that it is the electoral method providing the best governance. It trades fairness in representation for more responsible government and its tendency to produce majority rule allows the government to pursue a consistent strategy for its term in office and to make decisions that may be both correct and unpopular
First-past-the-post voting
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A graph showing the difference between the popular vote (inner circle) and the number of seats won by major political parties (outer circle) at the United Kingdom general election, 2015
61.
New Zealand electorates
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An electorate is a geographical constituency used for electing members to the New Zealand Parliament. In informal discussion, electorates are often called seats, the most formal description, electoral district, is used in legislation. The size of electorates is determined on a basis such that all electorates have approximately the same population. Before 1996, all members of Parliament were directly chosen for office by the voters of an electorate, the 71 electorates are made up from 64 general and seven Māori electorates. Originally, electorates were drawn up based on political and social links, each electorate was allocated a different number of MPs in order to balance population differences. All electorates used a plurality voting system, from 1881, a special country quota meant that rural seats were allowed to contain fewer people than urban seats, preserving the inequality and over-representing farmers. For the 1905 election the multi-member electorates were abolished, the quota system persisted until 1945. Today, electorate boundaries are determined by the Representation Commission, the Commission consists of, Four government officials—the Government Statistician, the Surveyor-General, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Chairperson of the Local Government Commission. A representative of the party or coalition, and a representative of the opposition block. A chairperson nominated by the members, with the exception of Chairperson of the Local Government Commission. Boundaries are reviewed after each New Zealand Census, which occurs every five years. The number of māori electorates are determined by the Māori Electoral Option where Māori voters can opt to be in either a māori electorate or a general electorate, South Island Māori opting for the general roll are included in the population on which the South Island Quota is established. The North Island population being divided into electorates of approximately the same population as the South Island ones, electorates may vary by no more than 5% of the average population size. This has caused the number of list seats in Parliament to decline as the population is experiencing northern drift due to internal migration and immigration. Because of the increasing North Island population, the North Island was awarded an additional electoral seat beginning in the 2008 general election, another North Island seat was created for the 2014 general election. Each time, the need for a seat was determined from the results of the most recent census. The total number of list seats has thus declined from 51 to 49 since 2007, although the New Zealand Parliament is intended to have 120 members, recent iterations have exceeded this quantity. Due to some parties winning more seats than their proportion of the party vote suggests
New Zealand electorates
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New Zealand
62.
Okiato
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Okiato or Old Russell is a small holiday spot in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, seven km south of present-day Russell. It was New Zealands first national capital, for a time from 1840 to 1841. The car ferry across the Bay of Islands, the main tourist access to Russell, clendon became the first United States Consul for New Zealand in 1838 or 1839. When the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840, Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson instructed the Surveyor-General, Felton Mathew, clendons property met the requirements for a good anchorage and immediate availability of land suitable for subdivision and on-sale to settlers. Kororāreka was discounted as it had insufficient available land and locations such as Paihia, clendon wanted 23,000 pounds for the 1.24 km² of land, the house, two small cottages, a large store and other buildings. Hobson eventually secured it for 15,000 pounds and he changed its name from Okiato to Russell, in honour of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord John Russell. Hobson and his family moved there in May 1840 and officials, troops, workmen and immigrants took up residence in permanent or temporary buildings and tents. Mathew drew up plans for a town, but only one of the intended roads was ever built - leading directly from the town hall to the town jail. A year later in 1841 New Zealand was established as a colony from New South Wales and Hobson moved the capital to Auckland. A few officials lived on in the Government House at Russell but when it, Kororāreka was part of the Port of Russell and gradually became known as Russell also. In January 1844 Governor Robert FitzRoy officially designated Kororāreka as part of the township of Russell, now the name Russell applies only to the erstwhile Kororāreka while Okiato has resumed its original name. Old Russell, New Zealands First Capital
Okiato
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Car ferry between Opua and Okiato
63.
Bowen House
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Bowen House is a 22-storey office building in Lambton Quay, Wellington, New Zealand. Since 1991, the building has been leased by Parliamentary Services, Bowen House houses offices for the smaller parties, select committee staff, and some of the ministers and their support staff. It is connected to the rest of the complex by a tunnel under Bowen Street. Bowen House is part of the security system, and the government is the only tenant in the building. Governments lease expires at the end of 2018, and a review of parliamentary office requirements in underway
Bowen House
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Bowen House, with the Wellington Cenotaph in front on it
64.
Queen's Consent
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In the Commonwealth realms, Queens Consent is required before the legislature can debate a bill affecting the prerogatives or the interests of the relevant crown. In the United Kingdom, this extends to matters affecting the Duchy of Lancaster, the Scottish parliament adheres to the same requirement of consent. Bills affecting the Royal Prerogative and the property and personal interests of the monarch require Queens Consent. In Canada, no act of parliament binds the monarch or his or her rights unless the act states that it does so, Queens Consent is typically granted by the governor general on behalf of the sovereign and specially communicated to parliament. Typically, though, it is expressed by a minister of the Canadian Crown, in the United Kingdom, as well as bills that affect the prerogative, bills affecting the hereditary revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster or the Duchy of Cornwall require Queens Consent. Bills affecting the latter also require Princes Consent from the Prince of Wales in his capacity as Duke of Cornwall, in 1993, both Queens Consent and Princes Consent were required in respect of the Priests Measure 1993 that enabled the ordination of women in the Church of England. The Office of the Parliamentary Counsel has produced guidance on the need for Queens or Princes Consent, Consent is usually signified in the one or both houses of parliament, at either the second or third reading, by a privy counsellor and is recorded in Hansard. Where proposed legislation is sponsored by the cabinet, it is the practice for the relevant ministers to inform the monarch well before the bill is introduced to parliament. In the Scottish parliament, consent is signified by a member of the Scottish government, in the Canadian parliament, Royal Consent can be signified in only one legislative chamber. If consent is required but not signified, a bill may make no further progress through parliament, if Queens Consent is withheld, it is, according to the tenets of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, done on the advice of ministers of the Crown. The sovereign has not refused to consent to any bill affecting crown interests unless advised to do so by ministers, similarly, the Prince of Wales grants and withholds the Princes Consent on the advice of the sovereigns British ministers, as the Duchy of Cornwall is within British jurisdiction. No bill affecting the Duchy of Cornwall has been refused consent by either the sovereign or the Duke of Cornwall, each granting of consent by the Prince of Wales is a matter of public record. This prevented the bill from being debated, in 1988, the Palace of Westminster Bill could not be debated in the British parliament because Queens Consent was withheld, as with the Reform of the House of Lords Bill in 1990. Queens Consent and Princes Consent are distinct from Royal Assent, Royal Assent is granted after a bill has passed through parliament, whereas Queens Consent and Princes Consent, where required, are granted before parliament has debated or voted to pass a bill. Royal Assent is also required for all legislation, whereas Queens Consent, in practice, Royal Assent is always granted, whereas Queens Consent or Princes Consent is more frequently withheld. Royal Assent forms part of the constitution and lies under the Royal Prerogative, Queens Consent and Princes Consent are internal parliamentary rules of procedure that could, in principle, be dispensed with by parliament. And it is one of the advantages of this usage, that it obviates the necessity of resorting to the exercise of that prerogative, House of Commons Political and Constitutional Reform Committee. The Impact of Queen’s and Prince’s Consent on the Legislative Process, Eleventh Report of Session, House of Commons Political and Constitutional Reform Committee
Queen's Consent
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Components