1.
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan
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Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan is the elder son of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko, which makes him the heir apparent to the Chrysanthemum Throne. Naruhito is first in line to become the 126th Emperor according to Japans traditional order of succession, in January 2017, reports emerged that the Emperor was considering abdicating the throne at the end of 2018 or beginning of 2019. Crown Prince Naruhito would succeed his father to the Chrysanthemum Throne, Naruhito was born on 23 February 1960 in a makeshift hospital on the grounds of the palace. The prince later quipped, I was born in a barn inside the moat, naruhitos childhood was reported to be happy, and he enjoyed such diverse hobbies as music, mountain climbing, and riding. He played with the children of the chamberlain, and he was a fan of the Yomiuri Giants in the Central League. He later said, I have had a keen interest in roads since childhood, on roads you can go to the unknown world. Since I have been leading a life where I have few chances to go out freely, roads are a bridge to the unknown world. In August 1974, when the prince was 14, he was sent to Melbourne, naruhitos father, then the Crown Prince Akihito, had had a positive experience there on a trip the year before and encouraged his son to go as well. He stayed with the family of businessman Colin Harper and he got along with his host brothers, riding around Point Lonsdale, playing violin and tennis, and climbing Uluru together. Once he even played violin for dignitaries at a dinner at Government House hosted by Governor-General Sir John Kerr. When Naruhito was four years old he was enrolled in the prestigious Gakushūin school system, in senior high, Naruhito joined the geography club. Naruhito graduated from Gakushuin University in March 1982 with a Bachelor of Letters degree in History, in July of the next year he entered a three-month intensive English course before entering Merton College, Oxford University, in the United Kingdom, where he would study until 1986. Naruhito would not, however, submit his thesis A Study of Navigation and he later revisited these years in his book, The Thames and I--a Memoir of Two Years at Oxford. Among his sightseeing destinations were some 21 historic pubs, including the Trout Inn, Naruhito joined the Japan Society and the drama society, and was the honorary president of the karate and judo clubs. He played inter-college tennis, seeding number three out of six on the Merton team, and took lessons from a pro. In his three years at Merton he also climbed the highest peaks in three of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, Scotlands Ben Nevis, Wales Snowdon and Scafell Pike in England. While at Oxford, Naruhito also was able to go sightseeing across Europe and meet many of its royalty, the relatively relaxed manners of the United Kingdoms royals amazed him, Queen Elizabeth II, he noted with surprise, poured her own tea and served the sandwiches. He also went skiing with Liechtensteins Hans-Adam II, holidayed on Majorca in the Mediterranean with Juan Carlos I, upon his return to Japan, Naruhito would enroll once more in Gakushuin University to earn a Master of Humanities degree in History, successfully earning his degree in 1988
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan
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The Crown Prince in 2015
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan
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Naruhito in February 1961
Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan
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Naruhito with Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, in 2015
2.
Prime Minister of Japan
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The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government of Japan. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the National Diet and he or she is the head of the Cabinet and appoints and dismisses the other Ministers of State. The literal translation of the Japanese name for the office is Minister for the Comprehensive Administration of the Cabinet, prior to the adoption of the Meiji Constitution, Japan had in practice no written constitution. Originally, a Chinese-inspired legal system known as ritsuryō was enacted in the late Asuka period, theoretically, the last ritsuryō code, the Yōrō Code enacted in 752, was still in force at the time of the Meiji Restoration. It took its current form with the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947, to date,62 people have served this position. The current Prime Minister is Shinzō Abe, who re-took office on December 26,2012 and he is the first former Prime Minister to return to office since 1948, and the 6th longest serving member to date. The Prime Minister is designated by both houses of the Diet, before the conduct of any other business, for that purpose, each conducts a ballot under the run-off system. If the two houses choose different individuals, then a joint committee of both houses is appointed to agree on a common candidate. Ultimately, however, if the two houses do not agree within ten days, the decision of the House of Representatives is deemed to be that of the Diet, therefore, the House of Representatives can theoretically ensure the appointment of any Prime Minister it wants. The candidate is presented with their commission, and formally appointed to office by the Emperor. Must be a member of house of the Diet. Note that former officers from the World War II-era may be appointed prime minister despite the civilian requirement. Exercises control and supervision over the executive branch. Presents bills to the Diet on behalf of the Cabinet, appoints all Cabinet ministers, and can dismiss them at any time. May permit legal action to be taken against Cabinet ministers, must make reports on domestic and foreign relations to the Diet. Must report to the Diet upon demand to provide answers or explanations, may advise the Emperor to dissolve the Diets House of Representatives. Presides over meetings of the Cabinet, commander in chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces. May override a court injunction against an act upon showing of cause
Prime Minister of Japan
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Incumbent Shinzō Abe since December 26, 2012
Prime Minister of Japan
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Official Emblem of the Prime Minister of Japan
Prime Minister of Japan
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Kantei, the Office of the Prime Minister
3.
Toshiki Kaifu
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Toshiki Kaifu is a Japanese politician who was the 76th and 77th Prime Minister of Japan from 1989 to 1991. Kaifu was born in Nagoya City, Aichi Prefecture, on 2 January 1931 and he was educated at Chuo University and Waseda University. A member of the Liberal Democratic Party, Kaifu ran successfully for the Diet in 1960 and he was education minister before rising to lead the party after the resignations of Takeshita Noboru and Sōsuke Uno, elected on the platform of clean leadership. He resigned in February 1991 and was replaced by Kiichi Miyazawa, in 1994, he left the LDP to become head of the newly founded Shinshinto. He supported Ichirō Ozawas party until he returned to LDP in 2003 and he was defeated in the election of 2009 by DPJ candidate Mitsunori Okamoto, which witnessed the end of almost uninterrupted LDP dominance since 1955. At the time of his defeat, he was the member of the lower house of the Diet
Toshiki Kaifu
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Kaifu in 1991
Toshiki Kaifu
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with the G7 leaders
4.
Morihiro Hosokawa
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Morihiro Hosokawa is a Japanese politician who was the 79th Prime Minister of Japan from 9 August 1993 to 28 April 1994. His coalition was the first non-Liberal Democratic Party government since 1955 and he ran as a candidate for governor of Tokyo in the February 2014 gubernatorial election as an independent supported by the Democratic Party of Japan. He is since 2005, the 18th Head of the Kumamoto-Hosokawa clan, morihiro Hosokawa was born in Tokyo as the eldest grandson of Moritatsu, 3rd Marquess Hosokawa, and the 16th Head of the Hosokawa clan. His maternal grandfather is the prime minister Prince Fumimaro Konoe. He is also a descendant of Christian heroine Gracia Hosokawa, Hosokawa received his LL. B. degree from Sophia University in 1961. After working for the newspaper Asahi Shimbun as journalist for five years and he was elected to the House of Councillors of Japan as an LDP representative of Kumamoto Prefecture in 1971, with his campaign funded by party boss Kakuei Tanaka. After serving two terms in the National Diet, he left in 1983 to become the governor of Kumamoto, during his term as governor, he complained about interference in local affairs from the central government in Tokyo. In May 1992, a campaign contribution scandal inspired him to form the reformist Japan New Party. The previous LDP government of Kiichi Miyazawa was replaced by an eight-party coalition government which promised a series of social, political, Hosokawa, one of the major voices in forming the coalition, was chosen as the new Prime Minister. He was also at odds with Japans bureaucracy, which he sought to reform after decades of bureaucratic entrenchment under the LDP, Hosokawa made several unprecedented moves toward atonement with Japans Asian neighbors during his term as prime minister. In his first news conference in office, he made a statement acknowledging that Japan waged a war of aggression in World War II. He later said, You can obviously define aggression in any number of ways, I knew my opinion was going to invite heated controversy. Hosokawa viewed the Japanese annexation of Korea as wrong and rejected the view in Japan that it was with Koreas consent and was beneficial to Korea. On 19 March 1994, he visited China, and the two signed an agreement of cooperation in environmental protection. In May 1994, right-wing extremist Masakatsu Nozoe fired a gunshot into the ceiling of a Tokyo hotel where Hosokawa was giving a speech, Hosokawas acts toward China and Korea inspired Russian president Boris Yeltsin to apologize to Hosokawa for the Soviet detention of Japanese prisoners of war in Siberia. Hosokawa later speculated that if men had remained in office longer Russian-Japanese relations would have improved significantly. Hosokawa also had a personal relationship with Bill Clinton. These compromises had a impact on the public approval of the Hosokawa coalition
Morihiro Hosokawa
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Hosokawa campaigning at Takadanobaba Station
5.
Tomiichi Murayama
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Tomiichi Murayama is a retired Japanese politician who served as the 81st Prime Minister of Japan from 30 June 1994 to 11 January 1996. He was the head of the Social Democratic Party of Japan and he is most remembered today for his speech On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the wars end, in which he publicly apologised for Imperial Japanese atrocities committed during World War II. Murayama was born in Ōita Prefecture on 3 March 1924, his father was a fisherman and he entered Meiji University in 1943 as a philosophy student, but was mobilised in 1944 and assigned to work in the Ishikawajima shipyards. Later that year, he was drafted into the Imperial Army and he was demobilised following Japans surrender with the rank of officer candidate. Murayama was appointed secretary of the union in his company and entered the Japan Socialist Party. He began his career as a member of the Ōita city council in 1955. In 1963 his supporters urged him to be a candidate for the Ōita prefectural assembly and he was elected three times successively. In 1972 he was elected to the House of Representatives of Japan, in 1991 he was appointed chairman of the Diet Affairs Committee of his party. In August 1993 after the election, the Japan Socialist Party joined the cabinet until 1994. In October of the year he was elected the head of the party. Murayama became prime minister on 30 June 1994, the cabinet was based on a coalition consisting of the Japan Socialist Party, the Liberal Democratic Party, and the New Party Sakigake. Because of the coalition, his leadership was not strong. His government was criticised for not dealing quickly with the Kobe earthquake that hit Japan on 17 January 1995, just two months later, on 20 March, the Aum Shinrikyo cult carried out the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway. As the prime minister, he apologised for the committed by Japan during World War II. In social policy, various reforms were carried out in such as labour rights, care for the elderly, child support. Amendments made to the Radiation Hindrance Prevention Law of 1957 in 1995 extended the law to cover rental business workers, rental business offices, in July 1995, a law came into effect that imposed strict liability, or liability without fault, upon manufacturers and importers of defective products. The Food Sanitation Law of 1995 introduced a food safety system. In addition, new comprehensive employment measures were introduced, in the Japanese House of Councillors election,1995, his party lost seats
Tomiichi Murayama
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Murayama in June 1995
6.
Yasuo Fukuda
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Yasuo Fukuda was the 58th Prime Minister of Japan, serving from 2007 to 2008. He was previously the longest-serving Chief Cabinet Secretary in Japanese history, following the resignation of Prime Minister Shinzō Abe, Fukuda was elected as President of the Liberal Democratic Party and became Prime Minister in September 2007. Fukuda was the first son of a former Japanese Prime Minister to also take up the post, on 1 September 2008, Fukuda announced his resignation, triggering another LDP leadership election. Fukuda was born in Takasaki, Gunma, the eldest son of politician Takeo Fukuda and he grew up in Setagaya, Tokyo, attending Azabu High School and graduating from Waseda University in 1959 with a degree in economics. After university, he joined Maruzen Petroleum and he was only minimally involved in politics over the next seventeen years, working his way up to section chief as a typical Japanese salaryman. He was posted to the United States from 1962-64, while his father Takeo Fukuda was prime minister from 1976–78, Yasuo became a political secretary. From 1978 to 1989, he was a director of the Kinzai Institute for Financial Affairs, Fukuda also served as president of the Japanese Canoe Federation prior to his September 2007 election as Prime Minister. Fukuda ran for the House of Representatives in 1990 and won a seat and he was elected deputy director of the Liberal Democratic Party in 1997 and became Chief Cabinet Secretary to Yoshirō Mori in October 2000. He resigned his position as Chief Cabinet Secretary on 7 May 2004 amid a political scandal related to the Japanese pension system. Fukuda was considered a contender for the leadership of the LDP in 2006, instead, Shinzō Abe succeeded Junichirō Koizumi as leader of the LDP and Prime Minister of Japan. One of his most noted policy goals is to end prime ministerial visits to Yasukuni Shrine, in June 2006, Fukuda joined 134 other lawmakers in proposing a secular alternative to the shrine, citing constitutional concerns. Fukuda received a deal of support in his bid, including that of the LDPs largest faction, led by Foreign Minister Nobutaka Machimura. Finance Minister Fukushiro Nukaga, who initially had intended to run for the leadership, Fukudas only competitor for the leadership, Tarō Asō, publicly acknowledged the likelihood of his own defeat a week before the election. In the election, on 23 September, he defeated Aso, Fukuda was formally elected as Japans 91st prime minister on 25 September. This deadlock was resolved in favor of the lower houses choice. Fukuda and his cabinet were sworn in by Emperor Akihito on September 26. On 11 June 2008, a non-binding censure motion was passed by parliaments opposition-controlled upper house against Yasuo Fukuda, filed by the Democratic Party of Japan and two other parties, it was the first censure motion against a prime minister under Japans post-war constitution. Ahead of the G8 summit, it attacked his handling of issues including an unpopular medical plan
Yasuo Fukuda
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Fukuda at the 2008 World Economic Forum.
Yasuo Fukuda
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Fukuda at his fundraising party in October 2004.
Yasuo Fukuda
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Fukuda (left) and United States President George W. Bush (right) exchange handshakes following their joint statement at the White House, November 16, 2007.
Yasuo Fukuda
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Fukuda and United States President George W. Bush exchange handshakes following their first meeting at the White House.
7.
Yoshihiko Noda
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Yoshihiko Noda is a Japanese politician who was Prime Minister of Japan from 2011 to 2012. He is a member of the Democratic Party of Japan, and he was named to succeed Naoto Kan as a result of a runoff vote against Banri Kaieda in his party, and was formally appointed by the Emperor on 2 September 2011. Following a severe loss for the DPJ in the December 2012 general election, Noda conceded defeat and he was succeeded by Shinzō Abe as Prime Minister on 26 December 2012. Noda was born in Funabashi, Chiba on 20 May 1957, unlike many prominent Japanese politicians, Noda has no family connections to Nagatachō. His parents were too poor to pay for a wedding reception, Noda graduated from Chiba Prefectural Funabashi Senior High School in 1975. He graduated from Waseda University with the B. A. degree in Political Science in 1980 and was accepted into the prestigious Matsushita Institute. This institution was founded by Kōnosuke Matsushita to groom future civic leaders of Japan and he was first elected to the assembly of Chiba Prefecture in 1987 at the age of 29. In 1993, he was elected to the Diet for first time representing Chibas Lower House District #4 as a member of the now-defunct Japan New Party and he later joined the DPJ and served as its Diet affairs chief as well as head of the partys public relations office. In October 2005, Noda criticized Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi for his position on Japanese class A war criminals as war criminals, however, Noda supported Koizumis visit to Yasukuni Shrine. Noda acted as senior vice finance minister when the DPJ won control of the Diet in September 2009 and he was known as a reformist and had led a DPJ intraparty group critical of ex-DPJ powerbroker Ichirō Ozawa. Upon assuming the post of minister, Noda, a fiscal conservative, expressed his determination to slash Japans deficit. After Naoto Kans resignation in August 2011, Noda stood as a candidate in the party election to replace him and he won a runoff vote against Banri Kaieda in the leadership election, making him the presumptive prime minister. He inherited the challenge of rebuilding from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, during the party caucus making the leadership decision, Noda made a 15-minute speech in which he summarized his political career by comparing himself to dojo loach, a kind of bottom-feeding fish. Paraphrasing a poem by Mitsuo Aida, he said, Ill never be a goldfish in a scarlet robe, Ill work hard for the people, to move politics forward. The loach speech was popular among his colleagues and cemented his reputation at the start of his term. Noda was said to have relations with the United States. On 15 August 2011 —the anniversary of the Surrender of Japan in World War II and this proved controversial and was widely discussed in Japanese society. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government under Governor Shintaro Ishihara sought to buy the Senkaku Islands, on 27 April 2012 the Tokyo government began raising funds from the public to purchase the islands
Yoshihiko Noda
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Noda in October 2011
Yoshihiko Noda
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Noda with Singapore Finance Minister Tharman Shanmugaratnam and U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner
Yoshihiko Noda
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Poster in Toyonaka, Osaka
Yoshihiko Noda
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Noda at the 2010 APEC Finance Summit
8.
Tokyo Imperial Palace
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The Tokyo Imperial Palace is the primary residence of the Emperor of Japan. It is built on the site of the old Edo Castle, the total area including the gardens is 3.41 square kilometres. During the height of the 1980s Japanese property bubble, the grounds were valued by some to be more than the value of all of the real estate in the state of California. After the capitulation of the shogunate and the Meiji Restoration, the inhabitants, leaving the Kyoto Imperial Palace on 26 November 1868, the Emperor arrived at the Edo Castle, made it to his new residence and renamed it to Tōkei Castle. At this time Tōkyō had also been called Tōkei and he left for Kyōto again, and after coming back on 9 May 1869, it was renamed to Imperial Castle. Previous fires had destroyed the Honmaru area containing the old donjon, on the night of 5 May 1873, a fire consumed the Nishinomaru Palace, and the new imperial Palace Castle was constructed on the site in 1888. A non-profit Rebuilding Edo-jo Association was founded in 2004 with the aim of a historically correct reconstruction of at least the main donjon, a reconstruction blueprint had been made based on old documents. The Imperial Household Agency at the time had not indicated whether it would support the project, in the Meiji era, most structures from the Edo Castle disappeared. Some were cleared to make way for other buildings while others were destroyed by earthquakes, for example, the wooden double bridges over the moat were replaced with stone and iron bridges. The buildings of the Imperial Palace constructed in the Meiji era were constructed of wood and their design employed traditional Japanese architecture in their exterior appearance while the interiors were an eclectic mixture of then-fashionable Japanese and European elements. The ceilings of the chambers were coffered with Japanese elements, however, Western chairs, tables. The floors of the rooms had parquets or carpets while the residential spaces used traditional tatami mats. The main audience hall was the part of the palace. It was the largest building in the compound, guests were received there for public events. The floor space was more than 223 tsubo or approximately 737.25 m2, in the interior, the coffered ceiling was traditional Japanese-style, while the floor was parquetry. The roof was styled similarly to the Kyoto Imperial Palace, but was covered with copper plates rather than Japanese cypress shingles, in the late Taishō and early Shōwa period, more concrete buildings were added, such as the headquarters of the Imperial Household Ministry and the Privy Council. These structures exhibited only token Japanese elements, from 1888 to 1948, the compound was called Palace Castle. On the night of 25 May 1945, most structures of the Imperial Palace were destroyed in the Allied firebombing raid on Tokyo
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Panorama of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo
Tokyo Imperial Palace
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Map of the Imperial Palace and surrounding gardens
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Aerial photograph of Imperial Palace of Japan in 1979
Tokyo Imperial Palace
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The Kyūden (宮殿 ?) shortly after its completion in the late 1800s
9.
Tokyo City
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Tokyo City was a municipality in Japan and part of Tokyo-fu which existed from 1 May 1889 until its merger with its prefecture on 1 July 1943. The historical boundaries of Tokyo City are now occupied by the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the new merged government became what is now Tokyo, also known as the Tokyo Metropolis, or, ambiguously, Tokyo Prefecture. In 1868, the city of Edo, seat of the Tokugawa government, was renamed Tokyo. The extent of Tokyo Prefecture was initially limited to the former Edo city, in Tokyo Prefecture, this created 15 wards and six counties/districts. The Tokyo city council/assembly was first elected in May 1889, each ward also retained its own assembly. From 1926, the mayor was elected by the elected city council/assembly from its own ranks, the city hall of Tokyo was located in the Yūrakuchō district, on a site now occupied by the Tokyo International Forum. Tokyo became the second-largest city in the world upon absorbing several outlying districts in July 1932 and this system remained in place until 1947 when the current structure of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government was formed. Capital of Japan Politics of Tokyo City Steiner, Kurt, Local Government in Japan Historical Development of Japanese Local Governance
Tokyo City
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Tokyo Prefectural Office and Tokyo City Hall
Tokyo City
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Map of Tokyo City before the Great Kanto earthquake of 1923
10.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
Tokyo
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Clockwise from top: Nishi-Shinjuku, Rainbow Bridge, National Diet Building, Shibuya, Tokyo Skytree
Tokyo
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Satellite photo of Tokyo's 23 Special wards taken by NASA 's Landsat 7
Tokyo
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Tokugawa Ieyasu
Tokyo
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Ginza area in 1933
11.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
Japan
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The Golden Hall and five-storey pagoda of Hōryū-ji, among the oldest wooden buildings in the world, National Treasures, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Japan
Japan
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Samurai warriors face Mongols, during the Mongol invasions of Japan. The Kamikaze, two storms, are said to have saved Japan from Mongol fleets.
Japan
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Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population. Edo period, 1798
12.
Empress Michiko
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Empress Michiko, born Michiko Shōda on 20 October 1934, is the Empress consort of Japan as the wife of Emperor Akihito, the current Emperor of Japan reigning from 7 January 1989. She succeeded her mother-in-law, Empress Nagako, consort of the late Emperor Hirohito, Michiko married Crown Prince Akihito and became the Crown Princess of Japan in 1959. She was the first commoner to marry into the Japanese Imperial Family and she has three children with her husband. Her elder son, Naruhito, is the current heir to the Chrysanthemum Throne, as crown princess and later as empress, she has become the most visible and widely travelled imperial consort in Japanese history. Michiko Shōda was born in Tokyo, the second of four children to Hidesaburō Shōda, president and later chairman of Nisshin Flour Milling Company. She has an older brother Iwao, a younger brother Usamu and she is the niece of several academics, including Kenjirō Shōda, a mathematician who was the president of the University of Osaka from 1954 until 1960. Shōda attended Futaba Elementary School in Kōjimachi, a neighborhood in Chiyoda, Tokyo and she was then successively educated in the prefectures of Kanagawa, Gunma, and Nagano. She returned to Tokyo in 1946 and completed her education in Futaba and then attended the Seishin Junior High School and High School in Minato. She graduated from school in 1953. In 1957, she graduated cum laude from the Faculty of Literature at the University of the Sacred Heart with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English Literature. She also took courses at Harvard and Oxford, since she came from a particularly wealthy family, her parents were very selective about her suitors. In fact, there had been contenders for her hand in marriage in the 1950s. In August 1957, she met then-Crown Prince Akihito on a court at Karuizawa near Nagano. The Imperial Household Council formally approved the engagement of the Crown Prince to Michiko Shōda on 27 November 1958, at that time, the media presented their encounter as a real fairy tale, or the romance of the tennis court. The engagement ceremony took place on 14 January 1959, although the future Crown Princess was the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, she was still regarded as a commoner. It was also rumored that Empress Kōjun had opposed the engagement. Death threats alerted the authorities to ensure the security of the Shōda family, yukio Mishima, known for his traditionalist position, said at the time, The imperial system becomes tabloïdesque in its move toward democratization. Its all wrong—the idea losing its dignity by connecting with the people, however, the young couple had by then gained wide public support
Empress Michiko
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The Empress during Barack Obama 's visit to the Imperial Palace, 24 April 2014
Empress Michiko
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The future Empress in 1940
Empress Michiko
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Wedding portrait with Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun, 10 April 1959
Empress Michiko
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The newly married Crown Prince and Crown Princess in traditional Japanese attire, with the Prince wearing a sokutai, the Princess a jūnihitoe
13.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
Dynasty
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Charles I of England and his son, the future James II
14.
Imperial House of Japan
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Under the present Constitution of Japan, the Emperor is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people. Other members of the family perform ceremonial and social duties. The duties as an Emperor are passed down the line to their children, the Japanese monarchy is the oldest continuous hereditary monarchy in the world. The imperial house recognizes 125 monarchs beginning with the legendary Emperor Jimmu and continuing up to the current emperor, Akihito, see its family tree. Historical evidence for the first 29 emperors is marginal by modern standards, in English, shinnō and ō are both translated as prince as well as shinnōhi, naishinnō, ōhi and joō as princess. There are currently 19 members of the Imperial Family, The Emperor was born at Tokyo Imperial Palace on 23 December 1933 and he was married on 10 April 1959 to Michiko Shōda. Emperor Akihito succeeded his father as emperor on 7 January 1989 and he became heir apparent upon his fathers accession to the throne. Crown Prince Naruhito was married on 9 June 1993 to Masako Owada, the Crown Princess was born on 9 December 1963, the daughter of Hisashi Owada, a former vice minister of foreign affairs and former permanent representative of Japan to the United Nations. The Crown Prince and Crown Princess have one daughter, The Princess Toshi The Prince Akishino, the Emperors second son and his childhood title was Prince Aya. He received the title Prince Akishino and permission to start a new branch of the family upon his marriage to Kiko Kawashima on 29 June 1990. The Princess Akishino was born on 11 September 1966, the daughter of Tatsuhiko Kawashima and his childhood title was Prince Yoshi. He received the title Prince Hitachi and permission to set up a new branch of the family on 1 October 1964. The Princess Hitachi was born on 19 July 1940, the daughter of former Count Yoshitaka Tsugaru, Prince and Princess Hitachi have no children. The Princess Mikasa is the widow of the Prince Mikasa, the son of Emperor Taishō and Empress Teimei. The Princess was born on 4 June 1923, the daughter of Viscount Masanori Takagi. Princess Mikasa has two daughters and three sons with the late Prince Mikasa, Princess Tomohito of Mikasa is the widow of Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, the eldest son of the Prince and Princess Mikasa and a first cousin of Emperor Akihito. The Princess was born on 9 April 1955, the daughter of Takakichi Asō, chairman of Asō Cement Co. and his wife, Kazuko, the Princess was born 10 July 1953, the eldest daughter of Shigejiro Tottori. She married the prince on 6 December 1984, originally known as Prince Norihito of Mikasa, he received the title Prince Takamado and permission to start a new branch of the imperial family on 1 December 1984
Imperial House of Japan
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The Imperial Family on the occasion of the Emperor's Birthday at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in 2005
Imperial House of Japan
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Imperial House of Japan
Imperial House of Japan
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Members of the Imperial Family and the new year greeting 2011 at the Tokyo Imperial Palace.
Imperial House of Japan
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The Japanese Imperial Family in 1900.
15.
Aiko, Princess Toshi
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Aiko, Princess Toshi is the only child of Crown Prince Naruhito and Crown Princess Masako of Japan. On December 1,2001, the Crown Princess gave birth to a baby girl, lt was their first child after 8 years of marriage for the then 37-year-old crown princess and 41-year-old crown prince. The baby was born at 2,43 PM and was 49.6 centimeters tall, the crown prince was in the delivery room during the birth and the crown princess was attended by a 12-person medical team with four doctors. The crown princess was eight short of her 38th birthday when she gave birth to Aiko. In a break with tradition, the name of the princess was chosen by her parents and it was selected from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius. In clause 56 of Li Lou II, Mencius said One who loves the others will be loved by them. Aiko, the personal name, is written with kanji character for love and child. The princess also has a title, Princess Toshi which means a person who respects others. This formal title will be dropped if she marries a commoner, Princess Aiko began her education at Gakushuin Kindergarten on April 3,2006. She left kindergarten on March 15,2008, on 18 March 2014, Princess Aiko finished at Gakushuin elementary school and on 6 April 2014 she entered Gakushuin Girls Junior High-school. On her eighth birthday, it was revealed her interests include but are not limited to, writing Kanji characters, calligraphy, jump rope, playing piano and violin, and writing poetry. In early March 2010, Aiko began to home from school due to, along with other girls. Aiko returned to school on a basis on May 2,2010. After returning to school, a palace official said that she would attend a limited number of classes accompanied by her mother. In November 2011, Aiko was hospitalized with pneumonia, the Imperial Household Law of 1947 abolished the Japanese nobility, under provisions of this law, the imperial family was streamlined to the descendants of Emperor Taishō. The laws of succession in Japan forbid inheritance by or through females, if the laws were changed, Aiko would be second in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne. A government-appointed panel of experts submitted a report on 25 October 2005, on September 6,2006, at 8,27 a. m. Princess Kiko gave birth to a son, Hisahito, who is third in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne under the current law, after his uncle, the princes birth provided the first male heir to be born in the imperial family in 41 years
Aiko, Princess Toshi
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Japanese Imperial Family
16.
Kiko, Princess Akishino
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Kiko, Princess Akishino, born 11 September 1966 as Kiko Kawashima, is the wife of Fumihito, Prince Akishino, the second son of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko of Japan. She is also known as Princess Kiko, Kiko was born in Shizuoka, Japan. She is the eldest daughter of Kazuyo and Tatsuhiko Kawashima, the family moved to Philadelphia in 1967 while her father attended the University of Pennsylvania. He earned a doctorate at University of Pennsylvania in 1971 in regional science, the future princess became fluent in English and German. In 1972, they moved back to Japan, and her father taught economics at Gakushuin University in Tokyo and she lived with her parents and brother in a tiny on-campus apartment in Tokyo. She received the PhD degree in Humanities from Ochanomizu University and she participated in The Ship for Southeast Asian and Japanese Youth Program in 1987 and continues to be a supporter of the program. Prince Fumihito first proposed marriage to Kiko Kawashima on 26 June 1986 while they were undergraduates at Gakushuin. Three years later, Imperial Household Council announced the engagement on 12 September 1989, no marriage date would be set until the official one-year mourning period ended for Fumihitos grandfather, Emperor Hirohito, who had died in January 1989. The wedding took place at a shrine at the Tokyo Imperial Palace on 29 June 1990. The Imperial Household Council had previously granted the permission to establish a new branch of the Imperial Family. Upon marriage, his bride became Her Imperial Highness The Princess Akishino, as of tradition dictates, upon her entry into the imperial family and like other members, she received a personal emblem, iris setosa. The engagement and marriage of Prince Akishino to the former Kiko Kawashima broke precedent in several respects, at the time, the groom was still a graduate student at Gakushuin and married before his older brother, Crown Prince Naruhito. Officials at the Imperial Household Agency was opposed to the marriage, the first woman from a middle-class background to marry into the imperial family, she was given the nickname the apartment princess by the media. Although Empress Michiko was also born a commoner, she was from a wealthy family. The Princess had said repeatedly that she wanted to finish her masters degree and she completed her post-graduate studies in psychology between her official duties and received her masters degree in psychology in 1995. She is known for her continuing interest in culture and the Deaf in Japan. She learned Japanese sign language and she is a sign language interpreter. She attends the Sign Language Speech Contest for High School Students held every August, in October 2008, she participated in the 38th National Deaf Womens Conference
Kiko, Princess Akishino
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Princess Akishino on 23 December 2009.
Kiko, Princess Akishino
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Princess Akishino in 1990.
17.
Princess Kako of Akishino
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Princess Kako of Akishino is the second daughter of Fumihito, Prince Akishino and Kiko, Princess Akishino, and a member of the Japanese Imperial Family. She is the second-eldest grandchild of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko, in April 2001, Princess Kako began Gakushuin Primary School and graduated in March 2007. Princess Kako entered Gakushūin Girls Senior High School Tokyo in April 2007, in 2012, Princess Kako spent some time studying English at Trinity College in Dublin. In April 2013, she attended the ceremony of Gakushuin University. On 2 April 2015, the Princess attended the ceremony of the university in Tokyo.2017 Research Degree Programme Morocco. She has a sister, Princess Mako, and a younger brother. Kako participated in figure skating while in primary school, in 2007, she represented the Meijijingu Gaien Figure Skating Club and joined the Spring Cup Figure Skating Competition held by the Japan Skating Federation. Princess Kako ranked top in the Shinjuku division, Kako is styled as Her Imperial Highness Princess Kako of Akishino. Grand Cordon of the Order of the Precious Crown - Their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Akishino, at the Imperial Household Agency website
Princess Kako of Akishino
18.
Prince Hisahito of Akishino
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Prince Hisahito of Akishino is the youngest child and only son of Fumihito, Prince Akishino and Kiko, Princess Akishino. He is the youngest grandchild of Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko, Hisahito is third in line to become Emperor of Japan, after his uncle, Naruhito and his father, Fumihito. His personal name Hisahito in this case means serene and virtuous, an alternative translation is virtuous, calm, everlasting. His name was chosen by his father, and the Akishino family crest used to mark his belongings is koyamaki tree, Prince Hisahito is the only son and youngest child of Fumihito, Prince Akishino and Kiko, Princess Akishino. He has two sisters, Princess Mako of Akishino and Princess Kako of Akishino. Hisahito was the first male child born to the Imperial House of Japan since his father in 1965. In January 2007, the Prime Minister of Japan, Shinzō Abe, the proposal had been made on the basis of the fact that the two sons of Emperor Akihito had, at the time, no sons of their own. The supporters of changes criticized the current law as it placed a burden on the few aging males old enough to perform duties as females left the family. Hisahito celebrated his first birthday amid the glare of cameras at the imperial palace, newspapers published front-page pictures of the smiling prince standing on a table in pale blue rompers. The Imperial Household Agency stated his weight as 9285 grams and his height as 75 centimetres, on his third birthday, he weighed 13.6 kilograms and was 94 centimetres tall. He was shown riding a tricycle, and later in traditional dress and his parents called him Yuyu, Yu-chan and Hisahito-kun. The prince thus became the first member of the Imperial House of Japan to receive his education at an other than Gakushūin Primary School. By his second year, he was reported to be doing well at school, helping to look after first-year pupils, Hisahito is styled as His Imperial Highness Prince Hisahito of Akishino. According to tradition, he is sometimes called Akishino Jr, japanese succession controversy Their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Akishino and their family. At the Imperial Household Agency website
Prince Hisahito of Akishino
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Japanese newspapers announcing the birth of the third in line
19.
Masahito, Prince Hitachi
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Masahito, Prince Hitachi is a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the younger brother of current Emperor Akihito. He is the son and sixth born child of Emperor Shōwa. Prince Hitachi is mainly known for activities and his research on the causes of cancer. Born at the Tokyo Imperial Palace, Prince Masahito held the childhood appellation Prince Yoshi and he received his primary and secondary schooling at the Gakushūin Peers School. In late 1944, the Imperial Household Ministry evacuated Prince Yoshi, after the war, from 1947 to 1950, Mrs. Elizabeth Gray Vining tutored both princes and their sisters, the Princesses Kazuko, Atsuko, and Takako, in the English language. Her account of the experience is entitled Windows for the Crown Prince, Prince Yoshi received his undergraduate degree in chemistry from the Faculty of Science at Gakushuin University in 1958. He subsequently did postgraduate work in the Faculty of Science at Tokyo University, in 1969, he became a Research Associate of the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research specializing in the study of cellular division. The results of his research have been reported in the journals of the Japanese Cancer Association. In 1997, Prince Hitachi received a doctorate from George Washington University in the United States. In March 1999, he became a member of the German Association for Cancer Research. On 30 September 1964, the Prince married Hanako Tsugaru, fourth daughter of the late Yoshitaka Tsugaru, a former count, the following day, Emperor Shōwa granted him the title Hitachi-no-miya, and authorization to start a new branch of the Imperial Family in celebration of his wedding. Prince Hitachi and Princess Hitachi have their residence in a palace in large gardens off Komazawadori in Higashi. Prince Hitachi is the president of a wide variety of charitable organizations. Most recently, Prince and Princess Hitachi visited Nicaragua and El Salvador and they also made a visit to France in September 2007 and Peru, marking the celebration of 110 years since the establishment of a Japanese community in this country, June 2009. 28 November 1935 –1 October 1964, His Imperial Highness The Prince Yoshi,1 October 1964 – present, His Imperial Highness The Prince Hitachi. Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum Denmark, Knight of the Order of the Elephant, nepal, Member of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Masahito, Prince Hitachi
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Prince Hitachi at the Grimaldi Forum in July 2010
Masahito, Prince Hitachi
Masahito, Prince Hitachi
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With Princess Takako (1952)
Masahito, Prince Hitachi
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With Queen Juliana, Princess Beatrix, Prince Claus and Princess Hanako (at the Soestdijk Palace, 1965)
20.
Yuriko, Princess Mikasa
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She is the second daughter of Viscount Masanari Takagi. Princess Mikasa graduated from Gakushuin Womens Academy in 1941, the engagement of Takahito, Prince Mikasa and Yuriko Takagi was announced on 29 March 1941 and the engagement ceremony was held on 3 October 1941. The wedding ceremony took place on 22 October 1941, Princess Mikasa frequently visited her husband who was hospitalized during his final months. On 22 October 2016, they celebrated their 75th wedding anniversary in his hospital room, Prince Mikasa died on 27 October 2016, with Princess Yuriko at his side. The Princess hosted her husbands funeral ceremony as the chief mourner, the Prince and Princess had five children, of whom two are still living. In addition to their five children, they had nine grandchildren, the couples two daughters left the Imperial Family upon marriage. All of their sons predeceased them, yoshihito, Prince Katsura, created Katsura-no-miya on 1 January 1988. Princess Mikasa is honorary president of various organisations, especially those concerned with the preservation of traditional Japanese culture. She also plays an role in the Japanese Red Cross Society. In 1948, the Princess became President of the Imperial Gift Foundation Boshi-Aiiku-kai and she has participated on several formal occasions in Tokyo and other parts of Japan and she associates with charities that are concerned with mother and child health. Born as a daughter of Viscount Masanari Takagi, she was styled as The Honourable Yuriko Takagi, after her marriage, she is styled as Her Imperial Highness The Princess Mikasa. Honorary Vice-President of the Japanese Red Cross Society and their Imperial Highnesses Prince and Princess Mikasa and their family at the Imperial Household Agency website Japan Red Cross Society | At a glance
Yuriko, Princess Mikasa
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At the new year congratulatory imperial palace visit. 2 January 2012
Yuriko, Princess Mikasa
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Princess Yuriko and children.
21.
Princess Tomohito of Mikasa
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Princess Tomohito of Mikasa, born Nobuko Asō on 9 April 1955, is a member of the Japanese Imperial Family as the widow of Prince Tomohito of Mikasa. She is also known as Princess Nobuko, Nobuko, a Roman Catholic, was born on 9 April 1955. She is the daughter and youngest child of Takakichi Asō, the chairman of the Aso Company. He was also an associate of Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka. Her mother, Kazuko Yoshida, was the daughter of Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida and her elder brother is the former Prime Minister and current Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō. Through her paternal grandmother, she descends from a branch of the feudal clan Ichinomiya. She studied in England and graduated from Rosslyn House College in 1973, after returning to Japan, she taught English in Shoto kindergarten in Tokyo which she herself founded in the district of Shibuya. It was in the UK when she met her husband, Prince Tomohito of Mikasa. His first marriage proposal was rejected in 1973 because of Nobukos young age, the Imperial Household Council announced the engagement of Prince Tomohito of Mikasa and Nobuko Asō on 18 April 1980 and the engagement ceremony was held on 21 May 1980. The wedding ceremony took place on 7 November 1980 and she became Princess Tomohito of Mikasa, as of tradition dictates, upon her entry into the imperial family and like other members, she received a personal emblem, the flower of prunus persica. Born a Roman Catholic, she is not the first Christian to enter the imperial family, the couple had two daughters, Princess Akiko Princess Yōko The family lived in a compound within the Akasaka Estate complex, in Akasaka Minato, Tokyo. In October 2009, she separated her residence from her husband, the Princess became a widow on 6 June 2012, upon the death of her husband. According to the officials the household integration wont have any effect on the lives of the widow. The Princess accompanied her husband on various missions abroad to charity and welfare events and she is engaged in various welfare organisations and holds positions as president and vice-president. In 1990, the Prince and Princess visited Turkey to attended the celebrations held for the 100th year of relations between Japan and Turkey, in December 1992, the couple visited the cancer ward at New York Medical College. In May 1994, they went to Hawaii mainly to attend a charity dinner held for the reconstruction of Kuakini Hospital, in February 1994, the Prince and Princess went on a trip to Norway to attend the Lillehammer Winter Olympics. In July 1994, Nobuko visited Australia on her own to support the Sydney Royal Research Institute for those with Visual, in April 1998, Tomohito and Nobuko travelled to Turkey to attend the opening ceremony of the Turkey-Japan Foundation Cultural Centre. In July 2003, the Princess in her capacity as Honorary President of the Japan Rose Society, visited Glasgow, United Kingdom, on 1 November 2013, Princess Tomohito of Mikasa visited Fukushima Prefecture and met the people affected by the earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011
Princess Tomohito of Mikasa
22.
Princess Tsuguko of Takamado
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Princess Tsuguko of Takamado is a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the eldest daughter of Norihito, Prince Takamado and Hisako, Princess Takamado. The princess graduated from the Gakushuin Primary School, Gakushuin Girls Junior and Senior High School, aftar that, she entered the Faculty of Intercultural Studies of Gakushuin Womens College, but dropped out in March 2005. She attended the University of Edinburgh in Scotland from 13 April 2004 to 1 July 2008, where she studied psychology and sociology. In 2006, Princess Tsuguko represented the Imperial family at the Silver Wedding anniversary celebrations of Grand Duke Henri and Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg. In May 2015, she visited Watari Town, Watari District, Miyagi Prefecture and she visited and inspected the 2nd Regional Coast Guard Headquarters of the Japan Coast Guard. She was also taken in the photo with the laureate, in March 2013, Princess Tsuguko graduated from the School of International Liberal Studies, Waseda University with a bachelors degree. She works at the Japan Committee for UNICEF from April 2013 and she attends ceremonies and functions at the Imperial Palace and accompanies her mother to some other official events. In August 2013, she visited Sri Lanka at the invitation of President Mahinda Rajapaksa, Japan and Sri Lanka celebrated 60 years of diplomatic relations between those two countries in 2012. Tsuguko was also welcomed by First Lady Shiranthi Rajapaksa. Tsuguko is styled as Her Imperial Highness Princess Tsuguko of Takamado, member of the Order of the Precious Crown, 2nd Class - Her Imperial Highness Princess Takamado and her family at the Imperial Household Agency website
Princess Tsuguko of Takamado
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At the new year congratulatory imperial palace visit. 2 January 2011
Princess Tsuguko of Takamado
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At the Chōwaden Reception Hall (January 2, 2009)
23.
Princess Ayako of Takamado
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Princess Ayako of Takamado is a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the daughter of Norihito, Prince Takamado and Hisako, Princess Takamado. She is the youngest of the three daughters. Princess Ayako is the first member of the Imperial Family to be born in the Heisei era, Princess Ayako attended the prestigious Gakushuin School for her primary, junior high, and high school education. While She was a student at Gakushuin Women’s High School, in 2007, in April 2009, she enrolled in the Josai International University, Faculty of Social Work Studies. In 2010 and 2011 the Princess made short visits to Camosun College in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. In March 2013, Princess Ayako graduated Josai International University and was accepted into the graduate school, in September 2013, Princess Ayako returned to Camosun College begin intensive English studies. She completed her studies at Camosun College in April 2015 and she then spent time at the University of British Columbia before returning to Japan in August 2015. On 16 March, Princess Ayako of Takamado graduated from Josai International University and she continues to attend ceremonies and functions at the palace when studies permit. Ayako is styled as Her Imperial Highness Princess Ayako of Takamado, member of the Order of the Precious Crown, 2nd Class - Her Imperial Highness Princess Takamado and her family at the Imperial Household Agency website
Princess Ayako of Takamado
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At the new year congratulatory imperial palace visit. 2 January 2012
Princess Ayako of Takamado
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At the Chōwaden Reception Hall (January 2, 2011)
24.
Chrysanthemum Throne
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The Chrysanthemum Throne is the term used to identify the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace. In a metonymic sense, the Chrysanthemum Throne also refers rhetorically to the head of state, Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world. In much the same sense as the British Crown, the Chrysanthemum Throne is an abstract concept that represents the monarch. According to legend, the Japanese monarchy is said to have founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. The extant historical records only reach back to Emperor Ōjin, who is considered to have reigned into the early 4th century, in the 1920s, then-Crown Prince Hirohito served as regent during several years of his fathers reign, when Emperor Taishō was physically unable to fulfill his duties. However, the Prince Regent lacked the powers of the throne which he could only attain after his fathers death. The current Constitution of Japan considers the Emperor as the symbol of the State, the modern Emperor is a constitutional monarch. The metonymic meanings of Chrysanthemum Throne encompass the modern monarchy and the chronological list of legendary, the throne Takamikura is located in the Kyoto Imperial Palace. It is the oldest surviving throne used by the monarchy and it sits on an octagonal dais,5 metres above the floor. It is separated from the rest of the room by a curtain, the throne is used mainly for the enthronement ceremony, along with the twin throne michodai. This flexible English term is also a rhetorical trope, the Chrysanthemum throne is also understood as a synecdoche, which is related to metonymy and metaphor in suggesting a play on words by identifying a closely related conceptualization, e. g. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Yōzei is said to have acceded to the throne. Referring to the specific with the general, such as Chrysanthemum Throne for the reign of Emperor Yōzei or equally as well for the ambit of the Imperial system. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. The Chrysanthemum Throne, A History of the Emperors of Japan, a Political History of Japan During the Meiji Era, 1867-1912. OCLC194887 Post, Jerrold and Robert S. Robins, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, a Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa
Chrysanthemum Throne
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The Takamikura throne kept in the Kyoto Imperial Palace is used for accession ceremonies. It was last used during the enthronement of the current Emperor Akihito in 1990.
Chrysanthemum Throne
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This Meiji period throne room was used by Emperor Hirohito. This room was destroyed in World War II.
25.
Abdication
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Abdication is the act of formally relinquishing monarchical authority. The word abdication derives from the Latin abdicatio meaning to disown or renounce, in its broadest sense abdication is the act of renouncing and resigning from any formal office, but it is applied especially to the supreme office of state. In Roman law the term was applied to the disowning of a family member. Today the term applies to monarchs, or to those who have been formally crowned. An elected or appointed official is said to resign rather than to abdicate, a notable exception is the voluntary relinquishing of the office of Bishop of Rome by the Pope, called Papal resignation or Papal renunciation. Among the most notable abdications of antiquity are those of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Dictator, in 79 BC, Emperor Diocletian in AD305, perhaps the most notable abdication in recent history is that of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom and the Dominions. In 1936 Edward abdicated to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson, over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the Commonwealth, the Royal Family and it was the first time in history that the British or English crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily. Richard II of England, for example, was forced to abdicate after power was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, the Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition. In Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son, to give legal effect to the abdication of King Edward VIII, His Majestys Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed. In Medieval Japan abdication was used often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. A tradition developed that an emperor should accede to the relatively young. Thus, many Japanese emperors have acceded as children, some only 6 or 8 years old, several emperors abdicated while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature and other forms of culture, over half of Japanese empresses abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule. Since the Meiji Restoration and the subsequent reorganization of imperial succession, no emperor has abdicated, there is also no provision for abdication in the Imperial Household Law, the Meiji Constitution, or the current 1947 Constitution of Japan. On February 27,1946, the emperors youngest brother, Prince Mikasa, even stood up in the council and indirectly urged the emperor to step down. General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Hirohito retain the throne, MacArthur saw the emperor as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. However, senior officials within the Imperial Household Agency have denied there is any official plan for the monarch to abdicate. A potential abdication by the Emperor would require an amendment to the Imperial Household Act, on 8 August 2016 the Emperor gave a rare televised address, where he emphasized his advanced age and declining health, this address is interpreted as an implication of his intention to abdicate
Abdication
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Napoleon 's first abdication, signed at the Palace of Fontainebleau 4 April 1814
Abdication
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Dom Pedro I, ruler of the Empire of Brazil, delivers his abdication letter on 7 April 1831
26.
Prince Hitachi
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Masahito, Prince Hitachi is a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the younger brother of current Emperor Akihito. He is the son and sixth born child of Emperor Shōwa. Prince Hitachi is mainly known for activities and his research on the causes of cancer. Born at the Tokyo Imperial Palace, Prince Masahito held the childhood appellation Prince Yoshi and he received his primary and secondary schooling at the Gakushūin Peers School. In late 1944, the Imperial Household Ministry evacuated Prince Yoshi, after the war, from 1947 to 1950, Mrs. Elizabeth Gray Vining tutored both princes and their sisters, the Princesses Kazuko, Atsuko, and Takako, in the English language. Her account of the experience is entitled Windows for the Crown Prince, Prince Yoshi received his undergraduate degree in chemistry from the Faculty of Science at Gakushuin University in 1958. He subsequently did postgraduate work in the Faculty of Science at Tokyo University, in 1969, he became a Research Associate of the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research specializing in the study of cellular division. The results of his research have been reported in the journals of the Japanese Cancer Association. In 1997, Prince Hitachi received a doctorate from George Washington University in the United States. In March 1999, he became a member of the German Association for Cancer Research. On 30 September 1964, the Prince married Hanako Tsugaru, fourth daughter of the late Yoshitaka Tsugaru, a former count, the following day, Emperor Shōwa granted him the title Hitachi-no-miya, and authorization to start a new branch of the Imperial Family in celebration of his wedding. Prince Hitachi and Princess Hitachi have their residence in a palace in large gardens off Komazawadori in Higashi. Prince Hitachi is the president of a wide variety of charitable organizations. Most recently, Prince and Princess Hitachi visited Nicaragua and El Salvador and they also made a visit to France in September 2007 and Peru, marking the celebration of 110 years since the establishment of a Japanese community in this country, June 2009. 28 November 1935 –1 October 1964, His Imperial Highness The Prince Yoshi,1 October 1964 – present, His Imperial Highness The Prince Hitachi. Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum Denmark, Knight of the Order of the Elephant, nepal, Member of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Prince Hitachi
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Prince Hitachi at the Grimaldi Forum in July 2010
Prince Hitachi
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With Princess Takako (1952)
Prince Hitachi
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With Queen Juliana, Princess Beatrix, Prince Claus and Princess Hanako (at the Soestdijk Palace, 1965)
27.
Occupation of Japan
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The Allied occupation of Japan at the end of World War II was led by General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, with support from the British Commonwealth. Unlike in the occupation of Germany, the Soviet Union was allowed little to no influence over Japan and this foreign presence marked the only time in Japans history that it had been occupied by a foreign power. It transformed the country into a democracy that recalled New Deal priorities of the 1930s politics by Roosevelt. Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 14,1945, when the Japanese government notified the Allies that it had accepted the Potsdam Declaration. At Yalta, Stalin made sure Roosevelt was clear on the promise he had made that urged assistance from the USSR on intervening in the war in Japan with the U. S, (On the following day, Emperor Hirohito announced Japans unconditional surrender on the radio. The announcement was the emperors first ever planned radio broadcast and the first time most citizens of Japan ever heard their sovereigns voice. This date is known as Victory over Japan, or V-J Day, and marked the end of World War II, Japanese officials left for Manila, Philippines on August 19 to meet MacArthur and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation. On August 28,1945,150 US personnel flew to Atsugi and they were followed by USS Missouri, whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marine Division on the southern coast of Kanagawa. MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30, and immediately decreed several laws, No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people. No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food, flying the Hinomaru or Rising Sun flag was initially severely restricted. This restriction was lifted in 1948 and completely lifted the following year. On September 2,1945, Japan formally surrendered with the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, on September 6, US President Truman approved a document titled US Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan. The document set two main objectives for the occupation, eliminating Japans war potential and turning Japan into a nation with pro-United Nations orientation. At the head of the Occupation administration was General MacArthur, who was supposed to defer to an advisory council set up by the Allied powers. Looking back to his work in Japan, MacArthur described the Japanese reactions as acting similar to a boy of twelve and were at odds of putting away their troubled past. On V-J Day, US President Harry Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, during the war, the Allied Powers had planned to divide Japan amongst themselves for the purposes of occupation, as was done for the occupation of Germany. The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō, had this occurred, there might have eventually been a communist state in the Soviet zone of occupation. However, unlike the Soviet occupations of East Germany and North Korea, even with these measures, millions of people were still on the brink of starvation for several years after the surrender
Occupation of Japan
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The instrument of surrender, dated September 2, 1945.
Occupation of Japan
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Flag
Occupation of Japan
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Representatives of Japan stand aboard the USS Missouri prior to signing of the Instrument of Surrender.
Occupation of Japan
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Gaetano Faillace 's photo of Douglas MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito.
28.
Elizabeth Gray Vining
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Elizabeth Janet Gray Vining was an American professional librarian and author who tutored Emperor Akihito of Japan in English while he was crown prince. She was also an author, whose childrens book Adam of the Road received the Newbery Medal in 1943. Elizabeth Janet Gray, also known as Elizabeth Gray Vining, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on October 6,1902 and she was a graduate of Germantown Friends School and received an AB from Bryn Mawr College in 1923. In 1926, she earned an MS in library science from the Drexel Institute and she married Morgan Fisher Vining, associate director of the Extension Division of UNC, in 1929. The marriage ended in 1933 when her husband was killed in a New York City automobile accident, during her convalescence, she converted to the Quaker faith. Vining soon became known as an author, primarily of childrens books and she had published eleven books by the end of World War II. As part of her program, she arranged for closely supervised occasions when four Western teenaged boys in Tokyo would get together to help the crown prince practice English conversation. She also lectured at Gakushuin University and at Tsuda College, for her work, she was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasure, third class, shortly before her return to the United States in 1950. After her return to the United States, Vining wrote a book about her experiences in Japan in Windows for the Crown Prince, Vining went on to write over 60 fiction and non-fiction books in her lifetime. She also worked on the Board of Trustees of Bryn Mawr, in 1954 Vining received the Womens National Book Association Skinner Award, for meritorious work in her special field. She received an honorary Doctorate of Literature from Wilmington College in 1962, whittier A Quest There Is Citations Bix, Herbert P. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. ISBN 978-0-06-019314-0, OCLC247018161 Japan America Society of Greater Philadelphia, Quaker Obituaries New York Times obituary Interview with Elizabeth Gray Vining from The Albert M
Elizabeth Gray Vining
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Crown Prince Akihito and Elizabeth Gray Vining
29.
Heir-apparent
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An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. An heir presumptive, by contrast, is someone who is first in line to inherit a title, today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles, particularly monarchies. They are also used metaphorically to indicate an anointed successor to any position of power, in France the title was le Dauphin. See crown prince for more examples and this article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—as opposed to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of more closely related in a legal sense to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a title-holder with no children, if at any time he or she were to produce children, they rank ahead of whatever more distant relative had been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health, in such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was even if unlikely. Daughters may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive, for example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son. In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur, several European monarchies that have adopted such systems in the last few decades furnish practical examples. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, Victoria was not heir apparent from birth, but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip was thus heir apparent for a few months, then, as the representative of her fathers line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne, several times an heir apparent has died, however, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages. In one special case, however, England and Scotland had an heir apparent. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, thus, although after Marys death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of Williams reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, the position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable, it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene
Heir-apparent
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Throngs before the Imperial Palace in Japan awaiting the appearance of the Crown Prince Hirohito for the recent proclamation of his official recognition as the heir apparent to the Japanese Imperial Throne – New York Times, 1916.
30.
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
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The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II as monarch of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan and Ceylon took place on 2 June 1953 at Westminster Abbey. The coronation took place more than a year later because of the tradition that holding such a festival is inappropriate during the period of mourning follows the death of a monarch. Celebrations took place across the Commonwealth realm and a medal was issued. It was the first British coronation to be televised, much of the physical preparations and decorations along the route were under the responsibility of David Eccles, Minister of Works. Eccles described his role and that of the Earl Marshal thus, laurent said at the time, in my view the Coronation is the official enthronement of the Sovereign as Sovereign of the U. K. We are happy to attend and witness the Coronation of the Sovereign of the U. K. the Coronation Commission announced in June 1952 that the coronation would take place one year later, on 2 June. Elizabeths grandmother Queen Mary died on 24 March 1953, having stated in her will that her death should not affect the planning of the coronation and the event went ahead as scheduled. Elizabeth, meanwhile, rehearsed for the day with her maids of honour, a sheet used in place of the velvet train. Elizabeth took part in two full rehearsals at Westminster Abbey, on 22 and 29 May, though other sources assert that the Queen attended either several rehearsals or one, the Duchess of Norfolk usually stood in for the Queen at rehearsals. The Coronation ceremony of Elizabeth II followed a pattern to the coronations of the kings and queens before her, being held in Westminster Abbey. However, for the new Queen, several parts of the ceremony were markedly different, the coronation of the Queen was the first ever to be televised, and was also the worlds first major international event to be broadcast on television. The event was filmed in colour, separately from the BBCs black. At Goose Bay, Labrador, the film was transferred to a Royal Canadian Air Force CF-100 jet fighter for the trip to Montreal. In all, three voyages were made as the coronation proceeded. The first royal coach left Buckingham Palace and moved down the Mall and it was followed by the Irish State Coach carrying Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, who wore the circlet of her crown bearing the Koh-i-Noor diamond. Queen Elizabeth II proceeded through London from Buckingham Palace, through Trafalgar Square,10,000 service personnel from across the Commonwealth and Empire marched in a procession that was two miles long and took 45 minutes to pass any given point. A further 15,800 lined the route, the parade was led by Colonel Burrows of the War Office staff and four regimental bands. Then came the colonial contingents, then troops from the Commonwealth realms, followed by the Royal Air Force, the British Army, the Royal Navy and finally the Household Brigade
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
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Queen Elizabeth II with the Duke of Edinburgh in her coronation portrait, 2 June 1953
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
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A ticket for the stands erected alongside the coronation procession route through Piccadilly Circus
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
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Queen Sālote Tupou III in her carriage as it proceeds through London to Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953
Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II
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The stools used at the coronation.
31.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
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Palace of Westminster, Buckingham Palace and Central London skyline
London
London
London
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The name London may derive from the River Thames
32.
The Most Noble Order of the Garter
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The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honour in England and the United Kingdom. It is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George and it is awarded at the Sovereigns pleasure as a personal gift on recipients from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. Membership of the Order is limited to the Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, the order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies. New appointments to the Order of the Garter are always announced on St Georges Day, the orders emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in gold lettering. Members of the wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne, the list includes Sir Sanchet DAbrichecourt, who died on 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed, the Kings wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that member of the Order already be a knight. The earliest written mention of the Order is found in Tirant lo Blanch and it was first published in 1490. This book devotes a chapter to the description of the origin of the Order of the Garter, at the time of its foundation, the Order consisted of King Edward III, together with 25 Founder Knights, listed in ascending order of stall number in St.1431. Various legends account for the origin of the Order, the most popular legend involves the Countess of Salisbury, whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball at Calais. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense, King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774, The motto in fact refers to Edwards claim to the French throne, the use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour. Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in Gawain, a girdle, very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter, plays a prominent role. A rough version of the Orders motto also appears in the text and it translates from Old French as Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart. While the author of that poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter. Scholar J. P. Oakden has suggested that it is related to John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and, more importantly. Another competing theory is that the work was written for Enguerrand de Coucy, the Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward IIIs daughter, Isabella, and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day
The Most Noble Order of the Garter
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Most Noble Order of the Garter
The Most Noble Order of the Garter
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Representation of the garter on a Knight's mantle
The Most Noble Order of the Garter
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Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster (d.1361) (later Duke of Lancaster), the second recipient of the Order, shown wearing his garter robes in an illustration from the 1430 Bruges Garter Book made by William Bruges (1375–1450), first Garter King of Arms
The Most Noble Order of the Garter
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Statutes of the Order of the Garter
33.
Koreans
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Koreans are an ethnic group native to the whole Korean Peninsula and southeastern Manchuria. Over the course of the 20th century, significant Korean communities have emerged in Australia, Canada, United States and, to a lesser extent, as of 2013, there were an estimated 7.4 million ethnic Korean expatriates around the planet. South Koreans refer to themselves as Hanguk-in, or Hanguk-saram, both of which mean Korean nation people, when referring to members of the Korean diaspora, Koreans often use the term Han-in. North Koreans refer to themselves as Joseon-in or Joseon-saram, both of which literally mean Joseon people, using similar words, Koreans in China refer to themselves as Chaoxianzu in Chinese or Joseonjok in Korean, which are cognates that literally mean Joseon ethnic group. Ethnic Koreans living in Russia and Central Asia refer to themselves as Koryo-saram, alluding to Goryeo, Koreans are the descendants of the peoples that migrated for over 13. 000-7.000 years from Southeast Asia and todays Russian Far East into the Korean Peninsula and southern Manchuria. Later Chinese and other, often said to be Siberian or paleo-Asian tribes migrated into parts of Korea, archaeological evidence suggests that most of the later arriving tribes were migrants from south-central Siberia. During the Four Commanderies of Han some Chinese clans migrated to northern Korea, susumu Ōno, Ki-Moon Lee and Choong-Soon Kim suspect that proto-Dravidian people migrated to Korea and parts of Japan. Susumu Ōno suggest also an Austronesian immigration into the Korean peninsula, the largest concentration of dolmens in the world is found on the Korean Peninsula. In fact, with an estimated 35, 000-100,000 dolmen, Korean males also exhibit a moderate frequency of Haplogroup C-M217. About 2% of Korean males belong to Haplogroup D-M174, the D1b-M55 subclade has been found with maximal frequency in a small sample of the Ainu people of Japan, and is generally frequent throughout the Japanese Archipelago. Haplogroup D4 is the modal haplogroup among Koreans and among Northeast Asians in general. Haplogroup B, which very frequently in many populations of Southeast Asia, Polynesia. Haplogroup A has been detected in approximately 7% to 15% of Koreans, Haplogroup A is the most common mtDNA haplogroup among the Chukchi, Eskimo, Na-Dene, and many Amerind ethnic groups of North and Central America. The language of the Korean people is the Korean language, which uses Hangul as its writing system with some Hanja. There are more than 78 million speakers of the Korean language worldwide, estimating the size, growth rate, sex ratio, and age structure of North Koreas population has been extremely difficult. Until release of data in 1989, the 1963 edition of the North Korea Central Yearbook was the last official publication to disclose population figures. After 1963 demographers used varying methods to estimate the population, thus, on the basis of remarks made by President Kim Il-sung in 1977 concerning school attendance, the population that year was calculated at 17.2 million persons. During the 1980s, health statistics, including life expectancy and causes of mortality, were made available to the outside world
Koreans
Koreans
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North Korean soldiers in the Joint Security Area
Koreans
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A Russian stamp honoring Soviet rock star Viktor Tsoi.
34.
Emperor Kammu
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Emperor Kanmu was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kanmu reigned from 781 to 806 and he was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe, and was born prior to Shirakabes ascension to the throne. According to the Shoku Nihongi, Yamabes mother, Yamato no Niigasa, was a 10th generation descendant of Muryeong of Baekje, after his father became emperor, Kanmus half-brother, Prince Osabe was appointed to the rank of crown prince. His mother was Princess Inoe, a daughter of Emperor Shōmu, after Inoe and Prince Osabe were confined and then died in 775, Osabes sister – Kanmus half-sister Princess Sakahito – became Kanmus wife. Later, when he ascended to the throne in 781, Kanmu appointed his brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa. In 785 Sawara was expelled and died in exile, Kanmu had 16 empresses and consorts, and 32 imperial sons and daughters. Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the throne, Emperor Heizei, Emperor Saga and Emperor Junna. Some of his descendants took the Taira hereditary clan title, examples include Taira no Masakado, Taira no Kiyomori, and the Hōjō clan. The waka poet Ariwara no Narihira was one of his grandsons, Kanmu is traditionally venerated at his tomb, the Imperial Household Agency designates Kashiwabara no Misasagi, in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Kanmus mausoleum. Kanmu was an emperor who attempted to consolidate government hierarchies. Kanmu appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro to lead an expedition against the Emishi. 773, Received the title of crown prince, april 30,781, In the 11th year of Kōnins reign, he abdicated, and the succession was received by his son Kanmu. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kanmu is said to have ascended to the throne, during his reign, the capital of Japan was moved from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō in 784. Shortly thereafter, the capital would be moved again in 794, july 28,782, The sadaijin Fujiwara no Uona was involved in an incident that resulted in his removal from office and exile to Kyushi. Claiming illness, Uona was permitted to return to the capital where he died, posthumously, in the same general time frame, Fujiwara no Tamaro was named Udaijin. During these days in which the offices of sadaijin and udaijin were vacant, the major counselors,783, The udaijin Tamaro died at the age of 62 years. 783, Fujiwara no Korekimi became the new udaijin to replace the late Fujiwara no Tamaro,793, Under the leadership of Dengyō, construction began on the Enryaku Temple. 794, The capital was relocated again, this time to Heian-kyō, november 17,794, The emperor traveled by carriage from Nara to the new capital of Heian-kyō in a grand procession
Emperor Kammu
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Kanmu
Emperor Kammu
35.
Baekje
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Baekje was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo, Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeos founder Jumong and So Seo-no, at Wiryeseong. Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed Buyeo, an established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseons fall. Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula and it became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with China and Japan. In 660 it was defeated, by an alliance of Silla and the Chinese Tang Dynasty, Baekje was founded in 18 BC by King Onjo, who led a group of people from Goguryeo south to the Han River basin. According to the Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms, during the Samhan period, the Samguk Sagi provides a detailed account of Baekjes founding. Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo, Jumong became Divine King Dongmyeong, and had two more sons with So Seo-no, Onjo and Biryu. When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince, realizing Yuri would become the next king, So Seo-no left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals. She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje, Onjo settled in Wiryeseong, and called his country Sipje, while Biryu settled in Michuhol, against the vassals advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously, Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost, in shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country Baekje. King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital north of the river to Bukhansanseong in 132, probably in present-day Goyang to the northwest of Seoul. Through the early centuries of the Common Era, sometimes called the Proto–Three Kingdoms Period, during the reign of King Goi, Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text Nihonshoki, Baekjes expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367, King Geunchogo expanded Baekjes territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogos reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula, Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the state religion in 384. Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Kofun period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan
Baekje
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Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje
Baekje
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Baekje at its height in 375.
Baekje
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Mireuksa
36.
Prefectures of Japan
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The Prefectures of Japan consist of 47 prefectures. They form the first level of jurisdiction and administrative division of Japan and they consist of 43 prefectures proper, two urban prefectures, one circuit or territory and one metropolis. The Meiji Fuhanken sanchisei administration created the first prefectures to replace the provinces of Japan in 1868, each prefectures chief executive is a directly-elected governor. Ordinances and budgets are enacted by an assembly whose members are elected for four-year terms. Under the current Local Autonomy Law, each prefecture is subdivided into cities and districts and each district into towns, for example, Hokkaido has 14 subprefectures that act as branch offices of the prefecture. Some other prefectures also have offices that carry out prefectural administrative functions outside the capital. Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is a merged city-prefecture, the Wests use of prefecture to label these Japanese regions stems from 16th-century Portuguese explorers and traders use of prefeitura to describe the fiefdoms they encountered there. Its original sense in Portuguese, however, was closer to municipality than province and those fiefs were headed by a local warlord or family. Though the fiefs have long since been dismantled, merged, and reorganized multiple times, and been granted legislative governance and oversight, the Meiji government established the current system in July 1871 with the abolition of the Han system and establishment of the prefecture system. Although there were initially over 300 prefectures, many of them being former Han territories, this number was reduced to 72 in the part of 1871. The Local Autonomy Law of 1947 gave more power to prefectures. In 2003, then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi proposed that the government consolidate the current prefectures into about 10 regional states, the plan called for each region to have greater autonomy than existing prefectures. This process would reduce the number of administrative regions and cut administrative costs. As of August 2012, no reorganization has been scheduled, the central government delegates many functions to the prefectures and municipalities, but retains the overall right to control them. Although local government expenditure accounts for 70 percent of government expenditure, the central government controls local budgets, tax rates. Historically, during the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate established bugyō-ruled zones around the nine largest cities in Japan, and 302 township-ruled zones elsewhere. When the Meiji government began to create the system in 1868, the nine bugyō-ruled zones became fu, while the township-ruled zones. Later, in 1871, the government designated Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto as fu, during World War II, in 1943, Tokyo became a to, a new type of pseudo-prefecture
Prefectures of Japan
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Prefecture 都道府県 Todōfuken
37.
Government of Japan
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The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy in which the power of the Emperor is limited and is relegated primarily to ceremonial duties. As in many states, the Government is divided into three branches, the Executive branch, the Legislative branch and the Judicial branch. The Government runs under the established by the Constitution of Japan adopted in 1947. It is a state, containing forty-seven administrative divisions, with the Emperor as its head of state. His role is ceremonial and he has no powers related to Government, instead, it is the Cabinet, composing of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister, that directs and controls the Government. The Cabinet is the source of power of the Executive branch, and is formed by the Prime Minister and he or she is designated by the National Diet and appointed to office by the Emperor. The National Diet is the legislature, the organ of the Legislative branch and it is bicameral, consisting of two houses with the House of Councillors being the upper house, and the House of Representatives being the lower house. Its members are elected from the people, who are the source of sovereignty. The Supreme Court and other inferior courts make up the Judicial branch, and they are independent from the executive, prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan was ruled by successive military shoguns. During this period, effective power of the government resided in the Shogun, the Shoguns were the hereditary military governors, with their modern rank equivalent to a generalissimo. Although the Emperor was the sovereign who appointed the Shogun, his roles were ceremonial and this is often compared to the present role of the Emperor, whose official role is to appoint the Prime Minister. The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to the resignation of Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu and this event restored the country to Imperial rule and the proclamation of the Empire of Japan. In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was adopted in a move to strengthen Japan to the level of western nations and it provided a form of mixed constitutional-absolute monarchy, with an independent judiciary, based on the Prussian model of the time. A new aristocracy known as the Kazoku was established and it merged the ancient court nobility of the Heian period, the Kuge, and the former Daimyo, feudal lords subordinate to the Shogun. It also established the Imperial Diet, consisting of the House of Representatives, members of the House of Peers were made up of the Imperial Family, the Kazoku, and those nominated by the Emperor, while members of the House of Representatives were elected by direct male suffrage. Despite clear distinctions between powers of the branch and the Emperor in the Meiji Constitution, ambiguity and contradictions in the Constitution eventually led to a political crisis. It also devalued the notion of control over the military. Following the end of World War II, the Constitution of Japan was adopted as an intention to replace the previous Imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy, the Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and the ceremonial head of state
Government of Japan
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Cabinet Office Building
Government of Japan
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Seal of the Government
Government of Japan
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2nd Building of the Central Government
Government of Japan
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Agency for Cultural Affairs Office Building
38.
Commoner
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The terms common people, common man, commoners, or the masses denote a broad social division referring to ordinary people who are members of neither royalty nor nobility nor the priesthood. Since the 20th century, the common people has been used in a more general sense to refer to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged. In Europe, a concept analogous to common people arose in the Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks, with the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that would underpin European thinking on social division until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man, the three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood, the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as those who prayed, those who fought, the Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century. This threefold division was formalised in the system of social stratification. They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants, social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores, commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class, usually they would serve as rural parish priests. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry. Up until the late 15th-century European social order was relatively stable, there were periods where the common people felt oppressed in certain regions, but often they were content with their lot. The social and political order of medieval Europe was shaken by the development of the cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies -. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and this change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common peoples mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642, after the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonels speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of male suffrage
Commoner
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Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix The "Liberty" figure can be interpreted as both a goddess and a heroic commoner.
Commoner
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A Medieval French manuscript illustration depicting the three estates: clergy (oratores), nobles (bellatores), and commoners (laboratores).
Commoner
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US Vice President Henry A. Wallace proclaimed the "arrival of the century of the common man" in a 1942 speech broadcast nationwide in the United States.
39.
Constitution of Japan
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The Constitution of Japan is the fundamental law of Japan. It was enacted on May 3,1947, as a new constitution for a post-war Japan, the constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms the Emperor of Japan is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, no amendment has been made to it since its adoption. The Meiji Constitution was the law of the Empire of Japan. It provided for a form of mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, based on the Prussian, under the Meiji Constitution, the prime minister and his cabinet were not necessarily chosen from the elected members of the Diet. Pursuing the regular amending procedure of the Meiji Constitution, it was revised to become the Post-war Constitution on 3 November 1946. The Post-war Constitution has been in force since 3 May 1947, on 26 July 1945, Allied leaders Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman, and Chiang Kai-shek issued the Potsdam Declaration, which demanded Japans unconditional surrender. Freedom of speech, of religion, and of thought, as well as respect for the human rights shall be established. The Allies sought not merely punishment or reparations from a militaristic foe, in the words of political scientist Robert E. Ward, The occupation was perhaps the single most exhaustively planned operation of massive and externally directed political change in world history. The wording of the Potsdam Declaration—The Japanese Government shall remove all obstacles, instead, they wished to encourage Japans new leaders to initiate democratic reforms on their own. But by early 1946, MacArthurs staff and Japanese officials were at odds over the most fundamental issue, in late 1945, Shidehara appointed Jōji Matsumoto, state minister without portfolio, head of a blue-ribbon committee of Constitutional scholars to suggest revisions. The Matsumoto Commissions recommendations, made public in February 1946, were quite conservative, MacArthur rejected them outright and ordered his staff to draft a completely new document. An additional reason for this was that on January 24,1946, much of the drafting was done by two senior army officers with law degrees, Milo Rowell and Courtney Whitney, although others chosen by MacArthur had a large say in the document. The articles about equality between men and women were written by Beate Sirota, MacArthur gave the authors less than a week to complete the draft, which was presented to surprised Japanese officials on 13 February 1946. On 6 March 1946 the government publicly disclosed an outline of the pending Constitution, on 10 April elections were held for the House of Representatives of the Ninetieth Imperial Diet, which would consider the proposed Constitution. The election law having changed, this was the first general election in Japan in which women were permitted to vote. The MacArthur draft, which proposed a unicameral legislature, was changed at the insistence of the Japanese to allow a bicameral one, in most other important respects, the government adopted the ideas embodied in the 13 February document in its own draft proposal of 6 March. These included the constitutions most distinctive features, the role of the Emperor, the prominence of guarantees of civil and human rights
Constitution of Japan
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"Emperor's words".
Constitution of Japan
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The constitution of Japan was largely drafted by US lawyers in the occupation authority. This image is of a secret memo written by members of the authority on the subject of the new constitution.
40.
Battle of Saipan
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The Battle of Saipan was a battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the island of Saipan in the Mariana Islands from 15 June to 9 July 1944. The Allied invasion fleet embarking the expeditionary forces left Pearl Harbor on 5 June 1944, in the campaigns of 1943 and the first half of 1944, the Allies had captured the Solomon Islands, the Gilbert Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Papuan Peninsula of New Guinea. This left the Japanese holding the Philippines, the Caroline Islands, Palau Islands and it had always been the intention of the American planners to bypass the Carolines and Palauan islands and to seize the Marianas and Taiwan. From these latter bases, communications between the Japanese archipelago and Japanese forces to the south and west could be cut. From the Marianas, Japan would be well within the range of an air offensive relying on the new Boeing B-29 Superfortress long-range bomber with its radius of 1,500 mi. The Japanese, expecting an attack somewhere on their perimeter, thought an attack on the Caroline Islands most likely, to reinforce and supply their garrisons, they needed naval and air superiority, so Operation A-Go, a major carrier attack, was prepared for June 1944. Smith XXIV Corps Artillery — Brigadier General Arthur M. Harper 1st Provisional Gun Group 225th Field Artillery Howitzer Group 2nd Marine Division — Major General Thomas E, fifteen battleships were involved, and 165,000 shells were fired. Seven modern fast battleships delivered 2,40016 in shells, but to avoid potential minefields, fire was from a distance of 10,000 yd or more, the following day the eight older battleships and 11 cruisers under Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf replaced the fast battleships but were lacking in time and ammunition, the landings began at 07,00 on 15 June 1944. More than 300 LVTs landed 8,000 Marines on the west coast of Saipan by about 09,00, eleven fire support ships covered the Marine landings. However, by nightfall, the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions had a beachhead about 6 mi wide and 0.5 mi deep, the Japanese counter-attacked at night but were repulsed with heavy losses. On 16 June, units of the U. S. Armys 27th Infantry Division landed and advanced on the airfield at Ås Lito, again the Japanese counter-attacked at night. On 18 June, Saito abandoned the airfield, the invasion surprised the Japanese high command, which had been expecting an attack further south. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Navy, saw an opportunity to use the A-Go force to attack the U. S. Navy forces around Saipan, on 15 June, he gave the order to attack. But the resulting battle of the Philippine Sea was a disaster for the Imperial Japanese Navy, the garrisons of the Marianas would have no hope of resupply or reinforcement. Without resupply, the battle on Saipan was hopeless for the defenders, Saito organized his troops into a line anchored on Mount Tapotchau in the defensible mountainous terrain of central Saipan. The nicknames given by the Americans to the features of the battle — Hells Pocket, Purple Heart Ridge, the Japanese used the many caves in the volcanic landscape to delay the attackers, by hiding during the day and making sorties at night. The Americans gradually developed tactics for clearing the caves by using flamethrower teams supported by artillery, however, General Holland Smith had not inspected the terrain over which the 27th was to advance
Battle of Saipan
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LVTs heading for shore on 15 June 1944. Birmingham in foreground; the cruiser firing in the distance is Indianapolis.
Battle of Saipan
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Lt. General Yoshitsugu Saitō, commander of the Imperial forces
Battle of Saipan
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Navajo codetalkers played a key role in directing naval gunfire onto Japanese positions.
Battle of Saipan
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Map showing the progress of the Battle of Saipan
41.
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima is the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture and the largest city in the Chūgoku region of western Honshu - the largest island of Japan. The citys name, 広島, means Broad Island in Japanese, Hiroshima gained city status on April 1,1889. On April 1,1980, Hiroshima became a designated city, as of August 2016, the city had an estimated population of 1,196,274. The GDP in Greater Hiroshima, Hiroshima Metropolitan Employment Area, is US$61.3 billion as of 2010, kazumi Matsui has been the citys mayor since April 2011. Hiroshima was established on the river delta coastline of the Seto Inland Sea in 1589 by powerful warlord Mōri Terumoto, Hiroshima Castle was quickly built, and in 1593 Terumoto moved in. Terumoto was on the side at the Battle of Sekigahara. The winner of the battle, Tokugawa Ieyasu, deprived Mōri Terumoto of most of his fiefs, including Hiroshima and gave Aki Province to Masanori Fukushima, after the han was abolished in 1871, the city became the capital of Hiroshima Prefecture. Hiroshima became an urban center during the imperial period, as the Japanese economy shifted from primarily rural to urban industries. During the 1870s, one of the seven government-sponsored English language schools was established in Hiroshima, Ujina Harbor was constructed through the efforts of Hiroshima Governor Sadaaki Senda in the 1880s, allowing Hiroshima to become an important port city. The Sanyō Railway was extended to Hiroshima in 1894, and a line from the main station to the harbor was constructed for military transportation during the First Sino-Japanese War. During that war, the Japanese government moved temporarily to Hiroshima, New industrial plants, including cotton mills, were established in Hiroshima in the late 19th century. Further industrialization in Hiroshima was stimulated during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the Hiroshima Prefectural Commercial Exhibition Hall was constructed in 1915 as a center for trade and exhibition of new products. Later, its name was changed to Hiroshima Prefectural Product Exhibition Hall, during World War I, Hiroshima became a focal point of military activity, as the Japanese government entered the war on the Allied side. About 500 German prisoners of war were held in Ninoshima Island in Hiroshima Bay, during World War II, the 2nd General Army and Chugoku Regional Army were headquartered in Hiroshima, and the Army Marine Headquarters was located at Ujina port. The city also had large depots of supplies, and was a key center for shipping. The bombing of Tokyo and other cities in Japan during World War II caused widespread destruction, there were no such air raids on Hiroshima. However, a real threat existed and was recognized, in order to protect against potential firebombings in Hiroshima, school children aged 11–14 years were mobilized to demolish houses and create firebreaks. On Monday, August 6,1945, at 8,15 a. m, by the end of the year, injury and radiation brought the total number of deaths to 90, 000–166,000
Hiroshima
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From top left: Hiroshima Castle, Baseball game of Hiroshima Toyo Carp in Hiroshima Municipal Baseball Stadium, Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome), Night view of Ebisu-cho, Shukkei-en (Asano Park)
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima Castle
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima Commercial Museum 1915
Hiroshima
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Hiroshima after the bombing
42.
Nagasaki
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Nagasaki is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. Part of Nagasaki was home to a major Imperial Japanese Navy base during the First Sino-Japanese War, during World War II, the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made Nagasaki the second and, to date, last city in the world to experience a nuclear attack. As of 1 January 2009, the city has an population of 446,007. The total area is 406.35 km², a small fishing village set in a secluded harbor, Nagasaki had little historical significance until contact with Portuguese explorers in 1543. An early visitor was Fernão Mendes Pinto, who came on a Portuguese ship which landed nearby in Tanegashima and his followers who remained behind converted a number of daimyōs. The most notable among them was Ōmura Sumitada, the little harbor village quickly grew into a diverse port city, and Portuguese products imported through Nagasaki were assimilated into popular Japanese culture. The Portuguese also brought them many goods from China. Thus, for a period after 1580, the city of Nagasaki was a Jesuit colony, under their administrative. It was administered by the captain of the Portuguese black ship, the highest representative of the Portuguese Crown and it became a refuge for Christians escaping maltreatment in other regions of Japan. In 1587, however, Toyotomi Hideyoshis campaign to unify the country arrived in Kyūshū, however, the expulsion order went largely unenforced, and the fact remained that most of Nagasakis population remained openly practicing Catholic. In 1596, the Spanish ship San Felipe was wrecked off the coast of Shikoku, in response, Hideyoshi ordered the crucifixions of twenty-six Catholics in Nagasaki on February 5 of that year. Portuguese traders were not ostracized, however, and so the city continued to thrive, in 1602, Augustinian missionaries also arrived in Japan, and when Tokugawa Ieyasu took power in 1603, Catholicism was still tolerated. Many Catholic daimyōs had been allies at the Battle of Sekigahara. Once Osaka Castle had been taken and Toyotomi Hideyoshis offspring killed, though, in addition, the Dutch and English presence allowed trade without religious strings attached. Thus, in 1614, Catholicism was officially banned and all missionaries ordered to leave, most Catholic daimyo apostatized, and forced their subjects to do so, although a few would not renounce the religion and left the country for Macau, Luzon and Japantowns in Southeast Asia. A brutal campaign of persecution followed, with thousands of converts across Kyūshū and other parts of Japan killed, tortured, catholicisms last gasp as an open religion and the last major military action in Japan until the Meiji Restoration was the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637. Consequently, in Tokugawa society the word Shimabara solidified the connection between Christianity and disloyalty, constantly used again and again in Tokugawa propaganda, the Shimabara Rebellion also convinced many policy-makers that foreign influences were more trouble than they were worth, leading to the national isolation policy. The Great Fire of Nagasaki destroyed much of the city in 1663, including the Mazu shrine at the Kofukuji Temple patronized by the Chinese sailors, in 1720 the ban on Dutch books was lifted, causing hundreds of scholars to flood into Nagasaki to study European science and art
Nagasaki
Nagasaki
Nagasaki
Nagasaki
43.
Okinawa Prefecture
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Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost prefecture of Japan. It comprises hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1,000 kilometres long, the Ryukyus extend southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan. The Okinawa Prefecture encompasses the two thirds of that chain. Naha, Okinawas capital, is located in the part of Okinawa Island. Although Okinawa comprises just 0. 6% of Japans total land mass, currently about 26,000 of the U. S. troops deployed in Japan are based in the prefecture. The oldest evidence of existence on the Ryukyu islands is from the Stone Age and was discovered in Naha. Some human bone fragments from the Paleolithic era were unearthed, Japanese Jōmon influences are dominant on the Okinawa Islands, although clay vessels on the Sakishima Islands have a commonality with those in Taiwan. The first mention of the word Ryukyu was written in the Book of Sui, Okinawa was the Japanese word identifying the islands, first seen in the biography of Jianzhen, written in 779. Agricultural societies begun in the 8th century slowly developed until the 12th century, since the islands are located at the eastern perimeter of the East China Sea relatively close to Japan, China and South-East Asia, the Ryukyu Kingdom became a prosperous trading nation. Also during this period, many Gusukus, similar to castles, were constructed, the Ryukyu Kingdom entered into the Imperial Chinese tributary system under the Ming dynasty beginning in the 15th century, which established economic relations between the two nations. In 1609, the Shimazu clan, which controlled the region that is now Kagoshima Prefecture, the Satsuma clan earned considerable profits from trade with China during a period in which foreign trade was heavily restricted by the shogunate. Although Satsuma maintained strong influence over the islands, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained a degree of domestic political freedom for over two hundred years. Four years after the 1868 Meiji Restoration, the Japanese government, through military incursions, officially annexed the kingdom and renamed it Ryukyu han. At the time, the Qing Empire asserted a nominal suzerainty over the islands of the Ryukyu Kingdom, Ryukyu han became Okinawa Prefecture of Japan in 1879, even though all other hans had become prefectures of Japan in 1872. In 1912, Okinawans first obtained the right to vote for representatives to the national Diet which had established in 1890. Near the end of World War II, in 1945, the US Army, a third of the civilian population died, a quarter of the civilian population died during the 1945 Battle of Okinawa alone. The dead, of all nationalities, are commemorated at the Cornerstone of Peace, after the end of World War II, the Ryukyu independence movement developed, while Okinawa was under United States Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands administration for 27 years. During this trusteeship rule, the United States established numerous military bases on the Ryukyu islands, during the Korean War, B-29 Superfortresses flew bombing missions over Korea from Kadena Air Base on Okinawa
Okinawa Prefecture
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History of Ryūkyū
Okinawa Prefecture
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Okinawa Prefecture 沖縄県
Okinawa Prefecture
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Location of Ryukyu Islands
Okinawa Prefecture
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A Ryukyuan embassy in Edo.
44.
Ichthyology
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Ichthyology, also known as fish science, is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fish. This includes bony fish, cartilaginous fish, and jawless fish, while a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each year. According to FishBase,33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016, the study of fish dates from the Upper Paleolithic Revolution. The science of ichthyology was developed in several interconnecting epochs, each with various significant advancements, the study of fish receives its origins from humans desire to feed, clothe, and equip themselves with useful implements. Early cultures manifested these insights in abstract and identifiable artistic expressions, informal, scientific descriptions of fish are represented within the Judeo-Christian tradition. The Old Testament laws of kashrut forbade the consumption of fish scales or appendages. These fish include cyprinids of the genera Barbus and Mirogrex, cichlids of the genus Sarotherodon, Aristotle incorporated ichthyology into formal scientific study. Between 335 BC–322 BC, he provided the earliest taxonomic classification of fish, furthermore, Aristotle documented anatomical and behavioral differences between fish and marine mammals. After his death, some of his pupils continued his ichthyological research, theophrastus, for example, composed a treatise on amphibious fish. The Romans, although devoted to science, wrote extensively about fish. Pliny the Elder, a notable Roman naturalist, compiled the works of indigenous Greeks, including verifiable and ambiguous peculiarities such as the sawfish. Plinys documentation was the last significant contribution to ichthyology until the European Renaissance, the writings of three sixteenth century scholars, Hippolito Salviani, Pierre Belon, and Guillaume Rondelet, signify the conception of modern ichthyology. The investigations of individuals were based upon actual research in comparison to ancient recitations. This property popularized and emphasized these discoveries, despite their prominence, Rondelets De Piscibus Marinis is regarded as the most influential, identifying 244 species of fish. The incremental alterations in navigation and shipbuilding throughout the Renaissance marked the commencement of a new epoch in ichthyology, the Renaissance culminated with the era of exploration and colonization, and upon the cosmopolitan interest in navigation came the specialization in naturalism. Georg Marcgrave of Saxony composed the Naturalis Brasilae in 1648 and this document contained a description of 100 species of fish indigenous to the Brazilian coastline. In 1686, John Ray and Francis Willughby collaboratively published Historia Piscium, the fish contained within this informative literature were arranged in a provisional system of classification. The classification used within the Historia Piscium was further developed by Carl Linnaeus and his taxonomic approach became the systematic approach to the study of organisms, including fish
Ichthyology
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Fish represent approximately 8% of all figurative depictions on Mimbres pottery.
Ichthyology
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Frontipiece from Ichthyologia, sive Opera Omnia de Piscibus by Peter Artedi
Ichthyology
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About fish
45.
Meiji period
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The Meiji period, also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from October 23,1868 through July 30,1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan during which Japanese society moved from being a feudal society to its modern form. Fundamental changes affected its structure, internal politics, economy, military. The period corresponded with the reign of Emperor Meiji after 1868 and it was succeeded by the Taishō period upon the accession of Emperor Taishō to the throne. On February 3,1867, the 14-year-old Prince Mutsuhito succeeded his father, Emperor Kōmei, on November 9,1867, then-Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu tendered his resignation to the Emperor, and formally stepped down ten days later. Imperial restoration occurred the year on January 3,1868. The fall of Edo in the summer of 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and a new era, Meiji, was proclaimed. The first reform was the promulgation of the Five Charter Oath in 1868, implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu, and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath, a rather short-lived constitution with eleven articles was drawn up in June 1868, the Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow the old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title—Meiji, to further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto, where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo, the new name for Edo. Confirmed in their positions, the daimyo became governors. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871, and authority continued to flow to the national government, officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma, Chōshū, Tosa, and Hizen staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles, and lower-ranking but more radical samurai, replaced bakufu appointees, in as much as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a Shinto-oriented state much like it was 1,000 years earlier. Furthermore, a new State Shinto had to be constructed for the purpose, in 1871, the Office of Shinto Worship was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The kokutai ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the ancestry of the Imperial House was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers, a small but important move, although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the Home Ministry controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored, although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine, increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods
Meiji period
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Meiji Constitution Promulgation (woodblock print by T. Chikanobu)
Meiji period
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The fifteen-year-old Meiji Emperor, moving from Kyoto to Tokyo at the end of 1868, after the fall of Edo.
Meiji period
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Emperor Meiji in his fifties.
Meiji period
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When Itagaki Taisuke was attacked by thugs in Gifu, he cried "Itagaki may die, but liberty – never!" [citation needed] (woodblock print by Utagawa Toyonobu)
46.
Science (journal)
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Science, also widely referred to as Science Magazine, is the peer-reviewed academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and one of the worlds top academic journals. It was first published in 1880, is circulated weekly and has a print subscriber base of around 130,000. Because institutional subscriptions and online access serve an audience, its estimated readership is 570,400 people. Unlike most scientific journals, which focus on a field, Science. According to the Journal Citation Reports, Sciences 2015 impact factor was 34.661, although it is the journal of the AAAS, membership in the AAAS is not required to publish in Science. Papers are accepted from authors around the world, competition to publish in Science is very intense, as an article published in such a highly cited journal can lead to attention and career advancement for the authors. Fewer than 7% of articles submitted are accepted for publication, Science is based in Washington, D. C. United States, with an office in Cambridge, England. Science was founded by New York journalist John Michels in 1880 with financial support from Thomas Edison, however, the journal never gained enough subscribers to succeed and ended publication in March 1882. Entomologist Samuel H. Scudder resurrected the journal one year later and had some success while covering the meetings of prominent American scientific societies, however, by 1894, Science was again in financial difficulty and was sold to psychologist James McKeen Cattell for $500. In an agreement worked out by Cattell and AAAS secretary Leland O. Howard, after Cattell died in 1944, the ownership of the journal was transferred to the AAAS. After Cattells death in 1944, the journal lacked a consistent editorial presence until Graham DuShane became editor in 1956. In 1958, under DuShanes leadership, Science absorbed The Scientific Monthly, physicist Philip Abelson, a co-discoverer of neptunium, served as editor from 1962 to 1984. Under Abelson the efficiency of the process was improved and the publication practices were brought up to date. During this time, papers on the Apollo program missions and some of the earliest reports on AIDS were published, biochemist Daniel E. Koshland, Jr. served as editor from 1985 until 1995. From 1995 until 2000, neuroscientist Floyd E. Bloom held that position, biologist Donald Kennedy became the editor of Science in 2000. Biochemist Bruce Alberts took his place in March 2008, geophysicist Marcia McNutt became editor-in-chief in June 2013. During her tenure the family of journals expanded to include Science Robotics and Science Immunology, jeremy M. Berg became editor-in-chief on July 1,2016
Science (journal)
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Issue from February–June 1883
Science (journal)
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Science
47.
Linnean Society of London
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The Linnean Society of London is a society dedicated to the study of, and the dissemination of information concerning, natural history and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections and publishes academic journals and books on plant, the society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes for achievement. A product of the 18th century enlightenment, the society is important as the venue for the first public presentation of the Theory of Evolution. The patron of the society is Queen Elizabeth II, the Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society derives its name from the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus, the father of taxonomy and he was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling Linnean, rather than Linnaean. The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, in 1802, as a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world, throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history. The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows, one such was the botanist Robert Brown, who was president, he named the cell nucleus and discovered Brownian motion. In 1854 Charles Darwin was elected a fellow, he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the rolls of the society. Another famous fellow was biologist Thomas Huxley, who gained the nickname Darwins bulldog for his defence of evolution. At this meeting a joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace was made, sponsored by Joseph Hooker, in 1904 the society experienced the novelty of electing women fellows, this followed a number of years of campaigning by the botanist Marian Farquharson. Whilst the societys council was reluctant to admit women, the fellows were much less so, among the first to benefit from this were, Lilian J. Veley, a microbiologist and Annie Lorrain Smith, a lichenologist and mycologist, both formally admitted on 19 January 1905. Also amongst the first women to be elected in 1904 was the paleobotanist, the societys connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. Sir Edward Poulton, who was president 1912-1916, was a defender of natural selection and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of frequency-dependent selection. The first female president of the society was Irene Manton, who pioneered the use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to systems of cellular motility. Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation and this was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the John Spedan Lewis Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation. Fellowship requires nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two thirds of those electors voting, fellows may employ the post-nominal letters FLS
Linnean Society of London
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Burlington House: the Linnean Society occupies the range to the left of the entrance arch.
Linnean Society of London
Linnean Society of London
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"Linnean Society" redirects here. For other uses, see Linnean Society (disambiguation).
Linnean Society of London
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The library of the Linnean Society, Burlington House
48.
Uppsala University
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Uppsala University is a research university in Uppsala, Sweden, and is the oldest university in Sweden and all of the Nordic countries, founded in 1477. It ranks among the best universities in Northern Europe in international rankings, the university uses Gratiae veritas naturae as its motto and embraces natural sciences. Uppsala also has an important historical place in Swedish national culture, identity and for the Swedish establishment, in historiography, literature, politics, many aspects of Swedish academic culture in general, such as the white student cap, originated in Uppsala. It shares some peculiarities, such as the student nation system, with Lund University, Uppsala belongs to the Coimbra Group of European universities. The university has nine faculties distributed over three “disciplinary domains” and it has about 24,000 full-time students and 2,400 doctoral students. It has a staff of roughly 1,800 out of a total of 6,500 employees. Twenty-five per cent of the 674 professors at the university are women, of its turnover of SEK5.9 billion in 2013, 30% was spent on education on basic and advanced level, while 66% was spent on research and research programs. Architecturally, Uppsala University has traditionally had a presence in the area around the cathedral on the western side of the River Fyris. Despite some more contemporary building developments further away from the centre, as with most medieval universities, Uppsala University initially grew out of an ecclesiastical center. The archbishopric of Uppsala had been one of the most important sees in Sweden proper since Christianity first spread to this region in the ninth century, Uppsala had also long been a hub for regional trade, and had contained settlements dating back into the deep Middle Ages. As was also the case with most medieval universities, Uppsala had initially been chartered through a papal bull, Uppsalas bull, which granted the university its corporate rights, was issued by Pope Sixtus IV in 1477, and established a number of provisions. Among the most important of these was that the university was given the same freedoms. This included the right to establish the four faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelors, masters, licentiate. The archbishop of Uppsala was also named as the universitys Chancellor, Swedish students generally travelled to one of the Protestant universities in Germany, especially Wittenberg. The Meeting of Uppsala in 1593 established Lutheran orthodoxy in Sweden, and Charles, Theology still had precedence, but in the privileges of 1593, the importance of a university to educate secular servants of the state was also emphasized. Three of the seven professorial chairs which were established were in Theology, of the other four, a fourth chair was given to Ericus Jacobi Skinnerus, who was also appointed rector, but whose discipline was not mentioned in the charter. Of the professors, several were taken over from the Collegium Regium in Stockholm, an eighth chair, in Medicine, was established in 1595 but received no appointee for several years. In 1599 the number of students was approximately 150, in 1600 the first post-reformation conferment of degrees took place
Uppsala University
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University Hall
Uppsala University
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Uppsala University
Uppsala University
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Gustavianum, built 1622–1625 and now a museum.
Uppsala University
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Anders Celsius, astronomer and physicist.
49.
Order of the Rising Sun
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The Order of the Rising Sun is a Japanese order, established in 1875 by Emperor Meiji of Japan. The Order was the first national decoration awarded by the Japanese government, the badge features rays of sunlight from the rising sun. The design of the Rising Sun symbolizes energy as powerful as the sun in parallel with the rising sun concept of Japan. Prior to the end of World War II, it was awarded for exemplary military service. While it is the third highest order bestowed by the Japanese government, the modern version of this honour has been conferred on non-Japanese recipients beginning in 1981, and women were awarded the Order starting in 2003. The awarding of the Order is administered by the Decoration Bureau of Office of the Prime Minister and it is awarded in the name of the Emperor and can be awarded posthumously. It can be awarded to Japanese as well as non-Japanese nationals, the Order was awarded in nine classes until 2003, when the Grand Cordon with Paulownia Flowers was made a separate order, and the lowest two classes were abolished. Since then, it has awarded in six classes. Conventionally, a diploma is prepared to accompany the insignia of the order, and in rare instances. The star for the Grand Cordon and Second Class is a star of eight points. It is worn on the left chest for the Grand Cordon, on the right chest for the 2nd Class. The badge for the Seventh and Eighth Classes consisted of a medal in the shape of three paulownia leaves, enamelled for the 7th Class and plain for the 8th Class. Both were suspended on a ribbon, again in white with red border stripes, both classes were abolished in 2003 and replaced by the Order of the Paulownia Flowers, a single-class order that now ranks above the Order of the Rising Sun. Order of Civil Merit Order of Chula Chom Klao and Order of the White Elephant Order of St. Michael and St. Barry C. Weaver, Orders and Medals of Japan and Associated States. San Ramon, California, Orders and Medals Society of America, Japan, Cabinet Office, Decorations and Medals Decoration Bureau, Order of the Rising Sun Japan Mint, Production Process
Order of the Rising Sun
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Order of the Rising Sun 旭日章
Order of the Rising Sun
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US Navy Admiral Dennis C. Blair being presented the badge and ribbon of Order of the Rising Sun. (2005)
50.
Order of the Sacred Treasure
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The Order of the Sacred Treasure is a Japanese order, established on 4 January 1888 by Emperor Meiji as the Order of Meiji. Originally awarded in eight classes, since 2003 it has awarded in six classes. Unlike most of its European counterparts, the order may be conferred posthumously, the Order can be awarded in any of six classes. Conventionally, a diploma is prepared to accompany the insignia of the order, and in rare instances. The star for the Grand Cordon and Second Class is similar to the badge as described above and it is worn on the left chest by the Grand Cordon, on the right chest by the 2nd class. The badge for the first through sixth classes is a Maltese cross, in gilt, gilt and silver and silver, the central disc is blue, bearing an eight-pointed silver star, surrounded by a wreath with red-enameled dots. For females of the 2nd to 6th classes, the ribbon is a bow worn on the left shoulder, the badge is suspended on a white ribbon with a gold stripe near the border, worn by men on the left chest. For women, the ribbon is a bow worn on the left shoulder, until 2003, the ribbon of the order was white with two gold stripes near the borders, since then the ribbon has been light blue, but retains two gold stripes near the borders. The ribbon for the Fifth and Sixth Classes has a blue disc with gold rays radiating from its center, eight rays for the Fifth Class. Formerly, the ribbon for the Seventh and Eighth Classes had a silver disc with gold rays radiating from its center, four rays for the Seventh Class. In 2003 the lowest two classes of the Order were abolished, moreover, the badges of the Order will from now on be suspended from three white-enamelled paulownia leaves. Officially the Medal and its designation were abolished in 2003, there are no known recipients or issuances of this Medal in its design from 1887. While established with the induction of the First 6 classes, Class 8 has never been issued or designated a design. Officially the Medal and its designation were abolished in 2003, there are no known recipients or issuances of this Medal in its design from 1887. Barry C. Weaver and Michael A. Quigley, Orders and Medals of Japan and Associated States. San Ramon, California, Orders and Medals Society of America, the Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans, Vol. II
Order of the Sacred Treasure
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Order of the Sacred Treasure 瑞宝章
Order of the Sacred Treasure
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Order of the Sacred Treasure (class 3)
Order of the Sacred Treasure
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Order of the Sacred Treasure (class 5)
Order of the Sacred Treasure
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Ribbon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure – old type
51.
Order of Culture
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The Order of Culture is a Japanese order, established on February 11,1937. The order is conferred by the Emperor of Japan in person on Culture Day each year, the badge of the order, which is in gold with white enamel, is in the form of an mandarin orange blossom, the central disc bears three crescent-shaped jades. The badge is suspended on a gold and enamel wreath of mandarin orange leaves and fruit, the Emperor himself presents the honor at the award ceremony, which takes place at the Imperial Palace on the Day of Culture. The Minister then recommends the candidates to the Prime Minister so that they can be decided by the Cabinet, the system for Persons of Cultural Merit was established in 1951 by the Law on Pensions for the Persons of Cultural Merit. The purpose is to honor persons of cultural merit by providing a special government-sponsored pension, since 1955, the new honorees have been announced on the Day of Culture, the same day as the award ceremony for the Order of Culture. A complete list can be found here, a composer of classical music and film scores. A physician, a prominent academic, and bacteriologist researcher, an author, who established literary criticism as an independent art form in Japan. A physicist and a pioneer of Japanese physics in the early Meiji period, 1st kabuki actor to receive this honor. A famous kabuki actor, known for his oyama roles, an electrical engineering researcher and professor who developed the split-anode magnetron. A popular writer in Showa period, an academic, an advocate for expanding higher education opportunities, and an internationally known Buddhist scholar. A pioneer in the development of television, an important figure in the world of Japanese studies and Sinology. A scientist who won the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1987, co-founder, President and Chairman of Sony Corporation. Nakamura Jakuemon, Kabuki actor Toan Kobayashi, Seal carver Shizuka Shirakawa, Scholar of Chinese-language literature Horin Fukuoji, political scientist, specializing in American diplomatic and political history. Ryuzan Aoki, Ceramic artist Toshio Sawada, Civil engineer Shigeaki Hinohara, a pioneer of nuclear fusion research. Chusaku Oyama, Nihonga painter Miyohei Shinohara, Economist Akira Mikazuki, former justice minister and professor emeritus. Tokindo Okada, Developmental biologist Shigeyama Sensaku, Kyogen performer Hironoshin Furuhashi, a mathematician whose work is now called Itō calculus. > Donald Keene. A Japanologist, scholar, teacher, writer, translator and interpreter of Japanese literature and culture, a physicist who was awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics. A theoretical physicist who was awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics, a conductor, particularly noted for his interpretations of large-scale late Romantic works
Order of Culture
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Kabuki actor Nakamura Kichiemon I was awarded the Order of Culture in 1951. He was the first kabuki performer to be accorded this honor.
52.
Bahrain
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Bahrain, officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, is a small Arab monarchy in the Persian Gulf. Bahrains population is 1,234,567, including 666,172 non-nationals and it is 780 km2 in size, making it the third smallest nation in Asia after the Maldives and Singapore. Bahrain is the site of the ancient Dilmun civilisation and it has been famed since antiquity for its pearl fisheries, which were considered the best in the world into the 19th century. Bahrain was one of the earliest areas to convert to Islam, following a period of Arab rule, Bahrain was occupied by the Portuguese in 1521, who in turn were expelled in 1602 by Shah Abbas I of the Safavid dynasty under the Persian Empire. In 1783, the Bani Utbah clan captured Bahrain from Nasr Al-Madhkur and it has since been ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family, in the late 1800s, following successive treaties with the British, Bahrain became a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Formerly a state, Bahrain was declared a Kingdom in 2002, in 2011, the country experienced protests inspired by the regional Arab Spring. Bahrain had the first post-oil economy in the Persian Gulf, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has invested in the banking and tourism sectors. Many large financial institutions have a presence in Manama, the countrys capital, Bahrain has a high Human Development Index and was recognised by the World Bank as a high income economy. In Arabic, Bahrayn is the form of bahr, so al-Bahrayn means the two seas, although which two seas were originally intended remains in dispute. The term appears five times in the Quran, but does not refer to the modern island—originally known to the Arabs as Awal— but rather to all of Eastern Arabia. Today, Bahrains two seas are generally taken to be the bay east and west of the island. In addition to wells, there are areas of the sea north of Bahrain where fresh water bubbles up in the middle of the water as noted by visitors since antiquity. An alternate theory with regard to Bahrains toponymy is offered by the al-Ahsa region, another supposition by al-Jawahari suggests that the more formal name Bahri would have been misunderstood and so was opted against. Until the late Middle Ages, Bahrain referred to the region of Eastern Arabia that included Southern Iraq, Kuwait, Al-Hasa, Qatif, the region stretched from Basra in Iraq to the Strait of Hormuz in Oman. This was Iqlīm al-Bahrayns Bahrayn Province, the exact date at which the term Bahrain began to refer solely to the Awal archipelago is unknown. The entire coastal strip of Eastern Arabia was known as Bahrain for a millennium, the island and kingdom were also commonly spelled Bahrein into the 1950s. Bahrain was home to the Dilmun civilization, an important Bronze Age trade centre linking Mesopotamia, Bahrain was later ruled by the Assyrians and Babylonians. From the 6th to 3rd century BC, Bahrain was part of the Persian Empire ruled by the Achaemenian dynasty, by about 250 BC, Parthia brought the Persian Gulf under its control and extended its influence as far as Oman
Bahrain
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Arad Fort in Arad; constructed before the Portuguese assumed control.
Bahrain
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Flag
Bahrain
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Bahrain harbor, c. 1870.
Bahrain
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A photograph of the First Oil Well in Bahrain, with oil first being extracted in 1931
53.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
Belgium
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Charlemagne and Charles V
Belgium
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Flaga
Belgium
Belgium
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Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1834), by Egide Charles Gustave Wappers
54.
Botswana
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Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens refer to themselves as Batswana, formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. Since then, it has maintained a tradition of stable representative democracy. Botswana is topographically flat, with up to 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahari Desert and it is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. Its border with Zambia to the north near Kazungula is poorly defined, a mid-sized country of just over 2 million people, Botswana is one of the most sparsely populated nations in the world. Around 10 percent of the lives in the capital and largest city. The economy is dominated by mining, cattle, and tourism, Botswana boasts a GDP per capita of about $18,825 per year as of 2015, which is one of the highest in Africa. Its high gross national income gives the country a modest standard of living, Botswana is a member of the African Union, the Southern African Development Community, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the United Nations. The country has been among the hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the death rate due to AIDS or AIDS-related causes has fallen sharply from 2005 to 2013, and the number of new infections in children has also fallen. As of 2014, Botswana has the third-highest prevalence rate for HIV/AIDS, the history of Botswana starts more than 100,000 years ago, when the first humans inhabited the region. The original inhabitants of southern Africa were the Bushmen and Khoi peoples, both speak Khoisan languages and lived as hunter-gatherers. About a thousand years ago, large chiefdoms emerged that were later eclipsed by the Great Zimbabwe empire, around 1300 CE, peoples in present-day Transvaal began to coalesce into three main linguistic and political groups, including the Batswana. The Batswana, a term used also to all citizens of Botswana. Prior to European contact, the Batswana lived as herders and farmers under tribal rule, as groups broke off and moved to new land, new tribes were created. Some human development occurred before the colonial period, during the 1700s, the slave and ivory trades were expanding. To resist these pressures, Shaka, the king of the Zulu Empire, conquered tribes began to move northwest into Botswana, destroying everything in their path. In their efforts to re-establish themselves at the end of period, tribes began to exchange ivory and skins for guns with European traders. Christian missionaries sent from Europe also spread to the interior, often at the invitation of tribal chiefs who wanted guns, by 1880 every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence became permanent
Botswana
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Starting fire by hand. San people in Botswana.
Botswana
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Flag
Botswana
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Stamp of British Bechuanaland from 1960
Botswana
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A lechwe in the Okavango Delta
55.
Royal Order of Cambodia
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The Royal Order of Cambodia was a French colonial chivalric order in French Cambodia, and is still in use in the present-day Cambodia. For French appointments, the recipient had to be at least 29 years old and enter the Order first as a knight, only officers of the Légion dhonneur could become a commander in the Order and only commanders of the Légion dhonneur could be Commanders or Officers of the Order. From 1933 the Order was also granted for the organization of exhibitions dedicated to Cambodia, none of these rules applied for grants by the King of Cambodia himself. The colonial and overseas orders were immediately contingent on the French orders and those awarded it not only had to pay for their own registration and qualifications, but also had to buy their own insignia. In 1948 France ceased granting the order, formally it remained a French colonial policy, but it was now only granted by the King of Cambodia. The order has since then one of the historical orders of France. On September 1,1950 the French order-system was reformed, the Order of the Star of Anjouan and the Order of the Black Star were formalised as French Overseas Orders. The other three were the Order of States Associated to the French Union, the order was approved by King Norodom Sihanouk during his government and also granted during his exile in Beijing. Even after the restoration of the Khmer dynasty it remained the highest Cambodian distinction, grand Cross Medal worn on a large ribbon at the left hip and star worn to the gems left. Grand Officer Large medal on a round the neck. Commander Large medal worn on a round the neck. Officer Medal on a rosette on the left breast, knight Medal on a ribbon on the left breast, with no gold on the gem. The reverse of the medal is left rough, the central image on the star of the order is the same as the medal, though the crown is missing and the rays are usually smooth. The star is elongated, with the vertical rays longer than the horizontal rays, the regalia of Knights is in silver, whilst those of the higher grades are gold. The medal and star are equally for civilians and soldiers
Royal Order of Cambodia
Royal Order of Cambodia
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Ribbon during the colonial period (1899-1948)
56.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
Chile
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The Mapuche people were the original inhabitants of southern and central Chile.
Chile
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Flag
Chile
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Pedro de Valdivia
Chile
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Bernardo O'Higgins, The Supreme Director of Chile.
57.
Order of the Merit of Chile
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The Order of Merit is a Chilean military order and was created in 1929. Succeeding the Medal of the Merit, which was created during the term of the President Germán Riesco through the Minister of War decree No.1350 on September 4,1906. This new national distinction was created to recognise the service provided by foreign military personnel to Chilean officials. The first 200 military medals were minted in gold and silver, giving them the title of First and they were minted at the Casa de la Moneda, having a tricolor ribbon. The order had three classes, First Class, Second Class, and Third Class, but later a new class was added that would be awarded to heads of state. In 1925, all the classes were renamed to, Collar of the Grand Cross Grand Cross Grand Officer Commander Officer Knight The order is awarded to foreigners. Condecoraciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile
Order of the Merit of Chile
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Order of Merit (Orden del Mérito)
58.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
Colombia
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San Agustín Archaeological Park
Colombia
Colombia
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Lost City
Colombia
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Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado. The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
59.
Ivory Coast
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Ivory Coast or Côte dIvoire, officially the Republic of Côte dIvoire, is a country located in West Africa. Ivory Coasts political capital is Yamoussoukro, and its economic capital and its bordering countries are Guinea and Liberia in the west, Burkina Faso and Mali in the north, and Ghana in the east. The Gulf of Guinea is located south of Ivory Coast, prior to its colonization by Europeans, Ivory Coast was home to several states, including Gyaaman, the Kong Empire, and Baoulé. Two Anyi kingdoms, Indénié and Sanwi, attempted to retain their identity through the French colonial period. Ivory Coast became a protectorate of France in 1843–1844 and was formed into a French colony in 1893 amid the European scramble for Africa. Ivory Coast achieved independence in 1960, led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, the country maintained close political and economic association with its West African neighbors while at the same time maintaining close ties to the West, especially France. Since the end of Houphouët-Boignys rule in 1993, Ivory Coast has experienced one coup détat, in 1999, the first took place between 2002 and 2007 and the second during 2010-2011. As a result, in 2000, the adopted a new Constitution. Ivory Coast is a republic with an executive power invested in its President. Through the production of coffee and cocoa, the country was a powerhouse in West Africa during the 1960s and 1970s. Ivory Coast went through a crisis in the 1980s, contributing to a period of political and social turmoil. Changing into the 21st-century Ivorian economy is largely market-based and still heavily on agriculture. The official language is French, with indigenous languages also widely used, including Baoulé, Dioula, Dan, Anyin. In total there are around 78 languages spoken in Ivory Coast, popular religions include Islam, Christianity, and various indigenous religions. Originally, Portuguese and French merchant-explorers in the 15th and 16th centuries divided the west coast of Africa, very roughly, there was also a Pepper Coast also known as the Grain Coast, a Gold Coast, and a Slave Coast. Like those, the name Ivory Coast reflected the major trade occurred on that particular stretch of the coast. One can find the name Cote de Dents regularly used in older works and it was used in Ducketts Dictionnaire and by Nicolas Villault de Bellefond, for examples, although Antoine François Prévost used Côte dIvoire. In the 19th century, usage switched to Côte dIvoire and it retained the name through French rule and independence in 1960
Ivory Coast
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Prehistoric polished stone celt from Boundiali in northern Ivory Coast, photo taken at the IFAN Museum of African Arts in Dakar, Senegal
Ivory Coast
Ivory Coast
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Pre-European kingdoms
Ivory Coast
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Louis-Gustave Binger of French West Africa in 1892 treaty signing with Famienkro leaders, in present-day N'zi-Comoé Region, Ivory Coast
60.
National Order of the Ivory Coast
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The National Order of the Ivory Coast is the highest state order of knighthood of the Ivory Coast. The Order was founded on 10 April 1961 to celebrate the independence of the Ivory Coast which was until 1960 a French colony, as the highest state honour, it is awarded to those who have highly distinguished themselves to the service to the state. The collar Collar is awarded solely to foreign heads of state, the medal of the order is constituted of a white-enamelled cross of Malta, bordered in red, surrounded by a green crown of laurel. The plaque shows the same desig as the medal but the cross is put upon a silver radiating star, the ribbon of the order is dark orange. The Order is subdivided in five grades, plus a special class of the Collar, Collar Grand Cross Grand Officer Commander Officer Knight World Medals Index, Ivory Coast
National Order of the Ivory Coast
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Ribbon bar of the order
61.
Czech Republic
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The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
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Přemysl Ottokar II, King of Bohemia (1253–1278) and Duke of Austria (1251–1278)
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The Crown of Saint Wenceslas is the 4th oldest in Europe
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The Defenestration of Prague sparked the Thirty Years' War
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Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana
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The Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana was instituted in 1995 to honour the independence of the Estonian state by president Lennart Meri. The Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana is bestowed upon the President of the Republic, presidents of the Republic who have ceased to hold office shall keep the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana. However a new collar of that order was made in 2008, the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana is also given as a decoration of the highest class to foreigners who have rendered special services to the Republic of Estonia. As such it is the highest and most distinguished order granted to non-Estonian citizens. The Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana comprises six classes, One special class – The Collar of the Cross of Terra Mariana, Five basic classes – 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th class. The crosses and shields of all the classes of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana have the design and are of the same size. The recipients are, President Lennart Meri,10.09.1995 President Arnold Rüütel,08.10.2001 President Toomas Hendrik Ilves,09.10. ee List of recipients
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1st Class 2nd Class 3rd Class 4th Class
Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana
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The Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana
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Ethiopia
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Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
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Coins of the Axumite king Endybis, 227–235 AD, at the British Museum. The inscriptions in Ancient Greek read "AΧWMITW BACIΛEYC" ("King of Axum") and "ΕΝΔΥΒΙC ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC" ("King Endybis").
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Dawit II (Lebna Dengel), Ethiopia (nəgusä nägäst) (Emperor) of Ethiopia and a member of the Solomonic dynasty.
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King Fasilides' Castle.
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Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
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Hakkapeliitta featured on a 1940 Finnish stamp
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Now lying within Helsinki, Suomenlinna is a UNESCO World Heritage Site consisting of an inhabited 18th century sea fortress built on six islands. It is one of Finland's most popular tourist attractions.
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Pioneers in Karelia (1900) by Eero Järnefelt
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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One of the Lascaux paintings: a horse – Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
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The Maison Carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the Roman Empire.
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With Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the Frankish monarchy, elective and secular until then, became hereditary and of divine right.
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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The Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the Protestant Reformation.
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Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
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Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
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The Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany is the only federal decoration of Germany. It was created by the first President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Theodor Heuss, on 7 September 1951, and has been awarded to over 200,000 individuals in total, both Germans and foreigners. Since the 1990s the number of awards has declined from over 4,000, first to around 2, 300—2,500 per year. In recent years women have made up a steady 30—31% of recipients, colloquially, the decorations of the different classes of the Order are also known as the Federal Cross of Merit. Most of the German federal states have each their own order of merit as well, with the exception of the Free and Hanseatic Cities of Bremen and Hamburg, the order was established on 7 September 1951 by the decree of the then Federal President Theodor Heuss. It is awarded to him in a ceremony by the President of the Bundestag, attended by the Chancellor of Germany, the President of the Bundesrat, other than the German president, only a foreign head of state and their spouse can be awarded with this highest class. This Grand-Cross Special Issue has been awarded so far only twice, to former German chancellors Konrad Adenauer, the star is a golden star with straight rays, its size and points vary according to class, with the badge superimposed upon it. 8-pointed golden Star, Grand Cross Special Class 6-pointed golden Star, Grand Cross 1st Class 4-pointed golden Star, Grand Cross 2nd Class silver Square-upon-point, the riband is red with gold-black-gold stripes
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Grand Cross star, special issue
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
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Insignia of the Grand Cross 1st Class.
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Badge and riband of the class "Grand Cross" (without showing the star).
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Star of the class "Grand Cross".
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in Knossos, Crete.
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The Lion Gate, Mycenae
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The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is one of the best known symbols of classical Greece.
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Order of the Redeemer
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The Order of the Redeemer, also known as the Order of the Saviour, is an order of merit of Greece. The Order of the Redeemer is the oldest and highest decoration awarded by the modern Greek state, the establishment of the Order of the Redeemer was decided by the Fourth National Assembly at Argos in 1829, during the final year of the Greek War of Independence. The decision was not immediately implemented, however, and the relevant decree was signed in Nafplio by the Regency Council in the name of King Otto on May 20,1833. According to the decree of establishment, the name of the Order shall recall the, by divine assistance miraculously and fortuitously accomplished, foreign recipients, as well as princes of the Greek royal family, did not count to these totals. In modern times, in practice the Grand Cross is awarded only to heads of state. The first to be awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer was King Ludwig I of Bavaria, the father of King Otto, in 1833. The form of the order has been altered a number of times since the establishment of the Order, the present form of the Order is regulated by Presidential Decree 849/1975. The reverse featured a portrait of Otto with the inscription, ΟΘΩΝ. After Ottos deposition in 1863, his portrait was removed and substituted by an icon of Jesus, the star of the Order is an eight-pointed faceted silver star with the same central disc as on the badge of the Order. At first the stars were embroidered, but eventually, they were made of solid silver, the ribbon of the Order is light blue, edged with white, reflecting the national colours of Greece. The Greek Royal Orders George J. Beldecos, Hellenic Orders, Decorations and Medals, Hellenic War Museum, Athens 1991, ISBN 960-85054-0-2
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Order of the Redeemer Τάγμα του Σωτήρος
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Hungary
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Hungary is a unitary parliamentary republic in Central Europe. With about 10 million inhabitants, Hungary is a member state of the European Union. The official language is Hungarian, which is the most widely spoken language in Europe. Hungarys capital and largest metropolis is Budapest, a significant economic hub, major urban areas include Debrecen, Szeged, Miskolc, Pécs and Győr. His great-grandson Stephen I ascended to the throne in 1000, converting the country to a Christian kingdom, by the 12th century, Hungary became a middle power within the Western world, reaching a golden age by the 15th century. Hungarys current borders were established in 1920 by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I, when the country lost 71% of its territory, 58% of its population, following the interwar period, Hungary joined the Axis Powers in World War II, suffering significant damage and casualties. Hungary became a state of the Soviet Union, which contributed to the establishment of a four-decade-long communist dictatorship. On 23 October 1989, Hungary became again a democratic parliamentary republic, in the 21st century, Hungary is a middle power and has the worlds 57th largest economy by nominal GDP, as well as the 58th largest by PPP, out of 188 countries measured by the IMF. As a substantial actor in several industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds 36th largest exporter and importer of goods, Hungary is a high-income economy with a very high standard of living. It keeps up a security and universal health care system. Hungary joined the European Union in 2004 and part of the Schengen Area since 2007, Hungary is a member of the United Nations, NATO, WTO, World Bank, the AIIB, the Council of Europe and Visegrád Group. Well known for its cultural history, Hungary has been contributed significantly to arts, music, literature, sports and science. Hungary is the 11th most popular country as a tourist destination in Europe and it is home to the largest thermal water cave system, the second largest thermal lake in the world, the largest lake in Central Europe, and the largest natural grasslands in Europe. The H in the name of Hungary is most likely due to historical associations with the Huns. The rest of the word comes from the Latinized form of Medieval Greek Oungroi, according to an explanation the Greek name was borrowed from Proto-Slavic Ǫgǔri, in turn borrowed from Oghur-Turkic Onogur. Onogur was the name for the tribes who later joined the Bulgar tribal confederacy that ruled the eastern parts of Hungary after the Avars. The Hungarians likely belonged to the Onogur tribal alliance and it is possible they became its ethnic majority. The Hungarian endonym is Magyarország, composed of magyar and ország, the word magyar is taken from the name of one of the seven major semi-nomadic Hungarian tribes, magyeri
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Italian fresco depicting a Hungarian warrior shooting backwards
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Hungarian raids in the 10th century
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King Saint Stephen, the first King of Hungary, converted the nation to Christianity
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Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary
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The Hungarian Order of Merit is the second highest State Order of Hungary. Founded in 1991, the order is a revival of an order founded in 1946. Its origins can be traced to the Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary which existed from 1922 until 1946, since 2011, the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary is the highest State Order of Hungary. The civil division is divided into six classes of merit, whilst the division is divided into five. The highest class, the Grand Cross with Chain, is exclusive to the division and is only awarded to heads of state. Below the Order of Merit in precedence is the Hungarian Cross of Merit, the star takes up the shape of the medal but is mounted on a golden radiant star. The ribbon is green with a red stripe and a white stripe for the class, while it is red with a green stripe. State Decorations, Office of the President of Hungary Hungary, Hungarian Order of Merit, Medals of the World 1991 XXXI law enacting the order
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Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary
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Order of the Falcon
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The Order of the Falcon is a national Order of Iceland, established on July 3,1921 by King Christian X of Denmark and Iceland. During a royal visit to Iceland, King Christian X issued the royal decree founding the Icelandic Order of the Falcon, new statutes were incorporated for the Order on July 11,1944, when Iceland became a republic. It may be awarded to both Icelanders and citizens of countries for achievements in Iceland or internationally. The President of Iceland is the designated Grand Master of the Order, a five-member council makes recommendations on awards to the Grand Master, who then grants the award. However, the Grand Master may award the Order without recommendations from the Order Council, the Grand Master and the Chairman of the Order Council then sign the Letters Patent, which are given to those who receive the awards. The badge consists of a cross, enamelled in white. The star is a silver, eight-pointed star, for the Grand Cross class it has the badge of the Order superimposed upon it. For the Commander with Star class it has a central disc bearing the white falcon. The ribbon is blue with white-red-white border stripes, if a holder is promoted to a higher rank, the lower ranks insignia must be returned. The insignia is retained during the lifetime, but it must be returned to the Icelandic Government upon his or her death. Rory McTurk, Professor of Icelandic Studies, University of Leeds, weir Awarded 1978 Evelyn Stefansson Nef Awarded 2001 Børge Boeskov Victor Borge Thomas E. Brittingham Jr. Awarded 1957 Erik J
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Order of the Falcon
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Knight's Crosses on current suspension and older crown suspension
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Orders, decorations, and medals of Indonesia
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Awards and decorations of the Republic of Indonesia are both military and civilian awards for service and personal contributions to the Republic of Indonesia. According to the Indonesian Constitution, Chapter III Article 15, The President grants designations, awards, awards and decorations of the Republic of Indonesia are divided into two categories, Stars and Medals. Names of both the awards and decorations incorporated abundant Sanskrit words, as employed by the government in many other awards. The Star of the Republic of Indonesia is awarded to a person who has given service to the integrity, viability. It is the highest decoration awarded by the Government of The Republic of Indonesia, the 1st class of the star strictly exclusive awarded only to former and current president of Republic of Indonesia. The BRI is awarded in 5 classes, The Star of Mahaputera is awarded to a person who has given service to the Motherland in certain areas outside the military. It is the second highest decoration awarded by the Government of The Republic of Indonesia, the BMP is awarded in 5 classes, Awarded for civil bravery and courage in times of adversity. The highest medal bestowed upon combat heroism action, individually or as a unit, has the same grade with Bintang Sakti, but bestowed upon the most distinguished service in the military. Given to military personnel served in the operations in the independence war. Given to the Air Force personnel served in the independence war, Awarded in 1953 to mark the 8th year or windu year since the foundation of the Indonesian National Armed Forces. The highest award given to serving in foreign armed services. Awarded in three classes, The ribbons of the 2nd and 1st Classes are identical, with the addition of one, Awarded strictly exclusive to officer of the Indonesian Army for meritorious service to the nation. Awarded strictly exclusive to officers and senior ratings and NCOs of the Indonesian Navy for meritorious service to the nation, Awarded strictly exclusive to officers and NCOs of the Indonesian Air Force for meritorious service to the nation. Awarded strictly exclusive to selected personnel of the Indonesian National Police for meritorious service to the nation, for the 1st class, eligible personnel must at least Brigadier General rank and hold commanding position at any unit in the Indonesian National Police. 2nd and 3rd Classes are awarded to all officers below general rank, Star awarded after approval authorized by Chief of Indonesian National Police and the President of Indonesia. Awarded to people involved in the promotion, education and preservation of Indonesian culture, Awarded to civilians for service in upholding democratic principles. Given to personnel of the Indonesian National Armed Forces for years of loyal and this is one of only few awards that may be bestowed upon enlisted personnel of the Armed Forces. Awarded strictly exclusive to officer at Military Academy or Military Drill Camp and this one of few award may bestowed upon enlist personnel
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Bintang Gerilya
Orders, decorations, and medals of Indonesia
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3rd Class
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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The Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering of ancient history.
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The Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the Kings of Italy.
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Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor Frederick II, UNESCO World Heritage site
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Order of Merit of the Republic
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The Order of Merit of the Italian Republic was founded as the senior order of knighthood by the second President of the Italian Republic, Luigi Einaudi in 1951. The post-nominal letters for the order are OMRI, investiture takes place biannually on 2 June, anniversary of the foundation of the Republic and on 27 December, anniversary of the promulgation of the Italian Constitution. However, those awards on Presidential motu proprio, related to termination of service or granted to foreigners may be made at any time, except in exceptional circumstances, no one can be awarded for the first time a rank higher than Knight. The minimum age requirement is normally 35
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Breast star of a Knight Grand Cross of the Republic
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Insignia of a Knight of the Italian Republic, since 2001
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Order of the Golden Eagle
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The Order of the Golden Eagle or Altyn Kyran Order is the highest order of Kazakhstan. The order is awarded by the President of Kazakhstan, established in 1995, the order recognizes outstanding service to Kazakhstan. The Order of the Golden Eagle may be awarded to individuals who have previously been awarded orders by Kazakhstan or the Soviet Union, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan becomes a Commander special class of the Order of Altyn Kyran
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Star of the order
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Star and collar of the order
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Kuwait
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Kuwait /kuːˈweɪt/, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in Western Asia. Situated in the edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, it shares borders with Iraq. As of 2016, Kuwait has a population of 4.2 million people,1.3 million are Kuwaitis and 2.9 million are expatriates, expatriates account for 70% of the population. Oil reserves were discovered in 1938, from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization. In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability, in 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq. The Iraqi occupation came to an end in 1991 after military intervention by coalition forces, at the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure. Kuwait is a constitutional emirate with a political system. It has an income economy backed by the worlds sixth largest oil reserves. The Kuwaiti dinar is the highest valued currency in the world, according to the World Bank, the country has the fourth highest per capita income in the world. The Constitution was promulgated in 1962, making Kuwait the most democratic country in the region, in the Arab world, Kuwait is frequently dubbed the Hollywood of the Gulf due to the popularity of its soap operas and theatre. During the Ubaid period, Kuwait was the site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia, mainly centered in As-Subiya in northern Kuwait. The earliest evidence of habitation in Kuwait dates back 8000 B. C. where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan. As-Subiya in northern Kuwait is the earliest evidence of urbanization in the whole Persian Gulf basin area, mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 B. C. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business, the island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 B. C. The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the worlds earliest maritime traders, one of the worlds earliest reed-boats was discovered in northern Kuwait dating back to the Ubaid period. In 3rd century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great, according to Strabo and Arrian, Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Remains of Greek colonization include a large Hellenistic fort and Greek temples, in 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire. At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait was known as Meshan, Akkaz was a Partho-Sassanian site, the Sassanid religions tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz
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Oil fires in Kuwait in 1991, which were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait.
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Kuwait National Assembly Building
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Satellite image of Kuwait
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Latvia
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Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe, one of the three Baltic states. It is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Latvia has 1,957,200 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2. The country has a seasonal climate. Latvia is a parliamentary republic established in 1918. The capital city is Riga, the European Capital of Culture 2014, Latvia is a unitary state, divided into 119 administrative divisions, of which 110 are municipalities and 9 are cities. Latvians and Livs are the people of Latvia. Latvian and Lithuanian are the two surviving Baltic languages. Despite foreign rule from the 13th to 20th centuries, the Latvian nation maintained its identity throughout the generations via the language, Latvia and Estonia share a long common history. Until World War II, Latvia also had significant minorities of ethnic Germans, Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant Lutheran, except for the Latgale region in the southeast, which has historically been predominantly Roman Catholic. The Russian population has brought a significant portion of Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Republic of Latvia was founded on 18 November 1918, however, its de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II. The peaceful Singing Revolution, starting in 1987, called for Baltic emancipation of Soviet rule and it ended with the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia on 4 May 1990, and restoring de facto independence on 21 August 1991. Latvia is a democratic and developed country and member of the European Union, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, CBSS, the IMF, NB8, NIB, OECD, OSCE, and WTO. For 2014, Latvia was listed 46th on the Human Development Index and it used the Latvian lats as its currency until it was replaced by the euro on 1 January 2014. The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes, henry of Latvia coined the Latinisations of the countrys name, Lettigallia and Lethia, both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the name in Romance languages from Letonia. Around 3000 BC, the ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea. The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals, by 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia, Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians, as well as the Livonians speaking a Finnic language
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Turaida Castle near Sigulda, built in 1214 under Albert of Riga.
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Kārlis Ulmanis
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Red Army troops enter Riga (1940).
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Order of the Three Stars
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Order of the Three Stars is an order awarded for meritorious service to Latvia. It was established in 1924 in remembrance of the founding of Latvia and its motto is Per aspera ad astra, meaning Through hardships to the stars. The Order has five ranks and three grades of medals of honour, in the center of the front side of the cross there is blue enamel medallion with three golden five-point stars on it. The reverse side has gilded medallion with inscriptions Per aspera ad astra, the Stars are first and second rate orders. The first rate order and the second order, have similar design. The stars are in shape of five point star made of silver with blue enamel medallion with three golden five-point stars in its center, on its edge there is inscription Par Tēviju. Chain of the Order is awarded to Commander of the Grand Cross in exceptional cases and it has ten gilded links with alternately chiseled images of three stars, fire-cross, lion and griffin. Medal of honour is a medal on front of which the cross of the order is depicted. The reverse side has inscription Par Tēviju with a flaming heart below the inscription and it has a wreath of oak leaves on its edge. The medal of honour has three grades – gold, silver and bronze, list of notable recipients of the Order of the Three Stars The State Decorations of Latvia, Office of the President
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Order of the Three Stars, Grand officer degree
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Lithuania
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Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in Northern Europe. One of the three Baltic states, it is situated along the shore of the Baltic Sea, to the east of Sweden. It is bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, Lithuania has an estimated population of 2.9 million people as of 2015, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The official language, Lithuanian, along with Latvian, is one of two living languages in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family. For centuries, the shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, the King of Lithuania, and the first unified Lithuanian state, with the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772–95, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuanias territory. As World War I neared its end, Lithuanias Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, in the midst of the Second World War, Lithuania was first occupied by the Soviet Union and then by Nazi Germany. As World War II neared its end and the Germans retreated, Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, a full member of the Eurozone, Schengen Agreement and NATO. It is also a member of the Nordic Investment Bank, the United Nations Human Development Index lists Lithuania as a very high human development country. Lithuania has been among the fastest growing economies in the European Union and is ranked 21st in the world in the Ease of Doing Business Index, the first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC. Over a millennium, the Indo-Europeans, who arrived in the 3rd – 2nd millennium BC, mixed with the local population, the first written mention of Lithuania is found in a medieval German manuscript, the Annals of Quedlinburg, in an entry dated 9 March 1009. Initially inhabited by fragmented Baltic tribes, in the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, after his assassination in 1263, pagan Lithuania was a target of the Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. Despite the devastating century-long struggle with the Orders, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded rapidly, by the end of the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia. The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the ruling elite practised religious tolerance and Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to the Latin for official documents. In 1385, the Grand Duke Jogaila accepted Polands offer to become its king, Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of Lithuania and established a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. It implied that Lithuania, the fiercely independent land, was one of the last pagan areas of Europe to adopt Christianity, after two civil wars, Vytautas the Great became the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1392. During his reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its expansion, centralization of the state began
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Trakai Island Castle
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Battle of Grunwald and Vytautas the Great in the centre
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The original 20 members of the Council of Lithuania after signing the Act of Independence of Lithuania, 16 February 1918.
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Order of Vytautas the Great
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The Order of Vytautas the Great is the Lithuanian Presidential Award. It may be conferred on the heads of Lithuania and foreign states, as well as their citizens, the Order was instituted in 1930 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the death of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas the Great. The badge of the Order, struck in pre-war Lithuania, was designed by a Lithuanian artist, the insignia of the Order issued today are of the same design. The Order of Vytautas the Great has five classes, The insignia of the Grand Cross consists of the Grand Cross, Star, the Grand Cross is 50mm wide. It is made gold and covered with white enamel. On the front of the Cross a rider is depicted against a background of a red shield, the same shield, with a V in the middle is on the reverse of the Cross. Above the shield is the Grand Crown of the Duke, on the edges of the Cross are the dates of Vytautas the Greats rule. The reverse of the Cross features a golden Royal Crown embellished with three crystal stones, the Star measures 85mm, and is made from gold. In the centre, a version of the Vytautas the Great Cross with a golden Crown above is depicted on a background of blue enamel. The Orders sash is made from white moiré and is 100mm wide for men and it features two smaller orange strips on the sides. The Swedish King Carl XVI Gustaf and Queen Silvia were the first foreigners to receive the Order in 1995, the Commanders Grand Cross insignia consists of the Grand Cross, Star and Ribbon. The Grand Cross has most of the features as above. The Orders ribbon is made from white moiré with two stripes, and is 40mm wide for men and women. The Orders Star measures 85mm and has nine sides, in the centre, there is a smaller version of the Vytautas the Great Cross with a golden Crown, on black enamel. The Commanders Cross consists of a Cross and Ribbon and it is similar to the Grand Cross. The Officers Cross consists of a Cross and small Ribbon and it is similar to the Grand Cross, but smaller at 42mm. The Ribbon is 32mm wide and made from white moiré, the Knights Cross consists of a Cross and small Ribbon, similar to the Officers Cross. This special class of Order is the highest award of the State of Lithuania and it consists of a golden chain, cross, star and sash
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Order of Vytautas the Great
Order of Vytautas the Great
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1. Grand Cross
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2. Commander's Grand Cross
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Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau
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The Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau is a chivalric order shared by the two branches of the House of Nassau. In the capacity of the Walram line the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau is the highest Luxembourgian national order and it may be awarded on foreign sovereigns, princes of sovereign houses, and heads of state for meritous service to Luxembourg and the Grand Duke. In the capacity of the Ottonian line the order is an order or dynastic order of the Dutch Royal House of Orange-Nassau. In this case the honour is conferred on a person who have rendered special service to the Royal House, the order was founded by Grand Ducal decree on 31 March 1858 by King-Grand Duke William III. The order originally included only one grade, but this was increased to four by William III in 1873, Grand Cross Grand Officer Officer Knight The further rank of Commander was introduced in 1882. None of the changes made by William III were confirmed by Adolphe, with whom the order was supposed to be shared, when William died without a male heir, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg passed to Adolphe, as dictated by the Nassau Family Pact. Two years later, he abolished the grades that William had created unilaterally, and, to this day, in 1905, Adolphe agreed with Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to once again share the order between both ruling branches of the House of Nassau. At the present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands as well Grand Duke Henri of Luxembourg are joint Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Lion of Nassau, the order is awarded only on rare occasions in the Netherlands or Luxembourg. For example, the former Dutch Foreign Secretaries Max van der Stoel, the two Grand Masters made the South African President Nelson Mandela a knight during his state-visit in 1999 to the Netherlands. The knight wears the badge on a sash on the shoulder. The badge of the order is a white-enamelled golden Maltese Cross, the obverse central disc is in blue enamel, bearing the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau. The reverse central disc is also blue enamelled, with the motto Je maintiendrai in gold. The plaque is an 8-pointed star with silver rays, the same obverse of the badge of the order appears at its centre. The ribbon of the sash of the order is yellow-orange moiré with a blue stripe at each edge. The bestowal of the insignia is carried out by the Grand Duke or his specially appointed official representative, the brevet is awarded in agreement with the head of the Ottonian branch of the House of Nassau. Princes being a son or brother of the heads of the two lines of the House of Nassau are born knights of the order, in 1984, Queen Beatrix and Grand Duke Jean made an agreement that princesses receive the order at majority age. Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg received hers on her 18th birthday on 16 February 2009, the Grand-Duke awards the civil and military orders, while observing about this what the law provides. The dispositions taken by the Grand-Duc must be counter-signed by a member of the Government
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Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau Ordre du Lion d'Or de la Maison de Nassau Huisorde van de Gouden Leeuw van Nassau
Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau
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Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg and The Grand Duke both wearing the insignia of the order. They are accompanied by Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg
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Mali
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Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of just over 1,240,000 square kilometres, the population of Mali is 14.5 million. The countrys economy centers on agriculture and fishing, some of Malis prominent natural resources include gold, being the third largest producer of gold in the African continent, and salt. About half the population lives below the poverty line of $1.25 a day. A majority of the population are Muslims, present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade, the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. During its golden age, there was a flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, literature, at its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire covered an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of Africa. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, French Sudan joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegals withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, a conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of by April and declared the secession of a new state. The conflict was complicated by a coup that took place in March. In response to Islamist territorial gains, the French military launched Opération Serval in January 2013, a month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second round held on 11 August. The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire, the name was originally derived from the Mandinka or Bambara word mali, meaning “hippopotamus”, but it eventually came to mean the place where the king lives. The word carries the connotation of strength, D. Niane suggests in Sundiata, An Epic of Old Mali that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors. 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was indeed called Mali and this name could have formerly been that of a city. In old Mali there is one village called Malikoma which means “New Mali. ”Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples. It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/, Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities
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The pages above are from Timbuktu Manuscripts written in Sudani script (a form of Arabic) from the Mali Empire showing established knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Today there are close to a million of these manuscripts found in Timbuktu alone.
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Griots of Sambala, king of Médina (Fula people, Mali), 1890.
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Cotton being processed in Niono into 180 kg (400 lb) bales for export to other parts of Africa and to France, c. 1950.
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Morocco
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Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
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Berber Roman King Ptolemy of Mauretania.
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Roman mosaic of Diana in Volubilis.
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Morocco, Safi ceramic vessel Jobbana
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Oman
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Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is an Arab country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast, the Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandams coastal boundaries. From the late 17th century, the Omani Sultanate was an empire, vying with Portugal and Britain for influence in the Persian Gulf. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence or control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to modern-day Iran and Pakistan, as its power declined in the 20th century, the sultanate came under the influence of the United Kingdom. Historically, Muscat was the trading port of the Persian Gulf region. Muscat was also among the most important trading ports of the Indian Ocean, the Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said has been the hereditary leader of the country since 1970. Sultan Qaboos is the current ruler in the Middle East. Oman has modest oil reserves, ranking 25th globally, nevertheless, in 2010 the UNDP ranked Oman as the most improved nation in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years. A significant portion of its economy is tourism and trade of fish, dates and this sets it apart from its neighbors solely oil-dependent economies. Oman is categorized as an economy and ranks as the 74th most peaceful country in the world according to the Global Peace Index. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old and this supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the Late Pleistocene. Dereaze, located in the city of Ibri, is the oldest known settlement in the area. Archaeological remains have been discovered here from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age, findings have included stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths, with the latter dating back to 7615 BC as the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-molded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements, pointed tools, sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan or Makan, a name believed to refer to Omans ancient copper mines. Mazoon, another used for the region, is derived from the word muzn. The present-day name of the country, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many such tribes settled in Oman, making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding, from the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. A few scholars believe that in the 6th century BC, the Achaemenids exerted a strong degree of control over the Omani peninsula, Central Oman has its own indigenous so-called Late Iron Age cultural assemblage, the Samad al-Shan
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A grave at Al Ayn, Oman, a World Heritage site.
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The Sultan's Palace in Zanzibar, which was once Oman's capital and residence of its Sultans.
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The coast of Sur, Oman.
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Order of the Sun (Peru)
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The Order of the Sun of Peru, formerly known as The Order of the Sun, is the highest award bestowed by the nation of Peru to commend notable civil and military merit. The award is the oldest civilian award in the Americas, first being established in 1821, the Order was originally instituted on 8 October 1821 by General José de San Martín on reaching Lima to recognize those who had distinguished themselves in the campaign against the Spanish Royalist. It was discontinued four years later, after many grantees started to use the award as a nobility title, All such nobility titles were abolished by 1828. The Order was re-established in 1921. E, tello Pablo Grimberg Umansky Ford O. Orders and Decorations of All Nations, Ancient and Modern, Civil and Military
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Order of the Sun
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Certificate confirming that the Order of the Sun of Peru was conferred on Ernesto Burzagli in the name of the President of the Peruvian Republic in 1924.
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Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
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Reconstruction of a Bronze Age, Lusatian culture settlement in Biskupin, c. 700 BC
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Earliest known contemporary depiction of a Polish ruler; King Mieszko II Lambert of Poland being presented with a Liturgical book by Matilda of Swabia, 1025–1031
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Drawing of the Battle of Grunwald, which was fought against the German Order of Teutonic Knights, 15 July 1410
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Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
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Citânia de Briteiros, in the Minho Province, is the best preserved Iron Age and Castro culture site in Portugal.
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The Roman Temple of Évora, in the Alentejo, is a symbol of Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
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Monument in Porto to Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
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Order of Saint James of the Sword
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This article deals with the Portuguese Order of knighthood. For the Spanish branch, see Order of Santiago, the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword is a Portuguese order of chivalry. The Order of Saint James was founded in León-Castile circa 1170 and it was probably founded as an order of Augustinian canons regular to escort pilgrims to the shrine of St. James the Greater in Santiago of Compostella in Galicia. But King Ferdinand II of León soon set it to garrison the southern frontiers of León against the Almohads of al-Andalus. In 1170, Ferdinand II granted the new order the castles of Cáceres and Monfragüe, which had confiscated from Gerald the Fearless in 1169. The new Leonese order was soon operating in neighboring kingdoms, a Portuguese branch emerged when King Afonso I of Portugal donated Arruda dos Vinhos to the Order of Santiago. This was followed up by donations of the castle of Monsanto, given the poor relations between Afonso and Ferdinand II, the arrival of the Leonese order in Portugal is a little surprising. Nonetheless, the donation documents explicitly name Rodrigo Álvarez as the administrator of all three Portuguese donations, although a founding knight of Santiago, Rodrigo Álvarez was known to be dissatisfied with its rules. So it is possible Afonso may have been trying to encourage a switch or schism in the Order already at this stage, the foundation of the Order of Évora in 1175/76 reveal Afonsos keen interest in a Portugal-based order. Whatever the intentions of the invitation, the Santiago knights evidently did not meet Afonsos expectations. The Order of Santiago would only return to Portugal in 1186, the establishment of the Order of Santiago in León, Castile and Portugal was endorsed by papal legate Cardinal Hyacinthus of Acardo on a visit to Iberia in 1172-73. The approval of the Order was confirmed three years later by Pope Alexander III in a bull issued July 1175, in 1186, King Sancho I of Portugal donated to the returning Order of Santiago the Portuguese dominions of Palmela, Almada and Alcácer do Sal. But in 1190–91, all three citadels were conquered in an offensive led by the Almohad caliph Yaqub al-Mansur and they were recovered sometime between 1194 and 1204. The Order of Santiago established its Portuguese headquarters at Palmela shortly before 1210, one of the more notable of Portuguese Santiago knights was Paio Peres Correia. Between 1234 and 1242, Correia led the conquest of much of the southerly Moorish dominions of Baixo Alentejo, in 1242, Paio Peres Correia was elevated to Grand Master of the Order of Santiago, the only known Portuguese to have held the supreme title of the Castilian-based Order. In 1249, Paio Peres Correia and the Order of Santiago helped Afonso III of Portugal sweep up the final Moorish possessions in the Algarve, the possessions of the Order of Santiago in Portugal were expanded and confirmed by Afonso III in 1255. After the death of Correia in 1275, the Order of Santiago returned firmly into Castilian hands, thus, in 1288, King Denis of Portugal separated the Portuguese branch from the Castilian-Leonese Order. This was confirmed by Pope John XXII in 1320, the Order of Santiago possessed many domains granted by the Portuguese crown, almost all of them south of the Tagus River, clustered in the Sado region and lower Alentejo
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Order of Saint James of the Sword Ordem de Sant'Iago da Espada
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Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese governor of the Indies (1509–1515), wearing a cloak with the cross of the Order of Santiago
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Order of Prince Henry
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Minor reforms of the constitution of the Order occurred in 1962 and 1980. It is an order, whose titles are awarded for relevant services to Portugal and for services in the expansion of the Portuguese culture, its history. The number of members in each grade is restricted by its constitution, the order includes several classes, in decreasing order of seniority, these are, Grand Collar Grand Cross Grand Officer Commander Officer Knight / Dame There is also a Silver Medal and a Gold Medal. The special distinction of Grand Collar can be awarded only to heads of state, ribbons and medals are characterized by equal stripes of blue, white and black and a ruby-enameled golden cross pattée. The stars of Grand Officer and Grand Cross bear the inscription Talant de bien faire, membership to the Order is conferred by the President, either on his own initiative, upon the recommendation of his Ministers or following nomination by the Council of the Order. Honorific orders of Portugal List of the Grand Collar of the Order of Infante D. Henrique
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Order of Prince Henry Ordem do Infante Dom Henrique
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Qatar
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Qatar, officially the State of Qatar, is a sovereign country located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its surrounded by the Arabian Gulf. A strait in the Arabian Gulf separates Qatar from the island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates. Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971, Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar, Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. Whether it should be regarded as a constitutional or a monarchy is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was approved in a referendum. In early 2017, Qatars total population was 2.6 million,313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.3 million expatriates, Qatar is a high income economy, backed by the worlds third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves. The country has the highest per capita income in the world, Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development. Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network. For its size, Qatar wields disproportionate influence in the world, Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so. A century later, Ptolemy produced the first known map to depict the peninsula, the map also referenced a town named Cadara to the east of the peninsula. The term Catara was exclusively used until the 18th century, after which Katara emerged as the most commonly recognised spelling, eventually, the modern derivative Qatar was adopted as the countrys name. In Standard Arabic, the name is pronounced, while in the local dialect it is, Human habitation of Qatar dates back to 50,000 years ago. Settlements and tools dating back to the Stone Age have been unearthed in the peninsula, Mesopotamian artefacts originating from the Ubaid period have been discovered in abandoned coastal settlements. Al Daasa, a settlement located on the western coast of Qatar, is the most important Ubaid site in the country and is believed to have accommodated a small seasonal encampment. Kassite Babylonian material dating back to the second millennium BC found in Al Khor Islands attests to trade relations between the inhabitants of Qatar and the Kassites in modern-day Bahrain, among the findings were 3,000,000 crushed snail shells and Kassite potsherds. It has been suggested that Qatar is the earliest known site of shellfish dye production, in 224 AD, the Sasanian Empire gained control over the territories surrounding the Persian Gulf
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Dot carvings at Jebel Jassassiyeh, dating to c. 4000 BC.
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A map of East Arabia in 1794.
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A partially restored section of the ruined town of Zubarah.
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Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba and it is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast and most of its terrain consists of arid desert and mountains. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four regions, Hejaz, Najd and parts of Eastern Arabia. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud and he united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been a monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called the predominant feature of Saudi culture, with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, the state has a total population of 28.7 million, of which 20 million are Saudi nationals and 8 million are foreigners. The states official language is Arabic, petroleum was discovered on 3 March 1938 and followed up by several other finds in the Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia has since become the worlds largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the second largest oil reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index and is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, the state has attracted criticism for its treatment of women and use of capital punishment. Saudi Arabia is an autocracy, has the fourth highest military expenditure in the world. Saudi Arabia is considered a regional and middle power, in addition to the GCC, it is an active member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and OPEC. Following the unification of the Hejaz and Nejd kingdoms, the new state was named al-Mamlakah al-ʻArabīyah as-Suʻūdīyah by royal decree on 23 September 1932 by its founder, Abdulaziz Al Saud. Although this is translated as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in English it literally means the Saudi Arab kingdom. Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning family of or House of, in the case of the Al Saud, this is the father of the dynastys 18th century founder, Muhammad bin Saud. There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago
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Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, the first king of Saudi Arabia
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Saudi Arabia political map
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Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways map.
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South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
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Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the former capital of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe
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Arrival of Jan van Riebeeck, the first European to settle in South Africa, with Devil's Peak in the background
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Depiction of a Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838
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Order of Good Hope
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The Order of Good Hope or Order of the Cape of Good Hope has been a knighthood order of the Republic of South Africa. President Nelson Mandela had announced his intention to reform the Order, the new South African government saw the Order as a relic of apartheid, above all because of the insignia considered too European (the rays, the colours, the anchor and the Latin motto of the Order. Also the insignia was costing the government around 11,000 Rand per initiate, in its place was created the Order of the Companions of O. R. Tambo. Awarded to foreign citizens, for promoting international relations with the increasingly isolated apartheid state, the order was originally divided into five classes, Grand Collar – for heads of state only. Grand Cross – for heads of government, ministers of state, judges, presidents of legislatures, secretaries of state, ambassadors, commanders-in-chief, Grand Officer – for legislators, envoys, senior military officers, and others. Commander – for chargés daffaires, consuls-general, colonels, and others, Officer – for consuls, lower-ranking military officers, and others. The order was reorganised in 1988, Grand Cross – for excellent meritorious service, Grand Officer – for outstanding meritorious service. Commander – for exceptionally meritorious service
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Order of Good Hope
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Order of the Golden Fleece
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It became one of the most prestigious orders in Europe. The chaplain of the Austrian branch is Cardinal Graf von Schönborn and it is restricted to a limited number of knights, initially 24 but increased to 30 in 1433, and 50 in 1516, plus the sovereign. The Orders first King of Arms was Jean Le Fèvre de Saint-Remy, so that those knights and gentlemen who shall see worn the order. Should honor those who wear it, and be encouraged to employ themselves in noble deeds, the bishop of Châlons, chancellor of the Order, rescued the fleeces reputation by identifying it instead with the fleece of Gideon that received the dew of Heaven. He was succeeded as king by Philip V, a Bourbon, in either case the sovereign, as Duke of Burgundy, writes the letter of appointment in French. These, and other awards by Joseph, were revoked by King Ferdinand on the restoration of Bourbon rule in 1813, napoleon created by Order of 15 August 1809 the Order of the Three Golden Fleeces, in view of his sovereignty over Austria, Spain and Burgundy. This was opposed by Joseph I of Spain and the new order was never awarded, in 1812 the acting government of Spain awarded the order to the Duke of Wellington, an act confirmed by Ferdinand on his resumption of power, with the approval of Pope Pius VII. Wellington therefore became the first Protestant to be awarded the Golden Fleece and it has subsequently also been awarded to non-Christians, such as Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand. There was another crisis in 1833 when Isabella II became Queen of Spain in defiance of Salic Law that did not allow women to become heads of state and her right to award the Fleece was challenged by Spanish Carlists. Sovereignty remained with the head of the Spanish house of Bourbon during the republican and Francoist periods and is today by the present King of Spain. Knights of the Order are entitled to be addressed with the style His/Her Excellency in front of their name, King Juan Carlos I of Spain – Former Sovereign of the Order as King of Spain from 1975 to 2014. The problem of inheritance was avoided on the accession of Maria Theresa in 1740 as sovereignty of the Order passed not to herself but to her husband. Sovereignty remains with the head of the House of Habsburg, which was handed over on 20 November 2000 by Otto von Habsburg to his elder son, die Schatzkammer in Wien, Symbole abendländischen Kaisertums. Der Schatz des Ordens vom Goldenen Vlies, ISBN 3-7017-0541-0 Boulton, DArcy Jonathan Dacre,1987
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Order of the Golden Fleece Orden del Toisón de Oro Ordre de la Toison d'Or Orden vom Goldenen Vlies Ordo Velleris Aurei
Order of the Golden Fleece
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Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, with the collar of the Order (portrait in c.1450 by Rogier van der Weyden)
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Baudouin de Lannoy, c. 1435, one of the first Knights of the Golden Fleece, inducted in 1430
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The Duke of Wellington wearing the Spanish Fleece
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Royal Order of the Seraphim
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The Royal Order of the Seraphim is a Swedish order of chivalry created by King Frederick I on 23 February 1748, together with the Order of the Sword and the Order of the Polar Star. Since the reorganization of the orders in 1975, the Order of the Seraphim is only awarded to heads of state. The order has one class with the dignity of Knight. The three above-mentioned Orders together with the Order of Vasa form the Orders of His Majesty the King. A Swedish Knight of the Order of the Seraphim is not referred to as a Knight of the Seraphim, but rather as a Knight and Commander of the Orders of His Majesty the King. This form is used because the Swedish word orden is an old plural form which indicates that a knight has to be a Knight Grand Cross or Knight of at least one of the other Swedish Orders. Foreign Knights are for the greater part Knights of the Order of the Seraphim. A Knight of the Order may be styled Herr + surname, which used to be the style for Swedish secular Knights appointed by the Swedish King. Until 1975 the sons of the Swedish monarch received a version of the orders insignia at their baptism. As part of a reform on orders and decorations, a law was passed in 1974 restricting the conferral of orders to foreign citizens and this law was revised in 1995 to allow members of the Swedish Royal Family to receive the order. That year, on her 18th birthday, Crown Princess Victoria became a member of the order, prince Carl Philip and Princess Madeline likewise became a knight/member of the order on their 18th birthday. Princess Leonore, daughter of Princess Madeleine and Christopher ONeill, was conferred the order at her baptism on June 8,2014. This requirement eventually died out as boards of physicians and other professionals made such supervision by the Knights of the Seraphim anachronistic during the course of the 19th century. It seems reasonable to assume, at very least, that the accounts of these earlier knightly collars influenced the choice of design for the collar of the 1748 order. This medieval custom survived into the period of the Vasa dynasty as well, similarly, John III had bestowed the Order of the Lamb of God in 1569. Queen Christina founded an Order of the Amaranth, although not at her coronation. Because of these orders the first set of statutes described the Order as revived. Also like the French royal orders of chivalry the breast stars of the Swedish orders similarly took the form of silver crosses
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The Royal Order of the Seraphim Kungliga Serafimerorden
Royal Order of the Seraphim
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The smaller badge and sash on infant Princess Estelle on 22 May 2012
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The regular-sized badge and sash on Prince Daniel
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Collar and badge of the Order of the Seraphim.
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Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
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Gold Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal kurgan in Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
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Principalities of Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
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The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus'.
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Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise
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The Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise is an award of Ukraine. It is awarded for distinguished services to the state and people of the Ukrainian nation, the Order was instituted on August 23,1995 by the Ukrainian President, Leonid Kuchma. The Order is awarded in five grades and has a ribbon with a yellow stripe on each edge. Media related to Order of the Yaroslav the Great at Wikimedia Commons
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Star of the Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise on a shoulder sash
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Badges
Order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise
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Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
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The Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal is a commemorative medal which was instituted to celebrate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. The award of the medals was then at the discretion of the government of each territory, a total of 138,214 medals were awarded, including,11,561 to Australians. The Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal is a disk,1.25 inches in diameter. The obverse features an effigy of Queen Elizabeth II, facing right, in a high-collared ermine cloak and wearing the collar of the Garter. There is no raised rim and no legend, the reverse shows the Royal Cypher EIIR, surmounted by a large crown. The legend around the edge reads QUEEN ELIZABETH II CROWNED 2nd JUNE1953, the medal was designed by Cecil Thomas. The dark red ribbon is 1.25 inches wide, with 5⁄64 inch wide white edges, ladies who were awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal, can wear it on their left shoulder with the ribbon tied in the form of a bow, as depicted. The medals were issued without inscription, except for the 37 issued to the British Mount Everest Expedition and these were engraved MOUNT EVEREST EXPEDITION on the rim. Some orders of precedence are as follows, Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal
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Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
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Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Serbia and Montenegro, officially the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, was a country in Southeast Europe, created from the two remaining republics of Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1992. The republics of Serbia and Montenegro together established a federation in 1992 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the FRY aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to continue the membership of the former state. It re-applied for UN membership on 27 October and was admitted on 1 November 2000, the FRY was initially dominated by Slobodan Milošević as President of Serbia and then President of Yugoslavia. Milošević installed and forced the removal of several presidents and prime ministers. However, the Montenegrin government, initially enthusiastic supporters of Milošević, a loose union, Serbia and Montenegro were united only in certain realms, such as defense. The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of the Federal Republic, and continued to operate under separate economic policies, on 21 May 2006, the Montenegrin independence referendum was held, and 55. 5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The state union came to an end after Montenegros formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006, after the dissolution, Serbia became the legal successor of the union, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organizations. With the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe, the new state followed the wave of democratic change, Yugoslavias collapse began in 1991 when Slovenia, Croatia, and the Republic of Macedonia declared independence. On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new third Yugoslavia. Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from a union with Serbia, Montenegro, the FRY was suspended from a number of international institutions. This was due to the ongoing Yugoslav wars during the 1990s, the Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions, in this way, every Bosnian Serb was transferred from the Yugoslav army to what became the newly created Bosnian Serb Army. Through this, the Bosnian Serb army also received military equipment and full funding from the FRY. Furthermore, Serbian Radical Party founder and paramilitary Vojislav Šešelj claimed that President Milošević personally asked him to send paramilitaries into Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1995, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević represented the FRY and Bosnian Serbs at peace talks in Dayton, Ohio, US, from 1996, the first public signs of political discord between parts of Montenegrin leadership and the Serbian leadership began to appear. Milošević did not respond to the platform, considering it unconstitutional, by October 2000 Milošević had lost power in Serbia. Subsequent governments of Montenegro carried out policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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The Zašto? ("Why?") Monument, dedicated to the employees of the Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) who were killed during NATO bombing of the RTS building in 1999.
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Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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A Federal Republic of Yugoslavia passport
101.
Zaire
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Zaire, officially the Republic of Zaire is the name for the Democratic Republic of the Congo that existed between 1971 and 1997 in Central Africa. The country was a one-party state and dictatorship, run by Mobutu Sese Seko and it was established following Mobutus seizure of power in a military coup in 1965, following five years of political upheaval following independence known as the Congo Crisis. Zaire had a strongly centralist constitution and foreign assets were nationalized, a wider campaign of Authenticité, ridding the country of the influences from the colonial era of the Belgian Congo, was also launched under Mobutus direction. Weakened by the end of American support after the end of the Cold War, by the time of its disestablishment, Mobutus rule was characterized by widespread cronyism, corruption and economic mismanagement. The Republic started to collapsed in 1996, amid the destabilization of eastern parts of the state in the aftermath of the Rwandan Genocide and growing ethnic violence. The following year, Laurent-Désiré Kabila, at the head of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo militia, with rebel forces making gains in the east, Mobutu fled the country, leaving Kabilas forces in charge. Mobutu died within four months after he was forced into exile in Morocco, the states name, Zaire was derived from the name of the Congo River, sometimes called Zaire in Portuguese, adapted from the Kongo word nzere or nzadi. In 1965, as in 1960, the division of power in Congo-Léopoldville between President and Parliament led to a stalemate and threatened the countrys stability, unlike the first time, however, Mobutu assumed the presidency, rather than remaining behind the scenes. From 1965, Mobutu dominated the life of the country, restructuring the state on more than one occasion. In retrospective justification of his 1965 seizure of power, Mobutu later summed up the record of the First Republic as one of chaos, disorder, negligence, rejection of the legacy of the First Republic went far beyond rhetoric. In the first two years of its existence, the new regime turned to the urgent tasks of political reconstruction and consolidation, creating a new basis of legitimacy for the state, in the form of a single party, came next in Mobutus order of priority. A third imperative was to expand the reach of the state in the social and political realms, by 1976, however, this effort had begun to generate its own inner contradictions, thus paving the way for the resurrection of a Bula Matari system. By 1967, Mobutu had consolidated his rule and proceeded to give the country a new constitution, the new constitution was submitted to popular referendum in June 1967 and approved by 98 percent of those voting. The president was to appoint and dismiss cabinet members and determine their areas of responsibility, the ministers, as heads of their respective departments, were to execute the programs and decisions of the president. The president also was to have the power to appoint and dismiss the governors of the provinces, the bicameral parliament was replaced by a unicameral legislative body called the National Assembly. Governors of provinces were no longer elected by provincial assemblies but appointed by the central government, the president had the power to issue autonomous regulations on matters other than those pertaining to the domain of law, without prejudice to other provisions of the constitution. Under certain conditions, the president was empowered to govern by executive order, but the most far-reaching change was the creation of the Popular Movement of the Revolution on 17 April 1967, marking the emergence of the nation politically organized. Rather than being the emanation of the state, the state was defined as the emanation of the party
Zaire
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Mobutu was the president of Zaire from 1965 to 1997.
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102.
Line of succession to the Japanese throne
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The current line of succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne is based on the Imperial Household Law. At present, only males are allowed to succeed to the throne, the list below contains all princes currently eligible to succeed to the throne. The list below contains all princes currently eligible to succeed to the throne, the Imperial House Law of 1889 was the first Japanese law to regulate the imperial succession. Until October 1947, when it was abolished and replaced with the Imperial Household Law, in all instances, the succession proceeded from the eldest male heir to the youngest. In the majority of cases, the sons and male heirs of an emperor were favoured over those born to concubines. The amendment provided for princes to leave the family, either by imperial decree or by imperial sanction. They were then granted a name and assumed the status of nobles with the peerage titles of marquis or count. Alternatively, a prince could be adopted into a noble family or succeed to the headship of an imperial family line as a noble. Prince Fushimi Kuniie had 17 sons in all by various concubines, a 1907 amendment to the Imperial House Law further reduced the number of imperial princes eligible to succeed to the throne. The main Fushimi-no-miya line and the Kuni, Kaya, Asaka, Higashikuni, Takeda, the present head of the Fushimi-no-miya family and the head of the Kitashirakawa branch lack male heirs to continue their lineages, however. Debate over the succession was first raised in the late 1920s after the Shōwa Emperors accession. As a career officer and known nationalist with radical leanings. Still, in 1938 Prince Saionji expressed his worry that Prince Chichibu might someday usurp the throne by violent means, by October 1940, however, Prince Chichibu had become seriously ill with pulmonary tuberculosis, and led a retired life from then on. He was quietly passed over in the line of succession in favour of his brother Prince Takamatsu, in an emergency, Prince Takamatsu was intended to assume the regency for his nephew the Crown Prince. In July 1944, though the hopelessness of Japans war effort became clear after the loss of Saipan, on 8 July, the decision was formally taken, with Prince Takamatsu endorsing it several days later. By this plan, Prince Higashikuni would replace Tojo as premier, however, the plan was ultimately dismissed as being too risky. Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan provides that The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic, the Imperial Household Law of 1947 enacted by the 92nd and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. Before September 2006, there was a succession crisis since no male child had been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965
Line of succession to the Japanese throne
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Crown Prince Naruhito is heir apparent to the Japanese throne
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Imperial Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni
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Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi was a member of the Japanese imperial family and a field marshal in the Imperial Japanese Army during the Meiji and Taishō periods. He was the father of Empress Kōjun, and therefore, the grandfather of the present emperor of Japan. Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi was born in Kyoto, the son of Prince Kuni Asahiko. His father, Prince Asahiko, was a son of Prince Fushimi Kuniye, in 1872, Emperor Meiji granted Prince Asahiko the title Kuni-no-miya and authorized him to begin a new branch of the imperial family. Prince Kuniyoshi succeeded to the title upon his fathers death on 29 October 1891 and his half-brothers, Prince Asaka Yasuhiko, Prince Higashikuni Naruhiko, Prince Nashimoto Morimasa, and Prince Kaya Kuninori, all formed new branches of the imperial family during the Meiji period. Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi graduated from the 7th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1897 as a second lieutenant, and was promoted to lieutenant in February 1899 and to captain in March 1901. Promoted to major in the infantry in November 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War he was assigned to the staff of General Kuroki Tamemoto, for his war services he was awarded the Order of the Golden Kite. He then graduated from the Army War College and was assigned to the 3rd Regiment of the Imperial Guards Division, from 1907 to 1910, he studied military tactics in Germany and was attached to Second Regiment of the Prussian Foot Guards. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in April 1908 and to colonel in December 1910, upon returning to Japan, Prince Kuni rose to the rank of major general in August 1913 and given command of the 38th Infantry Regiment. Later he commanded the Imperial Guard of Japan and rose to the rank of lieutenant general in August 1917, along with that command, he received the additional post of chief priest of Meiji Shrine. Prince Kuni became a general and a member of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in August 1923. An early advocate of military aviation, one of his protégés was Yamamoto Isoroku, on 27 June 1929, Emperor Hirohito promoted him to the honorary rank of field marshal and granted him the Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum. Prince Kunis death occurred soon after he arrived at his villa at Atami, Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum Order of the Golden Kite, 4th Class Hon. The marriage represented an alliance between the family and the Satsuma clan. Prince Kuni Asaakira Marquis Kuni Kunihisa Princess Kuni Nagako, married Crown Prince Hirohito in 1924, Princess Kuni Nobuko Princess Kuni Satoko Count Higashifushimi Kunihide Dupuy, Trevor N. Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography. Splendid Monarchy, Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan
Imperial Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni
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HIH Prince Kuni Kuniyoshi
Imperial Prince Kuniyoshi Kuni
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1920, Prince Kuni and his family
104.
Emperor Jimmu
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Emperor Jimmu, (original birth name of Shinto, Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko no Mikoto, was the first Emperor of Japan, according to legend. His accession is dated as 660 BC. According to Japanese mythology, he is a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, through her grandson Ninigi and he launched a military expedition from Hyuga near the Inland Sea, captured Yamato, and established this as his center of power. In modern Japan, Jimmus accession is marked as National Foundation Day on February 11, Jimmu is recorded as Japans first ruler in two early chronicles, Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. Nihon Shoki gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC, prior to this time, these rulers had been known as sumera no mikoto/ōkimi. This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan. According to the account in the Kojiki, Emperor Jimmu was born on February 13,711 BC. Both the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki give Jimmus name as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko no mikoto, iware indicates a toponym whose precise purport is unclear. The Imperial House of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its descent from the sun-goddess Amaterasu via Jimmus great grandfather Ninigi. In Japanese mythology, the Age of the Gods is the period before Jimmus accession, Jimmu figures as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu via the side of his father, Ugayafukiaezu. Amaterasu had a son called Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto and through him a grandson named Ninigi-no-Mikoto and she sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married Konohana-Sakuya-hime. Among their three sons was Hikohohodemi no Mikoto, also called Yamasachi-hiko, who married Toyotama-hime and she was the daughter of Ryūjin, the Japanese sea god. They had a son called Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by Tamayori-hime and they eventually married and had four sons. The last of these, Kanyamato Iwarebiko, became Emperor Jimmu, according to the chronicles Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, Jimmus brothers were born in Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture. They moved eastward to find a more appropriate for administering the entire country. Jimmus older brother, Itsuse no Mikoto, originally led the migration, as they reached Naniwa, they encountered another local chieftain, Nagasunehiko, and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle. Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and they reached Kumano, and, with the guidance of a three-legged crow, Yatagarasu, they moved to Yamato
Emperor Jimmu
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Jimmu
Emperor Jimmu
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Depiction of a bearded Jimmu with his emblematic long bow and an accompanying wild bird. This 19th century artwork is by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.
Emperor Jimmu
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Unebi Goryō, the mausoleum of Jimmu in Kashihara City, Nara Prefecture.
Emperor Jimmu
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The inner prayer hall of Kashihara Shrine in Kashihara, Nara, the principal shrine devoted to Jimmu
105.
Emperor Kanmu
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Emperor Kanmu was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kanmu reigned from 781 to 806 and he was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe, and was born prior to Shirakabes ascension to the throne. According to the Shoku Nihongi, Yamabes mother, Yamato no Niigasa, was a 10th generation descendant of Muryeong of Baekje, after his father became emperor, Kanmus half-brother, Prince Osabe was appointed to the rank of crown prince. His mother was Princess Inoe, a daughter of Emperor Shōmu, after Inoe and Prince Osabe were confined and then died in 775, Osabes sister – Kanmus half-sister Princess Sakahito – became Kanmus wife. Later, when he ascended to the throne in 781, Kanmu appointed his brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa. In 785 Sawara was expelled and died in exile, Kanmu had 16 empresses and consorts, and 32 imperial sons and daughters. Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the throne, Emperor Heizei, Emperor Saga and Emperor Junna. Some of his descendants took the Taira hereditary clan title, examples include Taira no Masakado, Taira no Kiyomori, and the Hōjō clan. The waka poet Ariwara no Narihira was one of his grandsons, Kanmu is traditionally venerated at his tomb, the Imperial Household Agency designates Kashiwabara no Misasagi, in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, as the location of Kanmus mausoleum. Kanmu was an emperor who attempted to consolidate government hierarchies. Kanmu appointed Sakanoue no Tamuramaro to lead an expedition against the Emishi. 773, Received the title of crown prince, april 30,781, In the 11th year of Kōnins reign, he abdicated, and the succession was received by his son Kanmu. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Kanmu is said to have ascended to the throne, during his reign, the capital of Japan was moved from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō in 784. Shortly thereafter, the capital would be moved again in 794, july 28,782, The sadaijin Fujiwara no Uona was involved in an incident that resulted in his removal from office and exile to Kyushi. Claiming illness, Uona was permitted to return to the capital where he died, posthumously, in the same general time frame, Fujiwara no Tamaro was named Udaijin. During these days in which the offices of sadaijin and udaijin were vacant, the major counselors,783, The udaijin Tamaro died at the age of 62 years. 783, Fujiwara no Korekimi became the new udaijin to replace the late Fujiwara no Tamaro,793, Under the leadership of Dengyō, construction began on the Enryaku Temple. 794, The capital was relocated again, this time to Heian-kyō, november 17,794, The emperor traveled by carriage from Nara to the new capital of Heian-kyō in a grand procession
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Kanmu
Emperor Kanmu
106.
Emperor Go-Suzaku
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Emperor Go-Suzaku was the 69th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Go-Suzakus reign spanned the years from 1036 through 1045 and this 11th-century sovereign was named after the 10th-century Emperor Suzaku and go-, translates literally as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Suzaku. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Suzaku. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Atsunaga-shinnō. His mother was Fujiwara no Akiko/Shōshi, the daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga and he was the younger brother and heir to Emperor Go-Ichijō. Go-Suzaku had five Empresses and seven Imperial children, may 15,1036, In the 9th year of Emperor Go-Ichijōs reign, he died, and the succession was received by his son. 1036, Emperor Go-Suzaku is said to have acceded to the throne, february 5,1045, Emperor Go-Suzaku abdicated. February 7,1045, The former-Emperor Go-Suzaku died at the age of 37 and his reign has lasted nine years—five in the nengō Chōryaku, four in Chōkyu, and 2 in Kantoku. The actual site of Go-Suzakus grave is known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Go-Suzakus mausoleum and it is formally named Enjō-ji no misasagi. Go-Suzaku is buried amongst the Seven Imperial Tombs at Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto, the specific mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Go-Suzaku is today named Shu-zan. The emperors burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Go-Suzaku died and these tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji. The final resting place of Emperor Go-Suzakus consort, Teishi Nai-shinnō, is here as well, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. During Go-Suzakus reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included, Sadaijin, Fujiwara Yorimichi, dainagon The years of Go-Suzakus reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Moscher, Gouverneur
Emperor Go-Suzaku
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Decorative emblems (kiri) of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryoan-ji. Go-Suzaku is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.
107.
Emperor Horikawa
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Emperor Horikawa was the 73rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Horikawas reign spanned the years from 1087 through 1107, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Taruhito-shinnō. He was also known as Yoshihito-tennō, Horikawa was the son of Emperor Shirakawa. His mother was Fujiwara no Kenshi, adopted daughter of Fujiwara Morozane, 1103–1156 Imperial Prince Munehito – note, raised by his father, Emperor Shirakawa after Munehitos mothers death 1103–1159 Kangyō – High Priest 1105–1162 Prince. – Buddhist Priest, head priest of Tendai sect Imperial Princess Kishi Imperial Princess and he became Crown Prince and became emperor on the same day that his father abdicated. His reign was overshadowed by the rule of former emperor Emperor Shirakawa. January 3,1087, In the 14th year of Emperor Shirakawa-tennō s reign, the emperor abdicated, shortly thereafter, Emperor Horikawa is said to have acceded to the throne. His fathers kampaku, Fujiwara Morozane became sesshō, but Shirakawa held actual power as cloistered Emperor, Horikawa filled his reign with scholarship, poetry, and music. When his empress-consort died, his son, Imperial Prince Munehito, who had become Crown Prince was taken to be raised by Horikawas father,1105, A red-colored snow fell over a large area in Japan. August 9,1107, Horikawa died at the age of 29, Horikawa died at age 29 in Kajō2, on the 19th day of the 7th month 1107. The actual site of Horikwawas grave is known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Horikawas mausoleum and it is formally named Nochi no Yenkyō-ji no misasagi. Horikawa is buried amongst the Seven Imperial Tombs at Ryoan-ji in Kyoto, the mound which commemorates the Emperor Horikawa today named Kinugasa-yama. The emperors burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Horikawa died and these tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji. Emperor Horikawa was succeeded by his son, Munehito, who would take the name Emperor Toba, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career
Emperor Horikawa
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Decorative emblems (kiri) of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryoan-ji. Horikawa is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.
108.
Emperor Toba
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Emperor Toba was the 74th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Tobas reign spanned the years from 1107 through 1123, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Munehito-shinnō. He was the son of Emperor Horikawa and his mother was Empress Dowager Fujiwara no Ishi Toba had three Empresses, some consort ladies and 14 imperial sons and daughters. Named Empress Dowager Zyōsai 1127–1192 Imperial Prince Masahito – later Emperor Go-Shirakawa 1129–1169 Imperial Prince Motohito, 1132–1168 Prince Dōkei – Buddhist Priest 1134–1181 Prince Kakukai – Buddhist Priest 11. –1195 Aya Gozen Lady of Sanjō, daughter of Fujiwara no Iemasa 11. –1161 Imperial Princess Kenshi. – Yoshida saigū Lady of Kasuga, daughter of Tokudaiji Saneyosi 1145–1208 Imperial Princess Shōshi/Nobuko Lady of Fujitsubo, – Buddhist Priestess Lady of Tosa, daughter of Minamoto no Mitsuyasu Daughter of Fujiwara no Sanehira Takamatsunomiya Unknown Prince Saichū. – Buddhist Priest Imperial Prince Dōka, when his mother died, his grandfather, former-Emperor Shirakawa, took him under his care and raised him. August 9,1107, In the 21st year of Emperor Horikawas reign, the emperor died at the age of 29, shortly thereafter, Emperor Toba is said to have acceded to the throne. During the initial years of Tobas reign, the power was held by his grandfather. This was the time the temple was destroyed by fire. February 25,1123, In the 17th year of Emperor Tobas reign, Toba was forced to abdicate by his grandfather, Toba gave up the throne in favor of his son Akihito, who would become Emperor Sutoku. At this time, Toba took the title Daijō-tennō, the succession was received by his son. 1123, Emperor Sutoku is said to have acceded to the throne,1129, retired Emperor Shirakawa died, and Toba himself began to rule as cloistered emperor. Toba continued to power through the reigns of three emperors, Emperor Sutoku, Emperor Konoe, and Emperor Go-Shirakawa. 1134, The former-Emperor Toba made a pilgrimage to the Kumano Shrines and he was accompanied by sadaijin Hanazono no Arahito and udaijin Naka-no-in Munetada. The excursion was enjoyed by all, and great quantities of sake were consumed, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career
Emperor Toba
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Toba
109.
Emperor Fushimi
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Emperor Fushimi was the 92nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1287 through 1298, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Hirohito-shinnō. They were from the Jimyōin-tō line, empress, Saionji Lady-in-waiting, Daughter of Miki. First son, Imperial Prince Tanehito Consort, Tōin Fujiwara, fourth son, Imperial Prince Tomihito His name comes from the palace of the Jimyōin-tō. Hirohito-shinnō was named Crown Prince and heir to his first cousin, political maneuvering by Fushimis father, the Jimyōin-tō Emperor Go-Fukakusa, was a crucial factor in this choice. In the year 1287, in the 13th year of Go-Uda-tennō s reign, the emperor abdicated, shortly thereafter, Emperor Fushimi is said to have acceded to the throne. After this, there was a period of time in which the two lines alternated power. Two years later, the retired Emperor Go-Fukakusa ended his reign as Cloistered Emperor, in 1289, by making his own son Crown Prince, he increased the antagonism of the Daikakuji line. In 1290, the family of Asawara Tameyori made an attempt on the Emperor. During his reign, efforts were made by the families to defeat the government. In 1298, Fushimi abdicated and began his reign as cloistered emperor, three years later, in 1301, the Daikakuji Line rallied and forced Emperor Go-Fushimi to abdicate. In 1308, his co-operation with the Bakufu succeeding, his fourth sons enthronement as Emperor Hanazono took place, during Fushimis reign, the alternating plan for the Daikakuji and Jimyōin lines had not yet come into being, and the two lines fought each other for the throne. 1313, Retired Emperor Fushimi shaved his head and became a Buddhist monk, in 1317, former-Emperor Fushimi died, but his son, Emperor Hanazono, did not participate in formal mourning rites for him. This was unprecedented, but this was rationalized with the explanation that Hanozono had become the son of his older brother. Fushimi is enshrined with other emperors at the tomb called Fukakusa no kita no misasagi in Fushimi-ku. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time
Emperor Fushimi
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Fushimi, Tenshi Sekkan Miei
110.
Emperor Go-Fushimi
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Emperor Go-Fushimi was the 93rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1298 to 1301 and this 13th-century sovereign was named after his father, Emperor Fushimi and go-, translates literally as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Fushimi. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Fushimi. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Tanehito-shinnō. He was the eldest son of Emperor Fushimi and they belonged to the Jimyōin-tō branch of the Imperial Family. Court Lady, Saionji Neishi / Yasuko First daughter, Imperial Princess Junshi Third son, Imperial Prince Kazuhito Fifth son, second daughter, Imperial Princess Kenshi / Kaneko Ninth son, Imperial Prince Yutahito Tanehito-shinnō was named Crown Prince or heir in 1289. Einin 6, in the 7th month, In the 11th year of Fushimi-tennōs reign, the emperor abdicated, einin 7 1299), Emperor Go-Fushimi acceded to the throne and the nengō was changed to Shōan to mark the beginning of a new emperors reign. During Hanazonos reign, negotiations between the Shogunate and the two resulted in an agreement to alternate the throne between the two lines every 10 years. This agreement did not last long, as it was broken by Emperor Go-Daigo, Go-Fushimi was the author of a famous plea to the god of the Kamo Shrine for help in gaining the throne for his son. This plea was successful, but it was not until thirty-three years after his abdication that Go-Fushimis son. Kōgon was the first of the northern court emperors backed by the Ashikaga shogunate, Emperor Go-Fushimi is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called Fukakusa no kita no misasagi in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. Einin Shōan Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Ponsonby-Fane, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Go-Fushimi
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Go-Fushimi
111.
Emperor Go-Nara
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Go-Nara was the 105th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from June 9,1526 until September 27,1557, in older English literature, he may also be referred to as Nara II. He was the son of Emperor Go-Kashiwabara. His mother was Fujiwara Fujiko Court Lady, first son, Imperial Prince Michihito Second daughter, Princess Eiju. Seventh daughter, Princess Seishū Consort, Daughter of Mibu Harutomi Second son, daiei 6, in the 4th month, Go-Nara was proclaimed emperor upon the death of his father, Emperor Go-Kashiwabara. He began his reign at age 31, daiei 6, 7th month, An army from Awa Province marched towards Miyako. Hosokawa Takakuni attacked these forces at the Katsura River, but his forces were unsuccessful, hosokawa Takakage came to the aid of Takakuni, and their combined forces were successful in stopping the advancing army. Daiei 6, 12th month, Shogun Ashikaga Yoshiharu invited archers from neighboring provinces to come to the capital for an archery contest, Kyōroku gannen or Kyōroku 1, Former Kampuku Konoe Tanye became Sadaijin. The former Nadaijin Minamoto-no Mitsukoto became Udaijin, Former Dainagon Kiusho Tanemitsu became Nadaijin. Tenbun 5, 26th day of 2nd month, Go-Nara was formally installed as emperor, the Imperial Court was so impoverished, that a nationwide appeal for contributions went out. The Imperial Courts poverty was so extreme that the Emperor was forced to sell his calligraphy. Tenbun 20, 8th to 9th month, Courtiers in preparation to move the emperor from war-torn Kyoto to the city of Yamaguchi were caught in the Tainei-ji incident. The massacre of the courtiers in Yamaguchi resulted in a loss of court records along with knowledge of court rituals. Kōji 3, 5th day of 9th month, Emperor Go-Nara died at age 62 and he was unburied for 70 days. Go-Nara is enshrined with other emperors at the tomb called Fukakusa no kita no misasagi in Fushimi-ku. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time
Emperor Go-Nara
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Seated figure of Emperor Go-Nara
112.
Emperor Go-Mizunoo
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Emperor Go-Mizunoo was the 108th Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Go-Mizunoos reign spanned the years from 1611 through 1629 and this 17th-century sovereign was named after the 9th-century Emperor Seiwa and go-, translates as later, and thus, he could be called the Later Emperor Mizunoo. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources. Before Go-Mizunoos accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Kotohito or Masahito. He was the son of Emperor Go-Yōzei. His mother was Konoe Sakiko, the daughter of Konoe Sakihisa and he resided with his family in the Dairi of the Heian Palace. The family included at least 33 children, and four of them would occupy the throne, Later known as Queen Genshō Princess Tani, later known as Queen Sōchō Princess Katsura Lady-in-waiting, Kushige Takako, daughter of Sa Konoe Chūjō. Teruko, Princess Ake, artist Nagahito, Prince Hide, became Emperor Go-Sai Yasuhito, Prince Hachijō, Lady-in-waiting, Sono Kuniko, daughter of the Naidaijin Satohito, Prince Ate, became Emperor Reigen Prince Masahito became emperor following the abdication of his emperor-father. The succession was considered to have received by the new monarch. The events during his lifetime shed light on his reign. The years of Go-Mizunoos reign correspond with a period in which Tokugawa Hidetada,29 June 1596, The birth of an Imperial prince who will become known by the posthumous name of Go-Mizunoo. 20 May 1610, Toyotomi Hideyori came to Miyako to visit the former-Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu,9 May 1611, In the 26th year of Go-Yōzei-tennō s reign, he abdicated, and the reign of Emperor Go-Mizunoo is considered to have begun. The young emperor was aged 16, Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada vanquished Toyotomi Hideyori and set fire to Osaka Castle, and then he returned for the winter to Edo.26 November 1614, There was a strong earthquake. The same year a great bell for the Daibutsu Temple in Kyoto was cast,1615, Osaka Summer Battle begins 1615, Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son, Shogun Hidetada, marched again to Osaka Castle, which was captured and burned. However his body was never found, it was rumored that he fled to Satsuma,6 January 1616, Ieyasu died at Suruga. 25 September 1617, Former-Emperor Go-Yōzei died and he is buried at the North Fukakusa Burial Mound. 1620, Tokugawa Masako, the daughter of Shogun Hidetada, entered the palace as a consort of the emperor,2 April 1620, Severe fire in Kyoto. 6 April 1620, Severe fires in Kyoto,1623, Tokugawa Iemitsu, son of Hidetada, came to the court of the emperor where he was created Shogun
Emperor Go-Mizunoo
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Go-Mizunoo
Emperor Go-Mizunoo
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The mausoleum of Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Tsukinowa no misasagi – at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto.
113.
Japan Times
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The Japan Times is Japans largest English-language newspaper. It is published by The Japan Times, Ltd. a subsidiary of Nifco and it is headquartered in the Japan Times Nifco Building in Shibaura, Minato, Tokyo. The paper was independent of government control, but from 1931 onward, in 1933, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs managed to appoint Hitoshi Ashida, former Ministry official, as chief editor. During World War II, the served as an outlet for Imperial Japanese government propaganda. The papers circulation at time was about 825,000. The temporary change to Nippon Times occurred during ban of English language sentiment during World War II era Japan, shintaro Fukushima became the president in 1956. He exchanged each companys stock with Toshiaki Ogasawara, shintaro renounce the managing rights in 1983. Thus Ogasawaras Nifco, a manufacturer of fasteners, acquired control of The Japan Times in 1983 and changed all of former staffs. Nifco chairman Toshiaki Ogasawara also served as the chairman and publisher of The Japan Times until his death on November 30,2016 and his daughter Yukiko Ogasawara was president of the company from 2006 to 2012, when she was replaced by career Japan Times staffer Takeharu Tsutsumi. Yukiko succeed his fathers position and become chairman of the company after his death, the dailys content includes, News, domestic and world news, domestic and overseas business news. Opinion, Editorials, Op-eds, and Letters to the Editor, features, life and style, community, media, technology, food and drink, travel, environment, education, cartoons. Entertainment, film, art, music, stage, books, event previews, sports, domestic and overseas sports news, including coverage of baseball, soccer, basketball, sumo, figure skating. Since 16 October 2013, the Japan Times has been printed, printed stories from The Japan Times are archived online. The newspaper has a forum and, since 2013, the website offers a section for readers comments below articles. This came about during a redesign and redevelopment of the newspaper. The Japan Times has a media presence on Twitter, Facebook
Japan Times
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Yukiko Ogasawara, vice-chairperson of The Japan Times, with her father, Toshiaki Ogasawara, the publisher and chairperson of the newspaper and its parent company, Nifco, in November 2007
Japan Times
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The Japan Times
114.
Emperor Annei
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Emperor Annei, also known as shikitsuhikotamatemi no Mikoto, was the third emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life. Modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors, Anneis descendant, the name Annei-tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations. Annei is regarded by historians as an emperor and there is a paucity of information about him. There is insufficient material available for verification and study. In Kojiki and Nihonshoki only his name and genealogy were recorded and he is considered to have been the second of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, also known as the eight undocumented monarchs. Emperor Annei was either the eldest son or the son of Emperor Suizei. Before his accession to the throne, he was known as Prince Shikitsu-hiko Tamatemi, jien records that he ruled from the palace of Ukena-no-miya at Katashiro in Kawachi in what would come to be known as Yamato Province. This emperors posthumous name literally means steady tranquillity, the actual site of Anneis grave is not known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Anneis mausoleum and it is formally named Unebi-yama no hitsujisaru Mihodo no i no e no no misasagi. Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, gukanshō, The Future and the Past. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on April 12, May 10, and June 21,1882, reprinted, May,1919. OCLC1882339 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth, ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5, OCLC58053128 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Annei
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Annei
Emperor Annei
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Annei.
115.
Emperor Seimu
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Emperor Seimu was the 13th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He also known as Wakatarashihiko no Sumeramikoto and his reign is conventionally dated as AD 131–191. He is credited with appointing the first provincial governors and district officials, Seimu is regarded by historians as a legendary emperor who might have been real. The name Seimu Tennō was assigned to him posthumously by later generations, if Seimu did exist, there is no evidence to suggest that the title tennō was used during the time period to which his reign has been assigned. It is much more likely that he was a chieftain, or local leader. His father was Emperor Keikō and his mother was Yasaka no Iri Bime no Mikoto, a granddaughter of Emperor Sujin, the actual site of Seimus grave is not known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Nara. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seimus mausoleum and it is formally named Saki no Tatanami no misasagi. Seimus tomb can be visited today at Misasagi-cho, Nara City, Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, William George. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Chamberlain, Basil Hall. Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan on 12 April,10 May, OCLC1882339 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Seimu
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Seimu.
116.
Emperor Hanzei
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Emperor Hanzei, also known as Emperor Hanshō, was the 18th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life or reign. Hanzei is regarded by historians as an emperor of the 5th century. Hanzei was the son of Emperor Nintoku and Iwanohime and he was the brother of Emperor Richū, and this succession effectively by-passed Richūs two sons. Hanzeis contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu, rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi, meaning the great king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Hanzei might have referred to as or the Great King of Yamato. The Nihongi records that the country enjoyed peace during this emperors reign, the description of Hanzei in the Kojiki is daunting as he is described as standing over nine feet tall and have enormous teeth all the same size. He is said to have ruled from the palace of Shibagaki at Tajihi in Kawachi, the actual site of Hanzeis grave is not known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine in Sakai. The Imperial Household Agency designates the Tadeiyama kofun in Sakai as Hanzeis official mausoleum and it is formally named Mozu no mimihara no kita no misasagi. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Hanzei
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Hanzei.
117.
Emperor Seinei
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Emperor Seinei was the 22nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life or reign. According to Kojiki and Nihonshoki, he was a son of Emperor Yūryaku, Seineis full sister was Princess Takuhatahime. His name in birth was Shiraka and it is said that the color of his hair was white since birth. After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne, Seineis contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi, meaning the king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Seinei might have referred to as or the Great King of Yamato. Seinei fathered no children, however, two grandsons of the 17th emperor, Emperor Richū, were found—later to ascend as Prince Oke, Seinei adopted them as his heirs. The actual site of Seineis grave is not known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Osaka. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Seineis mausoleum and it is formally named Kawachi no Sakado no hara no misasagi. Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Aston, nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697. OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds, gukanshō, The Future and the Past. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai, the Manyōshū, The Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation of One Thousand Poems. ISBN 0-231-08620-2 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon, Nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5, OCLC59145842 Nihon Shoki Online English Translations, scroll 15 – Emperors Seinei, Kenzo, and Ninken
Emperor Seinei
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Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom
118.
Emperor Ankan
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Emperor Ankan was the 27th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this life or reign. According to the Kojiki Ankan was the son of Emperor Keitai. When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him, ankans contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. Rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi, meaning the king who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Ankan might have referred to as or the Great King of Yamato. The most noteworthy event recorded during his reign was the construction of state granaries in large numbers throughout Japan, ankans grave is traditionally associated with the Takayatsukiyama kofun in Habikino, Osaka. Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A. D.697, OCLC448337491 Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. Gukanshō, The Future and the Past, ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0, OCLC251325323 Mason, Joseph Warren Teets. The Meaning of Shinto, The Primaeval Foundation of Creative Spirit in Modern Japan, [reprinted by Trafford Publishing, Victoria, British Columbia,2002. ISBN9781553691396, OCLC49602125 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon, nihon Ōdai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Ankan
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Ankan.
119.
Empress Suiko
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Empress Suiko was the 33rd monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Suiko reigned 593 until her death in 628, in the history of Japan, Suiko was the first of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The seven women sovereigns reigning after Suiko were Kōgyoku/Saimei, Jitō, Genmei, Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her personal name was Mikekashiya-hime-no-mikoto, also called Toyomike Kashikiya hime no Mikoto. Empress Suiko had several names including Princess Nukatabe and Toyomike Kashikiya and she was the third daughter of Emperor Kinmei. Her mother was Soga no Inames daughter, Soga no Kitashihime, Suiko was the younger sister of Emperor Yōmei. Empress Suiko was a consort to her half-brother, Emperor Bidatsu, after Bidatsus death, Suikos brother, Emperor Yōmei, came to power for about two years before dying of illness. Upon Yōmeis death, another power struggle arose between the Soga clan and the Mononobe clan, with the Sogas supporting Prince Hatsusebe and the Mononobes supporting Prince Anahobe, the Sogas prevailed once again and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as Emperor Sushun in 587. 593, In the 2nd year of Sushun-tennō s reign, he died, shortly thereafter, Empress Suiko is said to have ascended to the throne. Suikos contemporary title would not have been tennō, as most historians believe this title was not introduced until the reigns of Emperor Tenmu, rather, it was presumably Sumeramikoto or Amenoshita Shiroshimesu Ōkimi, meaning the great Queen who rules all under heaven. Alternatively, Suiko might have referred to as or the Great Queen of Yamato. Prince Shōtoku was appointed regent the following year, although political power during Suikos reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless. The mere fact that she survived and her reign endured suggests she had significant political skills, in 599, an earthquake destroyed buildings throughout Yamato Province in what is now Nara Prefecture. Suikos refusal to grant Soga no Umakos request that he be granted the territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in 624 is cited as evidence of her independence from his influence. Some of the many achievements under Empress Suikos reign include the recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in 594. Suiko was also one of the first Buddhist monarchs in Japan and had taken the vows of a nun shortly before becoming empress, the adoption of the Sexagenary cycle calendar in Japan is attributed to Empress Suiko in 604. At a time when imperial succession was determined by clan leaders, rather than the emperor. One, Prince Tamura, was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the line of Sogas. The other, Prince Yamashiro, was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some members of the Soga clan
Empress Suiko
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Empress Suiko
Empress Suiko
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Empress Suiko.
120.
Empress Genmei
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Empress Genmei, also known as Empress Genmyō, was the 43rd monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Genmeis reign spanned the years 707 through 715 CE, in the history of Japan, Genmei was the fourth of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant. The three female monarchs before Genmei were Suiko, Kōgyoku/Saimei, and Jitō, the four women sovereigns reigning after Genmei were Genshō, Kōken/Shōtoku, Meishō, and Go-Sakuramachi. Before her ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her name was Abe-hime. Empress Genmei was the daughter of Emperor Tenji, and she was a younger sister of Empress Jitō by a different mother. Her mother, Mei-no-Iratsume, was a daughter of Udaijin Soga-no-Kura-no-Yamada-no-Ishikawa-no-Maro, Genmei became the consort of Crown Prince Kusakabe no Miko, who was the son of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. After the death of their son Emperor Monmu in 707, she acceded to the throne. July 18,707, In the 11th year of Mommu-tennō s reign, the emperor died, and the succession was received by the emperors mother, shortly thereafter, Empress Genmei is said to have acceded to the throne. The Japanese word for copper is dō, and since this was indigenous copper, may 5,708, A sample of the newly discovered Musashi copper from was presented in Genmeis Court where it was formally acknowledged as Japanese copper, and a mint was established in Ōmi Province. 708, Fuijwara no Fuhito was named Minister of the Right, isonokami no Maro was Minister of the Left. 709, There was an uprising against governmental authority in Mutsu Province, troops were promptly dispatched to subdue the revolt. 709, Ambassadors arrived from Silla, bringing an offer of tribute and he visited Fujiwara no Fuhito to prepare the way for further visits. 710, Empress Genmei established her residence in Nara. In the last years of the Mommus reign, the preparations for this projected move had begun. Shortly after the nengō was changed to Wadō, an Imperial Rescript was issued concerning the establishment of a new capital at the Heijō-kyō at Nara in Yamato Province and it had been customary since ancient times for the capital to be moved with the beginning of each new reign. However, Emperor Mommu decided not to move the capital, preferring instead to stay at the Fujiwara Palace which had established by Empress Jitō. Empress Genmeis palace was named Nara-no-miya,711, The Kojiki was published in three volumes. This work presented a history of Japan from a period of god-rulers up through the 28th day of the 1st month of the fifth year of Empress Suikos reign
Empress Genmei
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Gemmei
Empress Genmei
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Wadōkaichin monument in Saitama
121.
Nara period
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The Nara period of the history of Japan covers the years from AD710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō, most of Japanese society during this period was agricultural in nature and centered on villages. Most of the villagers followed a religion based on the worship of natural and ancestral spirits called kami, the capital at Nara was modeled after Changan, the capital city of Tang China. In many other ways, the Japanese upper classes patterned themselves after the Chinese, including adopting Chinese written system, fashion, concentrated efforts by the imperial court to record and document its history produced the first works of Japanese literature during the Nara period. Works such as the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki were political in nature, used to record and therefore justify, with the spread of written language, the writing of Japanese poetry, known in Japanese as waka, began. Over time, personal collections were referenced to establish the first large collection of Japanese poetry known as Manyōshū sometime after 759, Chinese characters were used to express sounds of Japanese until kana were invented. The Chinese characters used to express the sounds of Japanese are known as manyōgana, before the Taihō Code was established, the capital was customarily moved after the death of an emperor because of the ancient belief that a place of death was polluted. Reforms and bureaucratization of government led to the establishment of a permanent imperial capital at Heijō-kyō, or Nara, in AD710. It is to be noted that the capital was moved shortly to Kuni-kyō in 740–744, to Naniwa-kyō in 744–745, to Shigarakinomiya in 745, Nara was Japans first truly urban center. It soon had a population of 200,000 and some 10,000 people worked in government jobs, economic and administrative activity increased during the Nara period. Roads linked Nara to provincial capitals, and taxes were collected more efficiently and routinely, coins were minted, if not widely used. Outside the Nara area, however, there was little commercial activity, by the mid-eighth century, shōen, one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, began to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding. Some of these formerly public people were employed by large landholders. Factional fighting at the court continued throughout the Nara period. Imperial family members, leading families, such as the Fujiwara. Earlier this period, Prince Nagaya seized power at the court after the death of Fujiwara no Fuhito, Fuhito was succeeded by four sons, Muchimaro, Umakai, Fusasaki, and Maro. They put Emperor Shōmu, the prince by Fuhitos daughter, on the throne, in 729, they arrested Nagaya and regained control. However, as the first outbreak of smallpox spread from Kyūshū in 735 and it is without doubt that the Emperor was heavily shocked about this disaster, and he moved the palace three times in only five years since 740, until he eventually returned to Nara
Nara period
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Shōsōin
Nara period
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The primary building, i.e. the Daigoku-den at the Heijō Palace (At the photograph's center; this is a modern version built for the 1300th anniversary of Nara becoming Japan's capital). Tōdai-ji 's Daibutsuden and Wakakusayama can be seen in the rear (January, 2010).
Nara period
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The Great Buddha at Nara (Tōdai-ji), 752 CE.
122.
Heian period
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The Heian period is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism, the Heian period is also considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. Although the Imperial House of Japan had power on the surface, the power was in the hands of the Fujiwara clan. Many emperors actually had mothers from the Fujiwara family, the Heian period was preceded by the Nara period and began in 794 A. D. after the movement of the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō, by the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu. Kanmu first tried to move the capital to Nagaoka-kyō, but a series of disasters befell the city, prompting the emperor to relocate the capital a second time, a rebellion occurred in China in the last years of the 9th century, making the political situation unstable. The Japanese missions to Tang China was suspended and the influx of Chinese exports halted, therefore the Heian Period is considered a high point in Japanese culture that later generations have always admired. The period is noted for the rise of the samurai class. Nominally, sovereignty lay in the emperor but in power was wielded by the Fujiwara nobility. However, to protect their interests in the provinces, the Fujiwara and other noble families required guards, police, the warrior class made steady political gains throughout the Heian period. Still, a military takeover of the Japanese government was centuries away. The entry of the class into court influence was a result of the Hōgen Rebellion. At this time Taira no Kiyomori revived the Fujiwara practices by placing his grandson on the throne to rule Japan by regency and their clan, the Taira, would not be overthrown until after the Genpei War, which marked the start of the shogunate. The Kamakura period began in 1185 when Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperors, Nara was abandoned after only 70 years in part due to the ascendancy of Dōkyō and the encroaching secular power of the Buddhist institutions there. Kyōto had good access to the sea and could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces. The early Heian period continued Nara culture, the Heian capital was patterned on the Chinese Tang capital at Changan, as was Nara, Kanmu endeavoured to improve the Tang-style administrative system which was in use. Known as the ritsuryō, this attempted to recreate the Tang imperium in Japan. Despite the decline of the Taika–Taihō reforms, imperial government was vigorous during the early Heian period, Kanmus avoidance of drastic reform decreased the intensity of political struggles, and he became recognized as one of Japans most forceful emperors
Heian period
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Kyōto, "Capital of 1000 Years".
Heian period
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Byōdō-in Phoenix Hall, built in the 11th century during the Heian period of Japan.
Heian period
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A handscroll painting dated circa 1130, illustrating a scene from the "Bamboo River" chapter of the Tale of Genji.
Heian period
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Drawing of Fujiwara no Michinaga, by Kikuchi Yōsai.
123.
Emperor Junna
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Emperor Junna was the 53rd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Junna reigned from 823 to 833, Junna had six Empresses and Imperial consorts and 13 Imperial sons and daughters. Junna is traditionally venerated at his tomb, the Imperial Household Agency designates Ōharano no Nishi no Minenoe no Misasagi, in Nishikyō-ku, Kyoto,810, After the rebellion of Emperor Heizei, he became the crown prince of Emperor Saga at 25 years of age. 30 May 823, In the 14th year of Emperor Sagas reign, he abdicated,22 March 833, In the 10th year of Emperor Junnas reign, the emperor abdicated, and the succession was received by his adopted son. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Ninmyo is said to have acceded to the throne, after Junna stepped down from the throne, two former Emperors were alive. In this period, Saga was called the Senior Retired Emperor,11 June 840 (Jōwa 7, 8th day of the 5th month, Former-Emperor Junna died at the age of 55. Following his death, Fujiwara Yoshifusa maneuvered to have Montoku, rather than the crown prince Tsunesada, put on the throne, the years of Junnas reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name. Kōnin Tenchō Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. During Junnas reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included, Sadaijin, Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu, naidaijin Dainagon, Fujiwara no Otsugu, 821–825. North Clarendon, VT, Charles E. Tuttle Company, ISBN 4-634-60270-9, ISBN 978-4-634-60270-0, OCLC166930357 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. Nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns, ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5, OCLC59145842 Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
Emperor Junna
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Japanese Imperial kamon — a stylized chrysanthemum blossom
124.
Emperor Suzaku
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Emperor Suzaku was the 61st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Suzakus reign spanned the years from 930 through 946, before his ascension of the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Hiroakira-shinnō. He was also known as Yutaakira-shinnō, Hiroakira-shinnō was the 11th son of Emperor Daigo and Empress Consort Onshi, a daughter of the regent and great minister of the council of state, Fujiwara no Mototsune. Suzaku had two Empresses or consorts and one Imperial daughter, Suzakus older brother died unexpectedly young, as did his brothers son. These untimely deaths opened the way for Suzaku to accede to the throne, october 16,930, In the 33rd year of the reign of Daigo-tennō, the emperor abdicated, and the succession was received by his eleventh son, Hiroakira-shinnō. 930, Emperor Suzaku, who was only 8 years old, may 16,931, The era name was changed to mark the beginning of the new emperors reign. August 5,931, The former-Emperor Uda died at the age of 65,932, The udaijin Fujiwara no Sadakata died at the age of 65. 933, The dainagon Fujiwara no Nakahira is named udaijin, Nakahira is the brother of sesshō Fujiwara Tadahira. 933, Ten of the dignitaries of the empire went falcon-hunting together in Owari Province. Each of them was magnificent in his formal hunting attire,935, The Great Fundamental Central Hall on Mt. Hiei burned down. September 7,936, Fujiwara no Tadahira was named daijō-daijin, and in same period, Fujiwara no Nakahira was named sadaijin. 937, The former-Emperor Yōzei celebrated his 70th birthday,937, Serial intermittent ground-tremors were felt in Heian-kyō from the 10th through the 29th days of this month. 940, During his reign Taira no Masakado raised and insurrection in the Kantō region and declared himself emperor,941, Fujiwara no Sumitomo staged a rebellion in the east, but his army was defeated by Tachibana Tōyasu. 946, Suzaku abdicates, having ruled for 16 years, the emperor was succeeded by his younger brother, who would become Emperor Murakami. September 6,952, Suzaku died at the age of 30, the actual site of Suzakus grave is known. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Suzakus mausoleum and it is formally named Daigo no misasagi in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto near the Buddhist temple, Daigo-ji. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras
Emperor Suzaku
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Suzaku
Emperor Suzaku
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Suzaku.
125.
Emperor Go-Reizei
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Emperor Go-Reizei was the 70th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Go-Reizeis reign spanned the years 1045–1068 and this 11th century sovereign was named after the 10th century Emperor Reizei and go-, translates literally as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Reizei. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Reizei. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Chikahito-shinnō. He was the eldest son of Emperor Go-Suzaku and his mother was Fujiwara no Kishi, formerly Naishi-no kami, daughter of Fujiwara no Michinaga. Go-Reizei had three Empresses and no Imperial sons or daughters, february 5,1045, Emperor Go-Suzaku abdicated, and his eldest son receive the succession on the same day. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Reizei formally accedes to the throne, the following year, the era name is changed to mark the beginning of Go-Reizeis reign. February 7,1045, Go-Suzaku died at the age of 37, in response, Minamoto no Yoriyoshi is appointed governor of Mutsu and he is named chinjufu shōgun. He is given titles and powers so that he will be able to restore peace in the north. Yoriyoshi would have been the first to receive this specific shogunal title, may 22,1068, The former-Emperor Go-Reizei died at the age of 44. The actual site of Go-Reizeis grave is known and this emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Kyoto. The Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Go-Reizeis mausoleum and it is formally named Enkyo-ji no misasagi. Go-Reizei is buried amongst the Seven Imperial Tombs at Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto, the mound which commemorates the Hosokawa Emperor Go-Reizei is today named Shu-zan. The emperors burial place would have been quite humble in the period after Go-Reizei died and these tombs reached their present state as a result of the 19th century restoration of imperial sepulchers which were ordered by Emperor Meiji. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career
Emperor Go-Reizei
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Decorative emblems (kiri) of the Hosokawa clan are found at Ryoan-ji. Go-Reizei is amongst six other emperors entombed near what had been the residence of Hosokawa Katsumoto before the Ōnin War.
126.
Emperor Sutoku
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Emperor Sutoku was the 75th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Sutokus reign spanned the years from 1123 through 1142, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Akihito. Note, Although the Roman alphabet-spelling of the name of this emperor is the same as that of the personal name of the current sovereign of Japan. Emperor Sutoku, formerly Prince Akihito His Imperial Majesty, formerly Prince Akihito Sutoku was the eldest son of Emperor Toba, some old texts say he was actually the son of Tobas grandfather, Emperor Shirakawa. February 25,1123, In the 16th year of Emperor Tobas reign, he abdicated, hōan 4, in the 2nd month, Emperor Sutoku is said to have acceded to the throne. 1124, Former-Emperor Shirakawa and former-Emperor Toba went in carriages to outside the city where they could all together enjoy contemplating the flowers, Taiken-mon In, who was Tobas empress and Sutokus mother, joined the procession along with many other women of the court. Their cortege was brilliant and colorful, a great many men of the court in hunting clothes followed the ladies in this parade. Fujiwara Tadamichi then followed in a carriage, accompanied by bands of musicians,1125, The emperor visited Iwashimizu Shrine and the Kamo Shrines, and afterwards, he also visited the shrines Hirano, Ōharano, Mutsunoo, Kitano, Gion and several others. 1128, Taiken-mon In ordered the construction of Enshō-ji in fulfillment of a sacred vow and this was one in a series of sacred vow temples built by imperial command following a precedent established by Emperor Shirakawas Hosshō-ji. 1128, Fujiwara Tadamichi is relieved of his responsibilities and duties as sesshō, august 17,1135, Former-Emperor Shirakawa died at the age of 77. 1141, The former emperor Toba accepted the tonsure in becoming a monk at the age of 39, in 1151, Sutoko ordered Waka imperial anthology Shika Wakashū. In 1156, after failing to put down the Hōgen Rebellion, he was exiled to Sanuki Province. Emperor Sutokus reign lasted for 19 years,2 years in the nengō Tenji,5 years in Daiji,1 year in Tenshō,3 years in Chōshō,6 years in Hōen, the site of Sutokus grave is settled. This emperor is venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at Kagawa. He was also enshrined in Shiramine shrine, Kyoto and Kotohira-gū in Kagawa Prefecture, the Imperial Household Agency designates this location as Sutokus mausoleum. It is formally named Shiramine no misasagi, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career
Emperor Sutoku
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Emperor Sutoku
Emperor Sutoku
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Sutoku.
Emperor Sutoku
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Sutoku becoming demon, by Utagawa Yoshitsuya
127.
Emperor Juntoku
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Emperor Juntoku was the 84th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1210 through 1221, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Morinari-shinnō. He was the son of Emperor Go-Toba. He was elevated to the throne after Emperor Go-Toba pressured Emperor Tsuchimikado into abdicating,1210, In the 12th year of Tsuchimikado-tennō s reign, the emperor abdicated, and the succession was received by his younger brother, the second son of the former-Emperor Go-Toba. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Juntoku is said to have acceded to the throne, in actuality, Emperor Go-Toba wielded effective power as a cloistered emperor during the years of Juntokus reign. In 1221, he was forced to abdicate because of his participation in Go-Tobas unsuccessful attempt to displace the Kamakura bakufu with re-asserted Imperial power and this political and military struggle was called the Jōkyū War or the Jōkyū Incident. After the Jōkyū-no ran, Juntoku was sent into exile on Sado Island and this emperor is known posthumously as Sado-no In because his last years were spent at Sado. He was buried in a mausoleum, the Mano Goryo, on Sados west coast, Juntokus official Imperial tomb is in Kyoto. Juntoku was tutored in poetry by Fujiwara no Sadaie, who was known as Teika. One of the poems was selected for inclusion in what became a well-known anthology. This literary legacy in Teikas collection of poems has accorded Juntoku a continuing popular prominence beyond the scope of his lifetime achievements. The poets and poems of the Hyakunin isshu form the basis for a game which is still widely played today. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. During juntokus reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included, Kampaku, Konoe Iezane, sadaijin Udaijin Nadaijin Dainagon The years of Juntokus reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Jōgen Kenryaku Kempō Jōkyū Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
Emperor Juntoku
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Juntoku, Tenshi Sekkan Miei (15th century)
Emperor Juntoku
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Imperial tomb of Emperor Juntoku and Emperor Go-Toba, Kyoto
128.
Emperor Go-Horikawa
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Emperor Go-Horikawa was the 86th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. This reign spanned the years from 1221 through 1232 and this 13th-century sovereign was named after the 10th-century Emperor Horikawa and go-, translates literally as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Horikawa. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Horikawa. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Yutahito-shinnō. Lady-in-waiting, Jimyōin no Motoko, Daughter of Jimyōin Ieyuki First daughter, lady-in-waiting, Daughter of Fujiwara Kaneyoshi Third daughter, Imperial Princess. After the Genpei War, he, as the grandson of the late Emperor Takakura, who was also a nephew of the then-exiled Retired Emperor Go-Toba and he ruled from July 29,1221 to October 26,1232. 1221, Emperor Go-Horikawa acceded to the throne, as Go-Horikawa was only ten-years-old at this time, his father Imperial Prince Morisada acted as cloistered emperor under the name Go-Takakura-in. In 1232, he began his own cloistered rule, abdicating to his 1-year-old son, however, he had a weak constitution, and his cloistered rule lasted just under two years before he died. Emperor Go-Horikawas Imperial tomb is at Sennyū-ji in the Nochi no Tsukinowa no Higashiyama no misasagi, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. During Go-Horikawas reign, this apex of the Daijō-kan included, Sesshō, Konoe Iezane, dainagon The years of Go-Horikawas reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō. Jōkyū Jōō Gennin Karoku Antei Kangi Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Horikawa
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Go-Horikawa
129.
Emperor Kameyama
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Emperor Kameyama was the 90th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1259 through 1274, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Tsunehito-shinnō. He was the 7th son of Emperor Go-Saga Empress Tōin Fujiwara no Saneko First daughter, second son, Imperial Prince Yohito Empress Saionji Yoshiko Court Lady, Konoe. Twentieth son, Prince Gyōen Other names Emperor Kameyama had were, in 1258, he became Crown Prince at age 9. 1259, In the 14th year of Go-Fukakusa-tennō s reign, the emperor abdicated, shortly thereafter, Emperor Kameyama is said to have acceded to the throne. In 1263, during the Kamakura Rebellion, the 6th Shōgun, in 1265 a Mongol delegation arrived from Kublai Khan, ruler of the Mongol Empire. On its way to Japan, they looted islands, the Mongols invited Japan to submit to the rule of Kublai. The Emperor and the Imperial Court suggested compromise, but they were ignored by the shogun in Kamakura, the Mogolian delegation was sent back. In 1274, abdicating to his son, Emperor Go-Uda, he began his reign as cloistered emperor, during his time as cloistered emperor, the Mongols invaded the second time. Kameyama personally prayed at the Grand Shrine of Ise, on August 15,1281, Kameyama-Jokō asked for Amaterasu intervention on behalf of Japan. However, the Bakufu watched Kameyama with suspicion, and in 1287, encouraged Emperor Go-Uda to abdicate, and pushed for the enthronement of Emperor Go-Fukakusas son, kameyamas cloistered rule was suspended by this. Later, Imperial Prince Hisaaki, Emperor Go-Fukakusas son, became Shōgun strengthening the position of the Jimyōin-tō and this caused Kameyama to become despondent, and in 1289 he entered the priesthood, joining the Zen sect. Because of this, Zen Buddhism slowly penetrated into the Court Nobility, in 1291, he helped establish the Buddhist temple Nanzen-ji in Kyōto. Emperor Kameyama is enshrined at Kameyama no Misasagi in Kyoto, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. Bunō Kōchō Bunei Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Emperor Go-Kameyama Ponsonby-Fane, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon
Emperor Kameyama
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Kameyama
Emperor Kameyama
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Statue of Emperor Kameyama located in Fukuoka, Japan.
Emperor Kameyama
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Kameyama.
130.
Emperor Go-Uda
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Emperor Go-Uda was the 91st emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1274 through 1287, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Yohito. He was the son of Emperor Kameyama. They were from the Daikakuji line, Consort, Horikawa Motoko First son, Imperial Prince Kuniharu Consort, Itsutsuji. Yohito-shinnō became crown prince in 1268, according to the terms of the late emperors will, in 1274, he would become emperor upon the death or abdication of Emperor Kameyama. 1274, In the 15th year of Kameyama-tennō s reign, the emperor abdicated,1274, Emperor Go-Uda is said to have acceded to the throne. The retired Emperor Kameyama continued to power as cloistered emperor. During his reign, the unsuccessful Mongol invasions of Japan occurred, first in 1274, though they established a beachhead at Hakata, Kyushu, they were driven out within a short time. 1275, Hirohito-shinnō was named Crown Prince and heir to his first cousin and this was the result of political maeuvering by Hirohitos father, the Jimyōin-tō Emperor Go-Fukakusa. After this time, the struggle between the Jimyōin-tō and the Daikakuji-tō over the imperial throne continued, after Go-Udas abdication, his Daikakuji-tō controlled the throne from 1301 to 1308 and again from 1318 until the era of northern and southern courts when they became the southern court. Genkō4, in the 6th month, Go-Uda died at age 58, Emperor Go-Udas Imperial mausoleum is the Rengebuji no misasagi in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. Bunei Kenji Kōan Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult Ponsonby-Fane, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns. ISBN 978-0-231-04940-5, OCLC5914584 Kyoto National Museum – Treasures of Daikaku-ji, including portrait of Go-Uda and the former-emperors will
Emperor Go-Uda
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Go-Uda
Emperor Go-Uda
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Go-Uda.
131.
Emperor Hanazono
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Emperor Hanazono was the 95th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. His reign spanned the years from 1308 through 1318, before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Tomihito-shinnō. He was the son of the 92nd Emperor, Fushimi. He belonged to the Jimyōin-tō branch of the Imperial Family, Tomihito-shinnō became emperor upon the abdication of his second cousin, the Daikakuji-tō Emperor Go-Nijō. Tokuji 3, in the 8th month, In the 8th year of Go-Nijo-tennōs reign, the emperor died at the age of 24. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Hanazono is said to have acceded to the throne, tokuji 3, in the 10th month, The nengō was changed to Enkyō to mark the accession of Emperor Hanazono. Hanazonos father, the retired-Emperor Fushimi, and Hanazonos brother, the retired-Emperor Go-Fushimi, in these years, negotiations between the Bakufu and the two imperial lines resulted in an agreement to alternate the throne between the two lines every 10 years. The negotiated provisions would soon broken by Hanazonos successor, in 1318, he abdicated to his second cousin, the Daikakuji-tō Emperor Go-Daigo, who was Nijōs brother. After his abdication, he raised his nephew, the future Northern Pretender Emperor Kōgon, in 1335, he became a Buddhist monk of the Zen sect, and under his sponsorship, his palace became the temple of Myōshin-ji, now the largest network in Rinzai Buddhism. Many places and institutions in the area are named for him, including Hanazono University, Hanazonos imperial tomb is known as Jurakuin no ue no misasagi, it is located in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. He excelled at waka composition, and was an important member of the Kyōgoku School and he also left behind a diary, called Hanazono-in-Minki. He was a religious and literate person, never missing his prayers to the Amitabha Buddha. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. Tokuji Enkyō Ōchō Shōwa Bumpō Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon, nihon Odai Ichiran, ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris, Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain, jinnō Shōtōki, A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns
Emperor Hanazono
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Hanazono
Emperor Hanazono
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Emperor Hanazono after taking the tonsure.
132.
Emperor Go-Daigo
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Emperor Go-Daigo was the 96th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Post-Meiji historians construe Go-Daigos reign to span 1318–1339, however, pre-Meiji accounts of his reign considered the years of his reign to encompass only between 1318–1332, pre-Meiji scholars also considered Go-Daigo a pretender emperor in the years from 1336 through 1339. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Takaharu-shinnō. He was the son of the Daikakuji-tō emperor, Emperor Go-Uda. His mother was Fujiwara no Chūshi/Tadako, daughter of Fujiwara no Tadatsugu, Emperor Go-Daigos ideal was the Engi era during the reign of Emperor Daigo, a period of direct imperial rule. An emperors posthumous name was chosen after his death, but Emperor Go-Daigo chose his personally during his lifetime. Emperor Go-Daigo became emperor at the age of 31, march 29,1318, In the 11th year of Hanazonos reign, the emperor abdicated, and the succession was received by his cousin, the second son of former-Emperor Go-Uda. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Daigo is said to have acceded to the throne,1319, Emperor Go-Daigo caused the nengō to be changed to Genō to mark the beginning of his reign. In 1324, with the discovery of Emperor Go-Daigos plans to overthrow the Kamakura shogunate, in the Genkō Incident of 1331, Emperor Go-Daigos plans were again discovered, this time by a betrayal by his close associate Yoshida Sadafusa. In 1333, Emperor Go-Daigo escaped from Oki with the help of Nawa Nagatoshi and his family, Ashikaga Takauji, who had been sent by the shogunate to find and destroy this army, sided with the emperor and captured the Rokuhara Tandai. Immediately following this, Nitta Yoshisada, who had raised an army in the east, when the city finally fell to Nitta, Hōjō Takatoki, the shogunal regent, fled to Tōshō temple, where he and his entire family committed suicide. This ended Hōjō power and paved the way for a new military regime, upon his triumphal return to Kyoto, Daigo took the throne from Emperor Kōgon and began the Kenmu Restoration. The Restoration was ostensibly a revival of the ways, but, in fact. He wanted to imitate the Chinese in all their ways and become the most powerful ruler in the East. Impatient reforms, litigation over land rights, rewards, and the exclusion of the samurai from the order caused much complaining. In 1335, Ashikaga Takauji, who had travelled to eastern Japan without obtaining an edict in order to suppress the Nakasendai Rebellion. Daigo ordered Nitta Yoshisada to track down and destroy Ashikaga, Ashikaga defeated Nitta Yoshisada at the Battle of Takenoshita, Hakone. Kusunoki Masashige and Kitabatake Akiie, in communication with Kyoto, smashed the Ashikaga army, Takauji fled to Kyūshū, but the following year, after reassembling his army, he again approached Kyōto
Emperor Go-Daigo
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Go-Daigo
Emperor Go-Daigo
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Woodblock print triptych by Gekko Ogata. Emperor Go-Daigo dreams of ghosts at his palace in Kasagiyama.
Emperor Go-Daigo
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Emperor Go-Daigo.
133.
Emperor Go-Komatsu
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Emperor Go-Komatsu was the 100th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He is officially considered to have been a pretender from May 24,1382 to October 21,1392 and he is understood to have been a legitimate emperor from that date until October 5,1412. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1392 through 1412 and this Nanboku-chō sovereign was named after the 9th-century Emperor Kōkō, and go-, translates literally as later. Jiens Gukanshō explains that Kōkō was called the Emperor of Komatsu, the 14th-century pretender and emperor may be called the later Emperor Kōkō or the later Emperor Komatsu. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this would-be emperor may be identified as Komatsu. Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his name was Motohito-shinnō. Go-Komatsu was the first son of the Northern Pretender Emperor Go-Enyū and his mother was Tsūyōmonin no Itsuko, daughter of the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal Sanjō Kimitada. In his own lifetime, Go-Komatsu and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from May 24,1382 through 1412 and he was raised in the turbulent Nanboku-chō period of rival northern and southern courts in the mansion of Hino Sukenori. He succeeded as Northern Emperor upon the abdication of his father, with the help of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, his father ruled as Cloistered Emperor. Thus, Emperor Go-Komatsu became the acknowledged, undisputed and legitimate emperor of Japan on October 21,1392,1392, Emperor Go-Kameyama conveyed the Imperial Regalia to Go-Komatsu, which meant that he ceded the Chrysanthemum throne to his former rival. Go-Komatsu received the succession, and he is understood to have acceded to the legitimate Imperial power. In the peace at that time, it was agreed that the northern and southern courts would alternate, until 1911, the Northern Court Emperors were considered the legitimate ones, and the Southern Court to be illegitimate. He is enshrined with other emperors at the tomb called Fukakusa no kita no misasagi in Fushimi-ku. Kugyō is a term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time. These were hereditary courtiers whose experience and background would have them to the pinnacle of a lifes career. Meitoku ‡ Ōei Chōkei Go-Kameyama Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult
Emperor Go-Komatsu
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Go-Komatsu
134.
Emperor Go-Murakami
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Emperor Go-Murakami was the 97th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, and a member of the Southern Court during the Nanboku-chō period of rival courts. He reigned from September 18,1339, until March 29,1368 and he reigned from Sumiyoshi, Ōsaka, Yoshino, Nara, and other temporary locations. This 14th-century sovereign was named after the 10th-century Emperor Murakami and go-, translates as later, and thus, he is sometimes called the Later Emperor Murakami. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources, this emperor may be identified as Murakami. Prince Norinaga was Go-Daigos son from his consort of his later years. He lived during the turbulent years of conflict between rival claimants to the Chrysanthemum Throne, the contested succession pitted what were known as the Northern and Southern Courts against each other. These years are known as the Nanboku-chō period. However, in 1336, because Ashikaga Takauji had raised a rebellion and he was accompanied by Kitabatake Akiie, in order to confront Takauji. When Takauji defeated them in Kyōto in 1336, they returned to Mutsu Province. In 1337, because Tagajō was attacked, they returned yet again to the west, in 1338, he headed to Tagajō, but returned to Yoshino because of a storm. In Oct.1338, he was named Crown Prince, on 19 Sept.1339, he became emperor upon the death of Emperor Go-Daigo. In 1348, Kō no Moronao attacked Yoshino, and the Emperor left for modern-day Nishiyoshino Village in Yoshino District, Nara Prefecture, in 1352, he entered Otokoyama in Yamashiro Province. As a result of the Battle of Shichijō Ōmiya, Kusunoki Masanori recovered Kyōto from Ashikaga Yoshiakira, at this time, April 1352, the Retired Northern Emperors Kōgon, Kōmyō, and Sukō were taken to Anau, the location of the Southern Court. However, within twenty days, Ashikaga Yoshiakira had recaptured Kyōto, the Emperor and his retinue were confined to Otokoyama, but escaped to Kawachi Province during an attack by Yoshiakira, and a few months later returned to Yoshino. In 1361, Hosokawa Kiyōji and Kusunoki Masanori, who had returned to the Southern Courts allegiance, attacked Kyōto, but, Yoshiakira quickly responded, and they evacuated Kyōto in less than twenty days. Go-Murakamis tomb is known as Hinoo no misasagi, it is located in the precincts of Kanshin-ji temple in Kawachinagano, kugyō is a collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. Even during those years in which the actual influence outside the palace walls was minimal. In general, this group included only three to four men at a time
Emperor Go-Murakami
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Go-Murakami
Emperor Go-Murakami
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Memorial Shinto shrine and mausoleum honoring Empress Go-Murakami.
135.
Emperor Go-Sai
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Emperor Go-Sai, also known as Emperor Go-Saiin was the 111th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Go-Sais reign spanned the years from 1655 through 1663 and this 17th-century sovereign was named after the 9th-century Emperor Junna and go-, translates as later, and thus, he could have been called the Later Emperor Junna. Emperor Go-Sai could not pass the throne onto his descendants, for this reason, he was known as the Go-Saiin emperor, after an alternate name of Emperor Junna, who had confronted and reached an accommodation with similar issues. This emperor was also called Emperor of the Western Palace, the Japanese word go has also been translated to mean the second one, and thus, this emperor might be identified as Junna II. During the Meiji Era, the name became just Go-Sai, before Go-Sais ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was Nagahito or Yoshihito, and his pre-accession title was Hide-no-miya or Momozono-no-miya. He was the son of Emperor Go-Mizunoo. He was raised as if he were the son of Tōfuku-monin, former Empress Meishō was his elder sister by a different mother, and former Emperor Go-Kōmyō was his older brother by a different mother. Emperor Go-Sais Imperial family lived with him in the Dairi of the Heian Palace and this family included at least 11 sons and 17 daughters, none of whom would ascend to the throne. Tenth son Consort, Unknown Sixteenth daughter, nagahito-shinnō became emperor when his emperor-brother died. This death left the throne vacant and the succession was received by the new monarch, shortly thereafter, Emperor Go-Sai is considered to have acceded to the throne. The events during his lifetime shed light on his reign, the years of Go-Sais reign correspond with a period in which Tokugawa Ietsuna was the leader at the pinnacle of the Tokugawa shogunate. Go-Sai married the daughter of the first Takamatsu-no-miya Yoshihito, and he succeeded as second Takamatsu-no-miya, then this Imperial prince became the emperor as a temporary measure until his younger brother, Imperial Prince Satohito could grow older. January 1,1638, The birth of an Imperial prince who will become known by the name of Go-Sai-tennō. January 5,1655, The death of Go-Kōmyō caused the succession to be passed to his brother, and when the succession was received,1655, The new ambassador of Korea, arrived in Japan. March 2–3,1657, Great Fire of Meireki, The city of Edo was devastated by a violent fire,1659, In Edo, construction begins on the Ryogoku Bridge. 1661, Imperial Palace in Kyoto is burnt to the ground, march 20,1662, There was a violent earthquake in Kyoto which destroyed the tomb of the Taiko, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. 1662, Emperor Gosai ordered Tosa Hiromichi 土佐広通, a Tosa school disciple, to adopt the name Sumiyoshi, march 5,1663, Emperor Go-Sai abdicated, which meant that the Prince Satohito received the succession. Shortly thereafter, Emperor Reigen formally acceded to the throne, after abdicating, Go-sai put his heart into scholarship and he left behind many books, including the Water and Sun Collection
Emperor Go-Sai
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Go-Sai by Prince Kōben
136.
Empress Go-Sakuramachi
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Empress Go-Sakuramachi was the 117th monarch of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Go-Sakuramachis reign spanned the years from 1762 through 1771 and this 18th-century sovereign was named after her father Emperor Sakuramachi and go-, translates as later, and thus, she could be called the Later Sakuramachi. The Japanese word go has also translated to mean the second one, and in some older sources. In the history of Japan, Go-Sakuramachi was the last of eight women to take on the role of empress regnant, the seven female monarchs who reigned before Go-Sakuramachi were Suiko, Kōgyoku, Jitō, Genmei, Genshō, Kōken, and Meishō. Before Go-Sakuramachis accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, her name was Toshiko. She was the daughter of Emperor Sakuramachi. Her older sister died young, and her brother was Emperor Momozono. The empress and her brother were the last lineal descendants of Emperor Nakamikado. Empress Go-Sakuramachis Imperial family lived with her in the dairi of the Heian Palace, Princess Toshiko acceded to the throne when Emperor Momozono abdicated in favor of his sister. Momozonos son, Prince Hidehito was only 5 years old at this time, hidehitos empress aunt was expected to occupy the throne until her nephew would be able to take on the burden of responsibility. 23 September 1740, Princess Toshiko was born into the Imperial family,15 September 1762, Accession as Empress Go-Sakuramachi upon the abdication of her brother Emperor Momozono. 1763, A merchant association handling Korean ginseng is founded in the Kanda district of Edo,1766, The Meiwa incident involved planning and other activities which were intended to displace the Shogunate with restored Imperial powers, but the attempt was thwarted. 1770, A typhoon flattened the newly built Imperial Palace in Kyoto,1770, A great comet with a very long tail lit up the night skies throughout the summer and autumn. 1770, Although no one could have known it at the time,9 January 1771, In the ninth year of her reign, the empress abdicated in favor of her nephew, and her reign came to an end. Go-Momozonos reign did not last long, ending in 1779 when Go-Momozono died without leaving a son, Prince Morohito, hastily adopted by Go-Momozono at deathbed, became Emperor Kōkaku. After the throne had switched to that branch of the line, Go-Sakuramachi, in her role as Retired Empress. In this role, in 1789, during a scandal involving an honorary title, Empress Genmei, who was followed on the throne by her daughter, Empress Genshō, remains the sole exception to this conventional argument. The empress is credited with creating a book called Matters of Years in the Imperial Court, the work consists of poems, Imperial letters and Imperial chronicles
Empress Go-Sakuramachi
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Go-Sakuramachi (represented here as male with goatee)
137.
Lesotho
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Lesotho, officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is an enclaved, landlocked country in southern Africa completely surrounded by South Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 in size and has a slightly over two million. Its capital and largest city is Maseru, previously known as Basutoland, Lesotho declared independence from the United Kingdom on 4 October 1966. It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the name Lesotho translates roughly into the land of the people who speak Sesotho. About 40% of the population lives below the poverty line of US$1.25 a day. The original inhabitants of the now known as Lesotho were the San people. Examples of their art can be found in the mountains throughout the area. The present Lesotho, then called Basutoland, emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822, Moshoeshoe, a son of Mokhachane, a minor chief of the Bakoteli lineage, formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804. Casalis, acting as translator and providing advice on foreign affairs, helped to set up diplomatic channels and acquire guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Griqua people. Trekboers from the Cape Colony showed up on the borders of Basutoland and claimed land rights, beginning with Jan de Winnaar. As more Boers were moving into the area tried to colonise the land between the two rivers, even north of the Caledon, claiming that it had been abandoned by the Sotho people. Moshoeshoe subsequently signed a treaty with the British Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier and these outraged Boers were suppressed in a brief skirmish in 1848. In 1851 a British force was defeated by the Basotho army at Kolonyama, after repelling another British attack in 1852, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to the British commander that settled the dispute diplomatically, then defeated the Batlokoa in 1853. In 1854 the British pulled out of the region, and in 1858 Moshoeshoe fought a series of wars with the Boers in the Free State–Basotho War, the last war in 1867 ended when Moshoeshoe appealed to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate in 1868. Moshoeshoe died on 11 March 1870, marking the end of the traditional era and he was buried at Thaba Bosiu. In the early years of British rule between 1871 and 1884, Basutoland was treated similarly to territories that had been forcefully annexed. This led to the Gun War in 1881, Basutoland gained its independence from Britain and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966. In January 1970, the ruling Basotho National Party lost the first post-independence general elections, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan refused to cede power to the Basotho Congress Party, declared himself Tona Kholo, and imprisoned the BCP leadership
Lesotho
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King Moshoeshoe I with his Ministers.
Lesotho
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Flag
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1959 stamps for the Basutoland National Council.
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Lesotho mountain village
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Letsie III of Lesotho
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Letsie III is the king of Lesotho. He succeeded his father, Moshoeshoe II, when the latter was forced into exile in 1990 and his father was briefly restored in 1995 but soon died in a car crash in early 1996, and Letsie became king again. As a constitutional monarch, most of King Letsies duties as monarch of Lesotho are ceremonial and he was educated in the United Kingdom at Ampleforth College. From there he went on to study at the National University of Lesotho where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Law and he then went on to study at the University of Bristol, Wolfson College, Cambridge, and Wye College. He completed his studies in 1989, when he returned to Lesotho and he was installed as the Principal Chief of Matsieng on 16 December 1989. His coronation took place on 31 October 1997 at Setsoto Stadium, charles, Prince of Wales attended the ceremony. On 1 December 2016, in Rome, King Letsie III was appointed as FAO’s newest Special Ambassador for Nutrition by the Organization’s Director-General, José Graziano da Silva. King Letsie married in 2000 to Karabo Motšoeneng, with whom he has two daughters and one son, Princess Mary Senate Mohato Seeiso, born 7 October 2001, Princess Maseeiso, born 20 November 2004. Prince Lerotholi David Mohato Bereng Seeiso, born 18 April 2007, patron of the Prince Mohato Award. Lesotho, Grand Master of the Most Dignified Order of Moshoeshoe, Lesotho, Grand Master of the Most Courteous Order of Lesotho. Lesotho, Grand Master of the Most Meritorious Order of Mohlomi, Lesotho, Grand Master of the Most Loyal Order of Ramatseatsane. Italy, Two Sicilian Royal Family, Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Justice of the Two Sicilian Royal Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George, official Biography of King Letsie III
Letsie III of Lesotho
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Letsie III
139.
Mswati III
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King Mswati III is the current King of Swaziland and head of the Swazi Royal Family. King Mswati III was born in Manzini, Swaziland to King Sobhuza II and he attended primary school at Masundvwini Primary School and secondary school at Lozitha Palace School. He then attended from 1983 to 1986 Sherborne School in north-west Dorset, HRH Prince Makhosetive was crowned Mswati III, Ingwenyama and King of Swaziland on 25 April 1986 at the age of 18, thus becoming the youngest ruling monarch at the time in the world. Together with his mother Ntombi Tfwala, now Queen Mother, he rules the country as an absolute monarch, Mswati III is known for his practice of polygamy and currently has 13 wives. Although Mswati is respected and fairly popular in Swaziland, his policies and lavish lifestyle have led to local protests and international criticism. Mswati III is one of many sons fathered by the king, Sobhuza II. He was born at the Raleigh Fitkin Memorial Hospital in Manzini, when he and his mother were discharged from the hospital they went to live at one of Sobhuzas residences, Etjeni, near the Masundwini royal residence. As a young prince, Makhosetive attended Masundwini Primary School and later Lozitha Palace School and he sat for the Swaziland Primary Certificate examination in December 1982 at Phondo Royal Residence and received First Class with merit in Mathematics and English. He developed a great interest in the guard, becoming the first young cadet to join the Umbutfo Swaziland Defence Force. When King Sobhuza II died on 21 August 1982, the Great Council of State selected the 14-year-old prince Makhosetive to be the next king, the king and his mother, whose title is Indlovukati, rule jointly. Today King Mswati III is Africas last absolute monarch in the sense that he has the power to choose the minister, other top government posts. Even though he makes the appointments, he still has to get advice from the queen mother and council. In matters of cabinet appointments, he gets advice from the prime minister and he ruled by decree, but did restore the nations Parliament, which had been dissolved by his father in order to ensure concentration of power remained with the king. In 2004, Mswati promulgated a new constitution that allows freedom of speech and assembly for the media and public, Amnesty International has criticized the new constitution as inadequate in some respects. This was last done under Sobhuza II in 1971, as per custom, he was fined a cow by members of her regiment, which he duly paid. The king currently has 15 wives and 25 children, a Swazi kings first two wives are chosen for him by the national councillors. There are complex rules on succession, traditionally the king is chosen through his mother as represented in the Swazi saying Inkhosi, yinkhosi ngenina, meaning a king is king through his mother. According to tradition, he can marry his fiancées only after they have fallen pregnant, until then, they are termed liphovela, or brides
Mswati III
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Mswati III
Mswati III
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King Mswati at the Reed Dance 2006
140.
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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Hamad bin Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa is the 1st King of Bahrain, having previously been its 2nd Emir. He is the son of Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, the previous, the country has been ruled by the Al Khalifa dynasty since 1783. Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa was born on 28 January 1950 in Riffa and his parents were Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, then Crown Prince, and Hessa bint Salman Al Khalifa. After attending Manama secondary school in Bahrain, Hamad was sent to England to attend Applegarth College in Godalming, Hamad then underwent military training, first with the British Army at Mons Officer Cadet School at Aldershot in Hampshire, graduating in September 1968. Four years later, in June 1972, Hamad attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, Hamad was designated as heir apparent by his father on 27 June 1964. In 1968, he was appointed as the chairman of the irrigation council, in 1970, Hamad became the head of the Bahraini department of defence and the vice-chairman of the administrative council, remaining in both offices until 1971. From 1971 to 1988 he was the minister of state for defence, in October 1977, Hamad started learning to fly helicopters, successfully completing the training in January 1978. He then worked to establish the Bahrain Amiri Air Force, which came into being in 1987 when the defence force air wing was reconstituted as an air force, on the death of his father Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa, Hamad became Emir of Bahrain on 6 March 1999. As Emir, Hamad brought several political reforms to Bahrain and these included the release of all political prisoners, the dissolution of the State Security Court and the abolition of the 1974 Decree on State Security Measures. Additionally, many Bahraini citizens were permitted to return several years in exile overseas. In 2002, he declared himself king, after Hamad took power in 1999, he focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions after the 1990s uprising. The King succeeded in improving the standards and in making Bahrain a financial hub. Although King Hamads reign has seen the admittance of Shiites into positions in the government, there have still been calls for an equitable distribution of positions. Also, the vast majority of significant positions in the Bahrain Defence Force are filled with Sunnis, King Hamad claims that he is giving an equal chance to all Bahrainis regardless of their sect. Opposition parties denounced the accusations and described it as propaganda, the Bahrain government responded with what has been described as a brutal crackdown on the protests, including violations of human rights that caused anger. Later on, demonstrators demanded that Hamad step down, as a result of this massive crackdown, Foreign Policy Magazine classified him as ranking 3rd out of 8 of Americas Unsavory Allies calling him one of the bad guys the U. S. still supports. On 11 February 2011, King Hamad ordered that 1,000 Bahraini Dinars be given to family to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the National Action Charter referendum. Agence France-Presse linked the BD1,000 payments to 14 February demonstration plans, on 15 February 2011, Hamad apologized for the deaths of two demonstrators in a rare TV speech and urged an investigation into the incident
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa حمد بن عيسى آل خليفة
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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The Leys School, Cambridge
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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King Hamad with Donald H. Rumsfeld
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
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President George W. Bush welcomes Hamad to the Oval Office on 29 November 2004
141.
Bhutan
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Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in Asia and the smallest state located entirely within the Himalaya mountain range. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it is bordered by China in the north, Bhutan lacks a border with nearby Nepal due to the Indian state of Sikkim and with Bangladesh due to the Indian states of West Bengal and Assam. Bhutan is geopolitically in South Asia and is the second least populous nation after the Maldives. Thimphu is its capital and largest city, while Phuntsholing is its financial center, the independence of Bhutan has endured for centuries and the territory was never colonized in its history. Situated on the ancient Silk Road between Tibet, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, the Bhutanese state developed a national identity based on Buddhism. Headed by a leader known as the Zhabdrung Rinpoche, the territory was composed of many fiefdoms. Following a civil war in the 19th century, the House of Wangchuck reunited the country, Bhutan fostered a strategic partnership with India during the rise of Chinese communism and has a disputed border with the Peoples Republic of China. The King of Bhutan is known as the Dragon King, Bhutan is also notable for pioneering the concept of gross national happiness. The countrys landscape ranges from subtropical plains in the south to the sub-alpine Himalayan mountains in the north. The highest mountain in Bhutan is the Gangkhar Puensum, which is also a candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. There is also diverse wildlife in Bhutan, in South Asia, Bhutan ranks first in economic freedom, ease of doing business and peace, second in per capita income and is the least corrupt country, as of 2016. However, Bhutan continues to be a least developed country, hydroelectricity accounts for the major share of its exports. The government is a parliamentary democracy, Bhutan maintains diplomatic relations with 52 countries and the European Union, but does not have formal ties with the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. It is a member of the United Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Royal Bhutan Army maintains extensive military relations with the Indian Armed Forces. The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym Bod used for Tibet. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta end of Tibet, since the 17th century the official name of Bhutan has been Druk yul and Bhutan only appears in English-language official correspondence. Names similar to Bhutan — including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan, jean-Baptiste Taverniers 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan. However, in case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan
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The Dzong in the Paro valley, built in 1646.
142.
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck
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Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is the fifth and current reigning Druk Gyalpo or Dragon King of the Kingdom of Bhutan. After his father Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicated the throne in his favour, a public coronation ceremony was held on 1 November 2008, an auspicious year that marked 100 years of monarchy in Bhutan. Khesar is the eldest son of the fourth Dragon King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck and he has a younger sister, Princess Dechen Yangzom, and brother, Prince Jigme Dorji, as well as four half-sisters and three half-brothers. He also did a course at the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration in Mussoorie, the Crown Prince, popularly known to the people of Bhutan as Dasho Khesar, accompanied his father in his many tours throughout the Kingdom to meet and speak to the people. He also officially represented Bhutan on several international events and he attended Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadejs 60th Anniversary Celebrations on 12–13 June 2006 in Bangkok along with royals from 25 countries. The youngest of the royals, the 26-year-old prince caused a sensation. The Thai press dubbed him Prince Charming, publishing his photograph, on 25 June 2002, the Crown Prince was awarded the Red Scarf by his father. On 31 October 2004, Khesar was installed as the Trongsa Penlop in Trongsa Dzong, in December 2005, the King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced his intention to abdicate in his sons favour in 2008, and that he would begin handing over responsibility to him immediately. Religious ceremonies and public celebrations were held at Tashichhodzong and Changlimithang in Thimphu. The coronation ceremony comprised an ancient and colourful ritual, attended by thousands of dignitaries, including the then-President of India. CNN reported that, to welcome Khesar as King of Bhutan, people painted street signs, hung festive banners and his Majesty received the white, yellow, red, green, and blue silk scarves. As he opened the session of parliament on Friday,20 May 2011 and they were married on 13 October 2011 in Punakha Dzong. The royal wedding was Bhutans largest media event in history, the royal wedding ceremony was held in Punakha followed by formal visits to different parts of the country. The wedding was held in traditional style with the blessings of the guardian deities, on 11 November 2015, it was announced that the King and Queen of Bhutan were expecting their first child, a son, early in 2016. The king and queen announced, via their Facebook page, the arrival of their son, HRH The Gyalsey, Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck. He stated that the responsibility of generation of Bhutanese was to ensure the success of democracy. He traveled extensively to explain and discuss the Draft Constitution of Bhutan with the people, the King signed a new treaty of friendship with India in February 2007, replacing the treaty of 1949. Many government initiatives were undertaken by the new King with a view to strengthen the system in preparation for the changes in 2008
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck
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Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck འཇིགས་མེད་གེ་སར་རྣམ་ རྒྱལ་དབང་ཕྱུག
143.
Hassanal Bolkiah
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Hassanal Bolkiah, GCB GCMG is the 29th and current Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei. He is also the first and incumbent Prime Minister of Brunei, the eldest son of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III and Raja Isteri Pengiran Anak Damit, he succeeded to the throne as the Sultan of Brunei, following the abdication of his father on 4 October 1967. The Sultan has been ranked among the wealthiest individuals in the world, the Sultan was born on 15 July 1946 in Brunei Town as Pengiran Muda Hassanal Bolkiah. The Sultan received high school education at Victoria Institution in Kuala Lumpur, after which he attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in the United Kingdom and he became the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam on 5 October 1967, after his father abdicated. His coronation was held on 1 August 1968, and made him the Yang di-Pertuan of Brunei, like his father, he has been knighted by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom, of which Brunei was a protectorate until 1984. Under Bruneis 1959 constitution, the Sultan is the head of state with full executive authority, on 9 March 2006, the Sultan was reported to have amended Bruneis constitution to make himself infallible under Bruneian law. Bolkiah, as Prime Minister, is also the head of government, in addition, he holds the portfolios both of Minister of Defense and Minister of Finance. He appointed himself as Inspector General of Police of the Royal Brunei Police Force, Bolkiah addressed the United Nations General Assembly on Brunei Darussalams admission to the United Nations in September 1984. In 1991, he introduced a conservative ideology to Brunei called Melayu Islam Beraja and he has recently favoured Brunei government democratisation and declared himself Prime Minister and President. In 2004, the Legislative Council, which had been dissolved since 1962, was reopened and his designated successor is his eldest son, Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah. The Sultans official residence is the Istana Nurul Iman, with 1,788 rooms,257 bathrooms, parts of the Ministry of Defence and Ministry of Finance are also located at the palace. The Crown Prince, who is the Senior Minister, works from offices at the Istana, hyatt Borneo Management Services and HM The Sultans flight maintain offices there. The University of Brunei Darussalam and Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University were established, Technical and vocational institutions were also built, such as the Brunei Technological University, Sultan Saiful Rijal Technical College, and vocational schools. The religious Institute Tahfiz Al-Quran Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah was established, scholarships for study in the country and abroad were provided. The Royal Brunei Armed Forces were expanded with the establishment of three branches of the Royal Brunei Land Forces, Royal Brunei Navy and Royal Brunei Air Force. Medicines and medical treatment are free of charge to children, policemen and members of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces in hospitals and government clinics, there is one doctor per 949 patients. The life expectancy of the people and the population is 74.2 years for men and 77.3 years for women. Hassanal Bolkiah established the Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Foundation, in January 2013, the Royal College of General Practitioners created the honour of ‘Companion of the College’ to mark its 60th anniversary
Hassanal Bolkiah
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His Majesty Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Wad'daulah The 29th Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei
Hassanal Bolkiah
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Hassanal Bolkiah
Hassanal Bolkiah
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Hassanal Bolkiah during a parade for his 69th birthday
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Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah with the former President of the People's Republic of China, Hu Jintao.
144.
Abdullah II of Jordan
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Abdullah II bin Al-Hussein has been king of Jordan since the 1999 death of his father, King Hussein. According to Abdullah, he is a 41st-generation direct descendant of Muhammad since he belongs to the Hashemite family and he was born in Amman as the first child of King Hussein and his second wife, British-born Princess Muna Al-Hussein. Shortly after his birth, Abdullah was named the crown prince, King Hussein transferred the title to his brother, Prince Hassan, in 1965 and returned it to Abdullah in 1999. Abdullah began his schooling in Amman, continuing his education abroad and he assumed command of Jordans Special Forces in 1994, and became a major general in 1998. In 1993 Abdullah married Rania Al-Yassin, and they have four children, Crown Prince Hussein, Princess Iman, Princess Salma, the ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Mohammed Al-Maktoum, is his brother-in-law by marriage. Although Jordan is a monarchy, the king holds wide executive and legislative powers and is commander-in-chief of the Jordanian Armed Forces. Abdullah embarked on aggressive economic liberalization when he assumed the throne, in 2011, large-scale protests demanding reform erupted in the Arab world. Although many of the led to civil wars in other countries, Abdullah responded quickly to domestic unrest by replacing the government. He introduced proportional representation to the Jordanian parliament in 2016, a move which he said would lead to a parliamentary government, although local opposition groups called his reforms inadequate, other observers praised them. Abdullah is popular locally and internationally for maintaining Jordanian stability, and is known for promoting interfaith dialogue, the third-longest-serving Arab leader, he is regarded by the Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center as the most influential Muslim in the world. Abdullah is custodian of the Muslim and Christian sacred sites in Jerusalem, Abdullah was born in Amman on 30 January 1962 to King Hussein during Husseins marriage to his British-born second wife, Princess Muna Al-Hussein. He is the namesake of his great-grandfather, King Abdullah I, Abdullah says that he is the 41st direct descendant of Muhammad through the Hashemite dynasty, which ruled Mecca for over 700 years and has ruled Jordan since 1921. The Hashemites, the oldest ruling dynasty in the Muslim world, are the second-oldest-ruling dynasty in the world, since Hussein had a daughter from his first marriage, Abdullah became heir apparent to the Jordanian throne under the 1952 constitution. Due to political instability, King Hussein appointed his brother Prince Hassan as his heir apparent in 1965, three more children followed Abdullah from Husseins marriage to Princess Muna, two from the kings third marriage and four from his fourth. Abdullah has four brothers and six sisters, seven of whom are half-siblings and he began his schooling in 1966 at the Islamic Educational College in Amman, and continued at St Edmunds School in England. Abdullah attended high school at Eaglebrook School and Deerfield Academy in the United States and he began his military career at Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1980, while he was a training officer in the Jordanian Armed Forces. After Sandhurst, Abdullah was commissioned as a lieutenant in the British Army and served a year in Britain. Abdullah was admitted to Pembroke College in 1982, where he completed a one-year special-studies course in Middle Eastern affairs
Abdullah II of Jordan
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King Abdullah of Jordan.
Abdullah II of Jordan
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King Abdullah II shows his son, Crown Prince Hussein, a photo given to them by U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry
Abdullah II of Jordan
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Abdullah II in a meeting with U.S. President Barack Obama, 21 April 2009, in Washington, D.C.
145.
Salman of Saudi Arabia
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Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud is King of Saudi Arabia, Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, and head of the House of Saud. He served as the Deputy Governor and then the Governor of Riyadh for 48 years from 1963 to 2011 and he was then appointed as Minister of Defence. He was also named the Crown Prince in 2012 following the death of his brother Nayef bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Salman was crowned as the new King of Saudi Arabia on 23 January 2015 following the death of his half-brother, King Abdullah. Salman was born on 31 December 1935, and is reported to be the 25th son of Ibn Saud, Salman and his six brothers make up what is referred to as the Sudairi Seven. He was raised in the Murabba Palace, Salman received his early education at the Princes School in the capital city of Riyadh, a school established by Ibn Saud specifically to provide education for his children. He studied religion and modern science, Salman was first appointed as deputy governor of Riyadh Province in 1954 when he was 19 years old and held the post until 1955. He was appointed governor of Riyadh Province on 4 February 1963 and his tenure lasted for forty-eight years from 1963 to 2011. As governor, he contributed to the development of Riyadh from a town into a major urban metropolis. He served as an important liaison to attract tourism, capital projects and he favored political and economic relationships with the West. During his governorship, Salman recruited advisors from King Saud University, during Salmans five decades as Riyadh governor, he became adept at managing the delicate balance of clerical, tribal, and princely interests that determine Saudi policy. In January 2011, he ordered the arrest of Riyadh beggars who try to take advantage of the generosity of people, all foreign beggars were deported and Saudi beggars were placed in a rehabilitation program by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Salman also undertook several tours during his reign. In 1974, he visited Kuwait, Bahrain and Qatar to strengthen Saudi Arabias relationship with the nations, during his visit to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1991, he inaugurated a gallery. In 1996, he was received in the Élysée Palace in Paris by the then-French president Jacques Chirac, the same year he toured Bosnia and Herzegovina to give donations to the Muslim citizens of the country. Being a part of an Asian tour in 1998, Salman visited Pakistan, Japan, Brunei, under Salman, Riyadh became one of the richest cities in the Middle East and an important place for trade and commerce. There were also infrastructural advances including schools, universities and sports stadiums, about the province, he said Every village or town in the Riyadh Region is dear to me, and holds a special place in my heart. I witnessed every step taken by the city of Riyadh, Prince Salman was also named as a member of the National Security Council on the same day. It is speculated that his placement in the line of succession occurred due to his qualities
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Salman as Governor of Riyadh in 2007
Salman of Saudi Arabia
Salman of Saudi Arabia
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Governor Salman bin Abdulaziz with Vladimir Putin in 2007
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U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta with Salman at the Pentagon in April 2012
146.
Andorra
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Created under a charter in 988, the present principality was formed in 1278. It is known as a principality as it is a monarchy headed by two Co-Princes – the Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgell in Spain, and the President of France. Andorra is the sixth-smallest nation in Europe, having an area of 468 km2 and its capital Andorra la Vella is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of 1,023 metres above sea level. The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, Andorras tourism services an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually. It is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is the official currency and it has been a member of the United Nations since 1993. In 2013, the people of Andorra had the highest life expectancy in the world at 81 years, the origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been formulated. The word Andosini or Andosins may derive from the Basque handia whose meaning is big or giant, the Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ur, another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from Arabic al-durra, meaning The forest. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese andurrial, la Balma de la Margineda found by archaeologists at Sant Julia de Loria were the first temporal settled in 10000 BC as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege. During the Neolithic Age the group of humans moved to the Valley of Madriu as a permanent camp in 6640 BC, the population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock and developed a commercial trade with people from the Segre and Occitania. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet and Feixa del Moro both dated in 4900-4300 BC as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra, the model of small settlements begin to evolved as an complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. We can found metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins and relicaries in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country, the inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini during the VII and II centuries BC. Influenced by Aquitanias, Basque and Iberian languages the locals developed some current toponyms, early writings and documents relating this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc dEnclar, lAnxiu in Les Escaldes and it is known the presence of Roman influence from the II century BC to the V century AD. The places found with more Roman presence are in Camp Vermell in Sant Julia de Loria, people continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet and all across Segre through the Via Romana Strata Ceretana. After the fall of the Roman Empire Andorra was under the influence of the Visigoths, not directly from the Kingdom of Toledo by distance, the Visigoths remained during 200 years in the valleys, a period in which Christianization takes place within the country. The fall of the Visigoths came from the Muslim Empire and its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra remained away from these invasions by the Franks
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Sant Joan de Caselles church, dating from the 11th century.
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Flag
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Boris Skossyreff, briefly self-proclaimed "King of Andorra" in 1934.
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Joan Enric Vives i Sicília current episcopal co-prince of Andorra since 12 May 2003.
147.
Philippe of Belgium
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Philippe is the seventh king of the Belgians, having ascended the throne on 21 July 2013, following his fathers abdication. He is the eldest child of King Albert II, whom he succeeded upon Alberts abdication for health reasons and he married Countess Mathilde dUdekem dAcoz, with whom he has four children. King Philippes elder daughter, Princess Elisabeth, is next in the line of succession, Philippe was born on 15 April 1960 during the reign of his uncle, King Baudouin of Belgium. His father, Prince Albert, Prince of Liège was the son of King Leopold III of Belgium. His mother, Paola, Princess of Liège, is a daughter of Italian aristocrat Fulco VIII, Prince Ruffo di Calabria, 6th Duke of Guardia Lombarda. His mother descends from the French House of La Fayette, and he was born at the Belvédère Castle in Laeken north of Brussels. He was baptised one month later at the church of Saint Jacques-sur-Coudenberg in Brussels on 17 May and his godparents were his paternal grandfather, King Leopold III, and his maternal grandmother, Donna Luisa, Princess Ruffo di Calabria. From 1978 to 1981, Philippe was educated at the Belgian Royal Military Academy in the 118th Promotion Toutes Armes, on 26 September 1980, he was appointed second lieutenant and took the officers oath. He continued his education at Trinity College, Oxford and he attended school at Stanford University, California. He obtained his pilots wings and his certificates as a parachutist. In 1989, he attended a series of sessions at the Royal Higher Defence Institute. The same year, he was promoted to Colonel, on 25 March 2001, the Prince was appointed to the rank of Major-General in the Land Component and the Air Component and to the rank of Rear-Admiral in the Naval Component. He succeeded his father, who had been Honorary Chairman of the BFTB since 1962, on 3 May 2003, Philippe was appointed Honorary chairman of the board of the Foreign Trade Agency, replacing the BFTB. In this capacity, Philippe has headed more than 60 economic missions, upon his accession as seventh King of the Belgians, this role was taken over by his sister Princess Astrid. King Albert II announced on 3 July 2013 that he would abdicate in favour of Philippe on 21 July 2013, approximately one hour after King Albert IIs abdication, Prince Philippe was sworn in as King of the Belgians. His eldest child, Princess Elisabeth became his heir apparent and is expected to become Belgiums first queen regnant,26 September 1980 –21 March 1983, Belgian Air Force, Second lieutenant. January – end March 1983, Platoon leader, 15th Comp, 3rd Parachutists Battalion of the Paracommando Regt 21 March 1983 –1 December 1989, Belgian Air Force, Captain. 1 December 1989 –5 April 2001, Belgian Air Force, Colonel Belgian Army, since 21 July 2013, Belgian Air Component, General Belgian Land Component, General Belgian Marine Component, Admiral
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Philippe / Filip
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King Philippe and Queen Mathilde wave to the crowds in Brussels after Philippe's swearing in as new Belgian monarch.
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Royal Military Acad.
Philippe of Belgium
148.
Liechtenstein
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Liechtenstein, officially the Principality of Liechtenstein, is a doubly landlocked German-speaking microstate in Central Europe. It is a monarchy with the rank of principality, headed by the Prince of Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein is bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and Austria to the east and it has an area of just over 160 square kilometres and an estimated population of 37,000. Divided into 11 municipalities, its capital is Vaduz and its largest municipality is Schaan, the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in the world at 1. 5%. Liechtenstein has been known in the past as a tax haven, however. An alpine country, Liechtenstein is mainly mountainous, making it a winter sport destination, many cultivated fields and small farms are found both in the south and north. The country has a financial sector centered in Vaduz. Liechtenstein is a member of the European Free Trade Association, and while not being a member of the European Union and it also has a customs union and a monetary union with Switzerland. The oldest traces of human existence in Liechtenstein date back to the Middle Paleolithic era, neolithic farming settlements were founded in the valleys around 5300 BC. Hallstatt and La Tène cultures flourished during the late Iron Age from around 450 BC possibly under influence from the Greek. One of the most important tribal groups in the Alpine region were the Helvetii, in 58 BC, at the Battle of Bibracte, Julius Caesar defeated the Alpine tribes, bringing the region under closer control of the Roman Empire. By 15 BC, Tiberius, who was destined to be the second Roman emperor, Liechtenstein was integrated into the Roman province of Raetia. The area was maintained by the Roman military, which maintained a large legionary camp called Brigantium near Lake Constance, a Roman road ran through the territory. In 259/60 Brigantium was destroyed by the Alemanni, a Germanic people who settled in the area in around 450. In the Early Middle Ages, the Alemanni had settled the eastern Swiss plateau by the 5th century, Liechtenstein was at the eastern edge of Alemannia. In the 6th century, the region became part of the Frankish Empire following Clovis Is victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504. The area that later became Liechtenstein remained under Frankish hegemony until the empire was divided by the Treaty of Verdun in 843 AD following the death of Charlemagne. The territory of present-day Liechtenstein belonged to East Francia until it was reunified with Middle Francia under the Holy Roman Empire around 1000 AD
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Gutenberg Castle, Balzers, Liechtenstein.
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Flag
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Vaduz Castle, overlooking the capital, is home to the Prince of Liechtenstein
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Johann I Joseph, Prince of Liechtenstein from 1805 to 1806 and 1814 to 1836.
149.
Regent
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A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency, a regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title, if the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a Regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. In a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons and this was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic Primate who served as the regent, in the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent, or Capitani Reggenti, are elected semi-annually as joint heads of state and of government. Famous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to terms such as Regency era. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, as of 1 December 2016, Liechtenstein is the only country with an active regency. The term regent may refer to lower than the ruler of a country. The term may be used in the governance of organisations, typically as an equivalent of director, some university managers in North America are called regents and a management board for a college or university may be titled the Board of Regents. The term regent is used for members of governing bodies of institutions such as the national banks of France. This type of group portrait was popular in Dutch Golden Age painting during the 17th century, in the Dutch East Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized state as a regentschap. Consequently, in the state of Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati. Again in Belgium and France, Regent is the title of a teacher in a lower secondary school. In the Philippines, specifically, the University of Santo Tomas, the Father Regent and they also form the Council of Regents that serves as the highest administrative council of the university. In the Society of Jesus, a regent is a training to be a Jesuit. A regent in the Jesuits is often assigned to teach in a school or some other academic institution as part of the formation toward final vows, list of regents Viceroy, an individual who, in a colony or province, exercised the power of a monarch on his behalf
Regent
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Regentesses of the Old Men's Almshouse in Haarlem, Frans Hals, 1664
150.
Monaco
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Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a sovereign city-state and microstate, located on the French Riviera in Western Europe. France borders the country on three sides while the other side borders the Mediterranean Sea, Monaco has an area of 2.02 km2 and a population of about 38,400 according to the last census of 2015. With 19,009 inhabitants per km², it is the second smallest, Monaco has a land border of 5.47 km, a coastline of 3.83 km, and a width that varies between 1,700 and 349 m. The highest point in the country is a pathway named Chemin des Révoires on the slopes of Mont Agel, in the Les Révoires Ward. Monacos most populous Quartier is Monte Carlo and the most populous Ward is Larvotto/Bas Moulins, through land reclamation, Monacos land mass has expanded by twenty percent, in 2005, it had an area of only 1.974 km2. Monaco is known as a playground for the rich and famous, in 2014, it was noted about 30% of the population was made up of millionaires, more than in Zürich or Geneva. Monaco is a principality governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, although Prince Albert II is a constitutional monarch, he wields immense political power. The House of Grimaldi have ruled Monaco, with brief interruptions, the official language is French, but Monégasque, Italian, and English are widely spoken and understood. The states sovereignty was recognized by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861. Despite Monacos independence and separate foreign policy, its defense is the responsibility of France, however, Monaco does maintain two small military units. Economic development was spurred in the late 19th century with the opening of the countrys first casino, Monte Carlo, since then, Monacos mild climate, scenery, and gambling facilities have contributed to the principalitys status as a tourist destination and recreation center for the rich. In more recent years, Monaco has become a major banking center and has sought to diversify its economy into services and small, high-value-added, the state has no income tax, low business taxes, and is well known for being a tax haven. It is also the host of the street circuit motor race Monaco Grand Prix. Monaco is not formally a part of the European Union, but it participates in certain EU policies, including customs, through its relationship with France, Monaco uses the euro as its sole currency. Monaco joined the Council of Europe in 2004 and it is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Monacos name comes from the nearby 6th-century BC Phocaean Greek colony, according to an ancient myth, Hercules passed through the Monaco area and turned away the previous gods. As a result, a temple was constructed there, the temple of Hercules Monoikos, because the only temple of this area was the House of Hercules, the city was called Monoikos. It ended up in the hands of the Holy Roman Empire, an ousted branch of a Genoese family, the Grimaldi, contested it for a hundred years before actually gaining control
Monaco
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Statue of Francesco Grimaldi, " Il Malizia " ("the Cunning"), disguised as a monk with a dagger hidden under the cloak of his habit. However, he was ousted by the Genoese just four years later. The Grimaldi family purchased Monaco from the Crown of Aragon in 1419.
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Flag
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Monaco circa 1900
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Mayor of Monaco announcing concessions ending absolute monarchy of Prince Albert I in 1910
151.
Albert II, Prince of Monaco
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Albert II is the reigning monarch of the Principality of Monaco and head of the princely house of Grimaldi. He is the son of Prince Rainier III and the American actress Grace Kelly, Prince Alberts sisters are Caroline, Princess of Hanover, and Princess Stéphanie. In July 2011, Prince Albert married Charlene Wittstock, Prince Albert II is one of the wealthiest royals in the world, with assets valued at more than $1 billion, which include land in Monaco and France. Albert was born in the Princes Palace of Monaco and he has ancestry from Ireland, Britain, the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, and Monaco. His godmother was the Spanish queen Victoria Eugenia of Battenberg, Albert graduated with distinction from the Lycee Albert Premier, in 1976. He was a camper and later a counselor for six summers at Camp Tecumseh, on Lake Winnipesaukee, Moultonborough, New Hampshire and he speaks French, English, German, and Italian. He spent the summer of 1979 touring Europe and the Middle East with the Amherst Glee Club, Albert also undertook an exchange program with the University of Bristol, at the Alfred Marshall School of Economics and Management in 1979. Albert was a sportsman, participating in cross country, javelin throwing, handball, judo, swimming, tennis, rowing, sailing, skiing, squash. He is a patron of Monacos football teams, Albert competed in the bobsleigh at five consecutive Winter Olympics for Monaco, taking part in both the two-man and four-man events. In the two-man bobsleigh Albert finished 25th at the 1988 games in Calgary, 43rd at the 1992 games in Albertville, and 31st at the 2002 games. In the four-man bobsleigh Albert finished 27th in 1992, 26th at the 1994 games in Lillehammer, Albert was Monacos flag bearer at the 1988,1994, and 1998 Winter Olympics. Albert took part in the 1985 Paris–Dakar Rally, but did not finish it and he also became a judo black belt. On 7 March 2005, Alberts father was admitted to a hospital in the principality, the Prince was being treated for breathing, kidney, and heart trouble. This decision was reached by the Crown Council of Monaco, a made up of notable local figures with residual powers to make judgments about certain constitutional matters. On 6 April 2005, Ranier III died and Albert succeeded him as Albert II, the first part of Prince Albert IIs enthronement as ruler of the Principality was on 12 July 2005, after the end of the three-month mourning period for his father. A morning mass at Saint Nicholas Cathedral presided over by the Archbishop of Monaco, afterward Albert II returned to the princely palace to host a garden party for 7,000 Monégasques born in the principality. In the courtyard, the Prince was presented with two keys of the city as a symbol of his investiture, the evening ended with a spectacular fireworks display on the waterfront. The second part of his investiture was on 19 November 2005, Albert was enthroned at Saint Nicholas Cathedral
Albert II, Prince of Monaco
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Albert II
Albert II, Prince of Monaco
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Prince Albert with his mother Grace in 1972.
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Princess Caroline and Albert, then Hereditary Prince of Monaco, with Ronald and Nancy Reagan in Washington D.C. on 28 March 1983.
Albert II, Prince of Monaco
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Prince Albert with Russian President Vladimir Putin on 4 October 2013.
152.
Harald V of Norway
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Harald V is the King of Norway, having ascended the throne following the death of his father on 17 January 1991. Harald was the child and only son of Olav V of Norway. He was second in the line of succession at the time of his birth, in 1940, as a result of the German occupation during World War II, the royal family went into exile. Harald spent part of his childhood in Sweden and the United States and he returned to Norway in 1945, and subsequently studied for periods at the University of Oslo, the Norwegian Military Academy, and Balliol College, Oxford. In 1957, following the death of his grandfather, Haakon VII, a keen sportsman, he represented Norway in sailing at the 1964,1968, and 1972 Olympic Games, and later became patron of World Sailing. Harald married Sonja Haraldsen in 1968, with their relationship initially being controversial due to her status as a commoner, the couple had two children, Märtha and Haakon. Harald succeeded his father as king in 1991, with Haakon becoming his heir apparent, Prince Harald was born in Skaugum and was baptized in the Royal Chapel in the Royal Palace in Oslo on 31 March 1937 by Bishop Johan Lunde. His parents already had two daughters, Princess Ragnhild and Princess Astrid, in 1940 the entire royal family had to flee Oslo because of the German invasion. It was deemed safer for the family to split up, the King and Crown Prince Olav would remain in Norway and the Crown Princess was to make her way to Sweden with the three children. The latter party reached Sweden on the night of 10 April, according to Princess Astrid and others who were present, they were admitted only after the driver threatened to ram the border gate. Another account does not describe the escape so dramatically, however, when the King and Crown Prince inquired of Swedish foreign minister Christian Günther whether they could sleep one night in Sweden without being interned, they were denied. Harald spent the days in Sälen before moving to Prince Carl Bernadottes home in Frötuna on 16 April. On 26 April the group moved to Drottningholm in Stockholm, King Gustaf V has been accounted to have had an amicable relationship with his Norwegian guests, but the topic of the war in Norway was not to be raised. However, influential Swedish politicians, including Minister of Justice Westman, wanted the Crown Princess and Prince Harald to be sent back to Norway so he could be proclaimed King by the Germans. After the King and Crown Prince had to leave Norway on 7 June they felt Sweden might not be the best place for the rest of the family, and started planning for them to go to the United States. On 17 August the Crown Princess and her left for the United States from Petsamo, Finland. One of the events he remembers from that time is standing behind Franklin D. Roosevelt when he was sworn in for his fourth term on the South Portico of the White House in 1945. Such childhood experiences are reflected in a trace of an American accent when he speaks English, Harald visited Norwegian servicemen training in the United States
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King Harald V in 2013
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Prince Harald
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King Juan Carlos I of Spain on visit in Norway (2006)
153.
Felipe VI of Spain
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Felipe VI is the King of Spain. He ascended to the throne on 19 June 2014 following the abdication of his father and he is the only son of Juan Carlos and his wife Sofía of Greece and Denmark. When Juan Carlos was chosen in 1969 to be Francisco Francos successor, Felipe became heir apparent when Juan Carlos succeeded Franco as head of state following his death in 1975. He was created Prince of Asturias in 1977, the title for the first in line. As Prince of Asturias, he worked to support philanthropic causes, in 2004, Felipe married TV presenter Letizia Ortiz with whom he has two daughters. Leonor, the elder, is his heir apparent and he succeeded his father as King of Spain when he abdicated in 2014. Felipe was born at Our Lady of Loreto Clinic in Madrid and he was baptised on 8 February 1968 at the Palace of Zarzuela by the Archbishop of Madrid, Casimiro Morcillo. His godparents were his paternal grandfather Juan and his paternal great-grandmother, shortly after his birth he was styled infante, although his father was not yet king. The ruling dictator General Francisco Franco died just over two months before Felipes eighth birthday, and Felipes father ascended the throne, in his first official appearance, Felipe attended his fathers proclamation as king on 22 November 1975. In 1977, Felipe was formally created Prince of Asturias, in May, nine-year-old Felipe was made an honorary soldier of the 1st Kings Immemorial Infantry Regiment. The occasion was marked on 28 May and was attended by the king, on 1 November the same year, he was ceremoniously paid homage as Prince of Asturias in Covadonga. In 1981 Felipe received the Collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece from his father, Felipe attended school at Santa María de los Rosales, which his daughters currently attend. As the heir to the throne, a regulated and structured plan was laid out for Felipes military training. In August 1985, a Royal Decree named Felipe as officer at the General Military Academy in Zaragoza and he began his military training there in September. He completed the first phase of his formation in October, in July 1986, he was promoted to Cadet 2nd Lieutenant. He was also named as Midshipman, on September 1986, he began his naval training at the Escuela Naval Militar in Pontevedra, joining the Third Brigade. In January 1987, he continued his training on board the training ship Juan Sebastián Elcano. In July, he was named as Student Ensign at the Academia General del Aire in Murcia, in September 1987, he began his air force training there
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Felipe VI
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Felipe meeting President Vladimir Putin of Russia, 2002
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Felipe and President Dilma Rousseff of Brazil, 2010
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Felipe and Letizia at the wedding of Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden, and Daniel Westling, in Stockholm, 2010
154.
Pope Francis
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Pope Francis is the 266th and current Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, a title he holds ex officio as Bishop of Rome, and sovereign of Vatican City. He chose Francis as his name in honor of Saint Francis of Assisi. Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Bergoglio worked briefly as a chemical technologist and he was ordained a Catholic priest in 1969, and from 1973 to 1979 was Argentinas provincial superior of the Society of Jesus. He became the Archbishop of Buenos Aires in 1998 and was created a cardinal in 2001 by Pope John Paul II and he led the Argentine Church during the December 2001 riots in Argentina, and the administrations of Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner considered him a political rival. Following the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI on 28 February 2013, throughout his public life, Pope Francis has been noted for his humility, emphasis on Gods mercy, concern for the poor, populist causes and commitment to interfaith dialogue. He maintains that the church should be open and welcoming. He does not support unbridled capitalism, Marxism, or Marxist versions of liberation theology, Francis maintains the traditional views of the church regarding abortion, euthanasia, contraception, homosexuality, ordination of women, and priestly celibacy. He opposes consumerism, irresponsible development, and supports taking action on climate change, in international diplomacy, he helped to restore full diplomatic relations between the U. S. and Cuba. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was born on 17 December 1936 in Flores and he was the eldest of five children of Mario José Bergoglio and Regina María Sívori. Mario Bergoglio was an Italian immigrant accountant born in Portacomaro in Italys Piedmont region, Regina Sívori was a housewife born in Buenos Aires to a family of northern Italian origin. Mario Josés family left Italy in 1929, to escape the fascist rule of Benito Mussolini, María Elena Bergoglio, the Popes only living sibling, confirmed that their emigration was not for economic reasons. His other siblings were Alberto Horacio, Oscar Adrián and Marta Regina, two great-nephews, Antonio and Joseph, died in a traffic collision. In the sixth grade, Bergoglio attended Wilfrid Barón de los Santos Ángeles and he attended the technical secondary school Escuela Técnica Industrial N°27 Hipólito Yrigoyen, named after a past President of Argentina, and graduated with a chemical technicians diploma. He worked for a few years in that capacity in the section at Hickethier-Bachmann Laboratory where his boss was Esther Ballestrino. Before joining the Jesuits, Bergoglio worked as a bar bouncer and as a janitor sweeping floors, in the only known health crisis of his youth, at the age of 21 he suffered from life-threatening pneumonia and three cysts. He had part of a lung excised shortly afterwards, Bergoglio has been a lifelong supporter of San Lorenzo de Almagro football club. Bergoglio is also a fan of the films of Tita Merello, neorealism, Bergoglio found his vocation to the priesthood while he was on his way to celebrate the Spring Day. He passed by a church to go to confession, and was inspired by the priest
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Jorge Mario Bergoglio (fourth boy from the left on the third row from the top) at age 12, while studying at the Salesian College.
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Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio in 2008
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Pope Francis with Argentine president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
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Antigua and Barbuda
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Antigua and Barbuda is a twin-island country in the Americas, lying between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of two inhabited islands, Antigua and Barbuda, and a number of smaller islands. The permanent population numbers about 81,800 and the capital and largest port and city is St. Johns, on Antigua. Separated by a few miles, Antigua and Barbuda are in the middle of the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles. The countrys name was given by Christopher Columbus in 1493 after discovering the island, the country is nicknamed Land of 365 Beaches due to the many beaches surrounding the islands. Its governance, language, and culture have all been influenced by the British Empire. Antigua is Spanish for ancient and Barbuda is Spanish for bearded, the island of Antigua, originally called Waladli by Arawaks, is today called Wadadli by locals. Christopher Columbus, while sailing by in 1493 may have named it Santa Maria la Antigua, Antigua was first settled by archaic age hunter-gatherer Amerindians called the Siboney or Ciboney. Carbon dating has established the earliest settlements started around 3100 BC and they were succeeded by the ceramic age pre-Columbian Arawak-speaking Saladoid people who migrated from the lower Orinoco River. The Arawaks introduced agriculture, raising, among crops, the famous Antigua black pineapple, corn, sweet potatoes, chiles, guava, tobacco. The indigenous West Indians made excellent seagoing vessels which used to sail around on the Atlantic. As a result, Caribs and Arawaks were able to much of South America. Their descendants still live there, notably in Brazil, Venezuela, most Arawaks left Antigua around 1100 AD, those who remained were later raided by the Caribs. The Catholic Encyclopedia makes it clear that the European invaders had difficulty differentiating between the groups of the native peoples they encountered. As a result, the number and types of groups in existence at that time may have been much more varied. European and African diseases, malnutrition, and slavery eventually killed most of the Caribbeans native population, smallpox was probably the greatest killer. Some historians believe that the stress of slavery may also have played a part in the massive number of deaths amongst enslaved natives. Others believe the reportedly abundant but starchy, low-protein diet may have contributed to their severe malnutrition as they were used to a diet fortified with protein from the sea, the Spaniards did not colonise Antigua because it lacked fresh water but not aggressive Caribs
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Downtown St. John's on Antigua.
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St. John's parish on Antigua.
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A proportional representation of Antigua and Barbuda's exports.
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The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
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A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for Spain in caravels; the Niña and the Pinta, on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador, on October 12, 1492.
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Sign at Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas.
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Edward VIII, the Duke of Windsor and Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945.
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Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
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Bathsheba on the east coast of the island.
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Barbados, seen from the International Space Station.
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The parliament building in Bridgetown.
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Grenada
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Grenada is an island country consisting of Grenada itself and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. Grenada is located northwest of Trinidad and Tobago, northeast of Venezuela, and southwest of Saint Vincent, Grenada is also known as the Island of Spice because of the production of nutmeg and mace crops, of which it is one of the worlds largest exporters. Its size is 344 square kilometres, with a population of 110,000. The national bird of Grenada is the critically endangered Grenada dove, before the arrival of Europeans, Grenada was inhabited by indigenous Arawaks and, subsequently, Island Caribs. Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada in 1498 during his voyage to the Americas. Although it was deemed the property of the King of Spain, French settlement and colonisation began in 1650 and continued for the next century. On 10 February 1763 Grenada was ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris, British rule continued, except for a period of French rule between 1779 and 1783, until 1974. From 1958 to 1962 Grenada was part of the Federation of the West Indies, on March 3,1967, Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs as an Associated State. Herbert Blaize was the first Premier of the Associated State of Grenada from March to August 1967, Eric Gairy served as Premier from August 1967 until February 1974. Independence was granted on February 7,1974, under the leadership of Eric Gairy, Bishop was later freed by popular demonstration and attempted to resume power, but was captured and executed by soldiers. On October 25,1983, combined forces from the United States, the invasion was highly criticised by the governments of Britain, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, along with the United Nations General Assembly. Elections were held in December 1984 and were won by the Grenada National Party under Herbert Blaize who served as minister until his death in December 1989. On September 7,2004, after being hurricane-free for 49 years, the island was hit by Hurricane Ivan. On July 14,2005, Hurricane Emily struck the northern part of the island, the origin of the name Grenada is obscure, but it is likely that Spanish sailors renamed the island for the city of Granada. By the beginning of the 18th century, the name Grenada, on his third voyage to the region in 1498, Christopher Columbus sighted Grenada and named it La Concepción in honour of the Virgin Mary. It is said that he may have named it Assumpción. However, history has accepted that it was Tobago he named Assumpción, in 1499, the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci travelled through the region with the Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda and mapmaker Juan de la Cosa. Vespucci is reported to have renamed the island Mayo, which is how it appeared on maps for around the next 20 years, in the 1520s the Spanish named the islands to the north of Mayo as Los Granadillos, presumably after the mainland Spanish town
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St. George's, Grenada's capital.
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Maurice Bishop visiting East Germany, 1982.
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Saint Kitts and Nevis
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The Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis, also known as the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, is a two-island country in the West Indies. Located in the Leeward Islands chain of the Lesser Antilles, it is the smallest sovereign state in the Americas and Western Hemisphere, the country is a Commonwealth realm, with the British monarch as head of state. The capital city is Basseterre on the island of Saint Kitts. The smaller island of Nevis lies about 2 miles southeast of Saint Kitts across a channel called The Narrows. The British dependency of Anguilla was historically also a part of this union, to the north-northwest lie the islands of Sint Eustatius, and Saba, Saint Barthélemy, Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten and Anguilla. To the east and northeast are Antigua and Barbuda, and to the southeast is the uninhabited island of Redonda, and the island of Montserrat. Saint Kitts and Nevis were among the first islands in the Caribbean to be settled by Europeans, Saint Kitts was home to the first British and French colonies in the Caribbean, and thus has also been titled The Mother Colony of the West Indies. Nevis is also the birthplace of Alexander Hamilton, Saint Kitts was named Liamuiga, which roughly translates as fertile land, by the Kalinago Indians who originally inhabited the island. The name is preserved via St. Kittss western peak, Mount Liamuiga, neviss pre-Columbian name was Oualie, meaning land of beautiful waters. Christopher Columbus upon sighting what we now call Nevis in 1493 gave that island the name San Martín, the current name Nevis is derived from a Spanish name Nuestra Señora de las Nieves. This Spanish name means Our Lady of the Snows and it is not known who chose this name for the island, but it is a reference to the story of a fourth-century Catholic miracle, a summertime snowfall on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. Perhaps the white clouds which usually wreathe the top of Nevis Peak reminded someone of the story of a snowfall in a hot climate. The island of Nevis upon first British settlement was referred to as Dulcina, eventually the original Spanish name was restored and used in the shortened form, Nevis. There is some disagreement over the name which Christopher Columbus gave to St. Kitts, for many years it was thought that he named the island San Cristóbal, after Saint Christopher, his patron saint and the patron hallow of travellers. New studies suggest that Columbus named the island Sant Yago, the name San Cristóbal was given by Columbus to the island now known as Saba,20 miles northwest. It seems that San Cristóbal came to be applied to the island of St. Kitts only as the result of a mapping error, no matter the origin of the name, the island was well documented as San Cristóbal by the 17th century. The first English colonists kept the English translation of this name, in the 17th century, a common nickname for Christopher was Kit, or Kitt. This is why the island was often referred to as Saint Kitts Island
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The Spanish capture of Saint Kitts in 1629 by Fadrique de Toledo, 1st Marquis of Villanueva de Valdueza.
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A view of Nevis from the southeastern peninsula of St. Kitts.
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Downtown Basseterre, St. Kitts.
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Saint Lucia
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Saint Lucia is a sovereign island country in the eastern Caribbean Sea on the boundary with the Atlantic Ocean. Part of the Lesser Antilles, it is located north/northeast of the island of Saint Vincent, northwest of Barbados and it covers a land area of 617 km2 and reported a population of 165,595 in the 2010 census. The French were the islands first European settlers and they signed a treaty with the native Carib Indians in 1660. England took control of the island from 1663 to 1667, in ensuing years, it was at war with France 14 times, and rule of the island changed frequently. In 1814, the British took definitive control of the island, because it switched so often between British and French control, Saint Lucia was also known as the Helen of the West Indies. Representative government came about in 1840, from 1958 to 1962, the island was a member of the Federation of the West Indies. On 22 February 1979, Saint Lucia became an independent state of the Commonwealth of Nations associated with the United Kingdom, Saint Lucia is a mixed jurisdiction, meaning that it has a legal system based in part on both the civil law and English common law. The Civil Code of St. Lucia of 1867 was based on the Quebec Civil Code of 1866 and it is also a member of La Francophonie. One of the Windward Islands, Saint Lucia was named after Saint Lucy of Syracuse by the French, the islands first European settlers, the French pirate François le Clerc frequently visited Saint Lucia in the 1550s. It was not until around 1600 that the first European camp was started by the Dutch at what is now Vieux Fort, in 1605 an English vessel called the Olive Branch was blown off-course on its way to Guyana, and the 67 colonists started a settlement on Saint Lucia. After five weeks only 19 survived due to disease and conflict with the Caribs, the French officially claimed the island in 1635. The English attempted the next European settlement in 1639, and that too was wiped out by Caribs, in 1643 a French expedition sent out from Martinique established a permanent settlement on the island. De Rousselan was appointed the governor, took a Carib wife. In 1664, Thomas Warner claimed Saint Lucia for England and he brought 1,000 men to defend it from the French, but after two years, only 89 survived with the rest dying mostly due to disease. In 1666 the French West India Company resumed control of the island, in 1722, George I of Great Britain granted both Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent to The 2nd Duke of Montagu. He in turn appointed Nathaniel Uring, a merchant sea captain and adventurer, Uring went to the islands with a group of seven ships, and established settlement at Petit Carenage. Unable to get support from British warships, he and the new colonists were quickly run off by the French. During the Seven Years War Britain occupied Saint Lucia for a year, Britain handed the island back to the French at the Treaty of Paris in 1763
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A view of Soufrière.
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Prime Minister Kenny Anthony.
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A panorama of Marigot Bay
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
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Portrait of Captain James Cook, the first European to map the eastern coastline of Australia in 1770
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Tasmania's Port Arthur penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed Australian Convict Sites.
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Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased
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Solomon Island warriors, armed with spears, aboard an ornamented war canoe (1895).
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The aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CV-6) under aerial attack during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons.
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Tupou VI
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ʻAhoʻeitu Tupou VI is the King of Tonga. He is the brother and successor of the late King George Tupou V. He was officially confirmed by his brother on 27 September 2006 as the heir presumptive to the Throne of Tonga and he was born in Nukuʻalofa, Tonga, the third son and youngest child of King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV. He was educated at The Leys School, Cambridge, from 1973–77 and he then attended the University of East Anglia, where he read Development Studies, from 1977 to 1980. He started his career in the military, joining the naval arm of the Tonga Defence Services in 1982 and he graduated from the US Naval War College as part of Class 33 in 1988. From 1990 to 1995 he commanded the Pacific-class patrol boat VOEA Pangai and he graduated with a masters in Defence Studies from the University of New South Wales in 1997 and with a MA in International Relations from Bond University in 1999. In 1998 he ended his career to become part of the government, first as the defence minister. He took over these posts from his elder brother Tupoutoʻa, at that time still the crown prince, soon he was appointed as Prime Minister on 3 January 2000, a function he kept until his sudden resignation on 11 February 2006. Its reason has never made clear, but was probably due to the unrest from a series of pro-democracy protests calling since mid-2005 for a lesser role for the royal family in government. His appointed successor, Feleti Sevele, was Tongas first prime minister who was not an estate holder or a member of the 33 noble families that make up the Tongan aristocracy. In 2008 ʻAhoʻeitu was appointed Tongas first High Commissioner to Australia, in 2013 he was appointed as Chancellor of the University of the South Pacific. HRH Tupoutoʻa ʻUlukalala – Siaosi Manumataongo ʻAlaivahamamaʻo ʻAhoʻeitu Konstantin Tukuʻaho and he married on 12 July 2012 the Hon. Sinaitakala Fakafanua, daughter of late High Chief Kinikinilau Fakafanua and HRH Princess Ofeina, Lady Fakafanua, both King Tupou VIs first cousins. HRH Prince Taufaʻahau Manumataongo – Taufaʻahau Manumataongo Tukuʻaho, HRH Prince Ata – Viliami ʻUnuaki-ʻo-Tonga Mumui Lalaka-Mo-e-ʻEiki Tukuʻaho. It is customary in Tongan culture that princes get a traditional chiefly title and these titles may be used in any order. Nevertheless, the sequences Lavaka Ata ʻUlukālala and ʻUlukālala Lavaka Ata were most common, as such he was until his accession to the throne known as Tupoutoʻa Lavaka. His elder son, Siaosi, is to be addressed by the title of ʻUlukālala of Fangatongo, while his second son. He was assisted by Reverend Dr ‘Ahio and Reverend Dr Tevita Havea, the president, the celebrations included many international invited guests, and an estimated 15,000 people, mostly expatriate Tongans, flew in to join the celebrations. During the ceremony, Tupou VI was anointed with oil, adorned with a ring
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The Leys School, Cambridge
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Tupouto ʻ a-Lavaka (centre) uncombed, unshaven and in mourning dress for his recently deceased father, king Tāufa ʻ āhau Tupou IV in 2006. He is flanked by his two sons, the new chiefs ʻ Ulukālala (left) and Ata (right)
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King Tupou VI after his coronation ceremony in Nuku'alofa on 4 July 2015
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Yoshihito, Prince Katsura
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Yoshihito, Prince Katsura was a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the second son of Takahito, Prince Mikasa and Yuriko, Princess Mikasa. He was a first cousin of Emperor Akihito, originally known as Prince Yoshihito of Mikasa, he received the title Prince Katsura and authorization to start a new branch of the Imperial Family on 1 January 1988 at age 39. He died of an attack on 8 June 2014, aged 66. The Prince graduated from the Department of Political Studies in the Faculty of Law of Gakushuin University in 1971, between 1971 and 1973 he studied at the Graduate School of the Australian National University, in Canberra, Australia. After his return to Japan, he worked as an administrator at the Japan Broadcasting Corporation from 1974 to 1985, in 1982, the Prince returned to Australia as part of the Japanese delegation in honor of the tenth anniversary of the Australia-Japan Society. He also visited New Zealand to strengthen ties and friendly diplomatic relations, in July 1997, Prince Katsura again visited Australia, to help promote an exhibition of the traditional sport of sumo, with exhibition matches held in Sydney and Melbourne. Prince Katsura suffered a series of strokes in May 1988 and had surgery for acute subdural hematoma, finally he became paralyzed from the waist down, forcing him to use a wheelchair. Despite this, he remained active in life and appeared regularly at award ceremonies, diplomatic events. However, he had been hospitalized on and off since 2008 due to sepsis, in early 2014, the Prince was diagnosed with an unspecified illness that affected and deteriorated his heart. In the early morning hours of 8 June 2014, he suffered a heart attack. On 17 June 2014, the funeral service for Prince Katsura. About 560 dignitaries including the members of Imperial Family attended the funeral, Prince and Princess Mikasa, Prince Katsuras parents, acted out the duty of chief mourners and his niece, Princess Akiko, hosted the ceremony. Prince Katsura never married and left no legitimate children, as his brothers only had daughters themselves, his death marked the end of his fathers branch of the Imperial Family and also his own branch. As a result, the number of households in the Imperial family dropped to four, excluding those led by Emperor Akihito and he was survived by his parents
Yoshihito, Prince Katsura
165.
Norihito, Prince Takamado
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Norihito, Prince Takamado was a member of the Imperial House of Japan and the third son of Takahito, Prince Mikasa and Yuriko, Princess Mikasa. He was a first cousin of Emperor Akihito, and was seventh in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne, the Prince was a graduate of the Department of Law of Gakushuin University in 1978. He studied abroad from 1978 to 1981 at Queens University Faculty of Law in Kingston, Ontario, after his return to Japan, he served as administrator of the Japan Foundation from 1981-2002. The Prince became engaged to Miss Hisako Tottori, eldest daughter of Mr. Shigejirō Tottori, on 17 September 1984 and they married on 6 December 1984. He was born as Prince Norihito of Mikasa, and received the title Prince Takamado, Princess Ayako Prince Takamado was honorary president of various charitable organizations involved with sponsorship of international exchange especially involving music, dance, and sports. He was often dubbed The Sports Prince in Japan and he supported a number of foreign language speech contests. He was also much involved in environmental issues and environmental education. The Prince was an member of A. V. Edo-Rhenania Tokyo, a Roman Catholic student fraternity that is affiliated with the Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen, Prince and Princess Takamado were the most widely traveled couple in the Japanese Imperial Family, visiting 35 countries together in 15 years to represent Japan on various functions. The Prince’s last visits included Egypt and Morocco in May 2000, Hawaii in July 2001, the latter was in order to attend the Opening Ceremony of the 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea-Japan. The sudden death of one of the youngest and most active members of the Japanese Imperial Family shocked the nation, the Prince Takamado Cup, Japans national youth football cup tournament, is named after him. I. H. Prince Takamado Memorial Collection BBC News |Japanese royals make symbolic trip to Seoul Royal Ontario Museum |Prince Takamado Gallery of Japan
Norihito, Prince Takamado
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Norihito 高円宮憲仁親王
166.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
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The Prince of Wales in Jersey, July 2012
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Signature
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Telegram announcing the birth of Prince Charles to the Governor-General of New Zealand
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Queen Elizabeth II formally invests the Prince of Wales with his coronet, 1969
167.
Antony Acland
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Sir Antony Arthur Acland KG GCMG GCVO is a British former diplomat and Provost of Eton College. Antony Acland is the son of Brigadier Peter Acland. He was educated at Eton College, then in 1948 joined the Royal Artillery with an emergency commission. After short army service he went up to Christ Church, Oxford, gaining a BA degree in Philosophy, after leaving Oxford in 1953 he went straight into the Foreign Office. After studying at the Middle East Centre for Arab Studies, Acland was posted to Dubai and then Kuwait and he then served at the UK Mission to the UN, first in New York 1962–66, then at Geneva 1966–68. Back at the FCO he was head of the Arabian department 1970–72, Acland was Principal Private Secretary to the Foreign Secretary 1972–75. He was Ambassador to Luxembourg 1975–77 and to Spain 1977–79 and he was Deputy Under-Secretary at the FCO 1979–82, a post which then entailed chairing the Joint Intelligence Committee. In 1982 he was promoted to Permanent Under-Secretary and head of the Diplomatic Service, argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in April 1982 and Acland came into collision with the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, over the diplomatic response. At one point during a heated discusion he threatened to resign, whereupon Thatcher backed down and said All right, Acland was Ambassador to the United States at Washington, D. C. 1986–91, then retired from the Diplomatic Service and was Provost of Eton College 1991–2000, Acland was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at Oxford, helping to raise funds for the Institutes building and library. He was Chancellor of the between 1994 and 2005, in 2001 he was given the rare honour of appointment as a Knight of the Order of the Garter. She died in 1984 and in 1987 he married Jennifer McGougan, ACLAND, Sir Antony, Whos Who 2014, A & C Black,2014 Sir Antony Acland interviewed by Liz Cox on Monday 23 April 2001, British Diplomatic Oral History Programme, Churchill College, Cambridge
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Sir Antony Acland in the robes of a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter
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Notes Knight since 1986 Crest Upon a hand Argent and Sable, a falcon Argent. Torse Mantling Sable doubled Argent. Escutcheon Chequy Argent and Sable a fess Gules in chief a mullet of five points Argent. Orders The Order of the Garter circlet.
168.
Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce
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Admiral of the Fleet Michael Cecil Boyce, Baron Boyce, KG, GCB, OBE, DL is a former Royal Navy officer who now sits as a crossbench member of the House of Lords. As Chief of Defence Staff he is believed to have had concerns about US plans for a missile defence system. In early 2003 he advised the British Government on the deployment of troops for the invasion of Iraq, the son of Commander Hugh Boyce DSC and Madeline, Boyce was educated at Hurstpierpoint College and the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. Promoted to the rank of commander on 30 June 1976, Boyce became commanding officer of the submarine HMS Superb in 1979 and he was given command of the frigate HMS Brilliant in January 1983, and returned to the Ministry of Defence as Captain, Submarine Sea Training in 1984. He attended the Royal College of Defence Studies in 1988 and then became Senior Naval Officer in the Middle East in 1989 and he went on to be Director of Naval Staff Duties at the Ministry of Defence in August 1989. Following promotion to rear admiral he became Flag Officer Sea Training in July 1991 and he became Flag Officer, Surface Flotilla and NATO Commander of the Anti-Submarine Warfare Striking Force in November 1992. Promoted to vice admiral in February 1994, Boyce was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1995 New Year Honours. Boyce became First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff in October 1998 and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 1999 Birthday Honours. He was appointed Chief of the Defence Staff in February 2001, in early 2003 he advised the British Government on the deployment of troops for the invasion of Iraq, seeking assurances as to the legitimacy of the deployment before it was allowed to proceed. He was appointed a Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem on 27 November 2002, and retired as Chief of Defence Staff on 7 November 2003. Boyce was created a Life Peer as Baron Boyce, of Pimlico in the City of Westminster, on 16 June 2003 and was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London on 19 December 2003. He was also appointed a director of WS Atkins plc in May 2004 and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports on 10 December 2004. He became chairman of the Royal Navy Club of 1765 &1785 in 2004 and he gave evidence to The Iraq Inquiry on 3 December 2009. He takes a keen interest in sports, in 2013 he was elected Master of the Drapers Company. He has been the president of the Pilgrims Society and the Royal Navy Submarine Museum as well as a trustee of the Naval and he was appointed as an honorary admiral of the fleet in the Queens 2014 Birthday Honours. In 1971 Boyce married Harriette Gail Fletcher, by whom he had one son, following the dissolution of his first marriage, he married Fleur Margaret Anne Rutherford. Lady Boyce died in 2016 at the age of 67
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Boyce in 2002
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Hurstpierpoint College where Boyce was educated
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The submarine HMS Superb which Boyce commanded in the late 1970s
169.
Jock Stirrup
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He is now a Crossbench member of the House of Lords. In April 2013, he was appointed a Knight of the Order of the Garter by Queen Elizabeth II, as a junior RAF officer, Stirrup was a fast jet pilot, seeing action in the Dhofar War. Later in his career, he commanded No.2 Squadron, in 2002, Stirrup was appointed the Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff responsible for equipment and capability and was heavily involved in procuring equipment for the invasion of Iraq. Spending a little over a year in that role, he was appointed the Chief of the Air Staff. He became Chief of the Defence Staff in 2006, during his time in office the British Armed Forces faced significant commitments both to Iraq and Afghanistan, Stirrup retired as Chief of the Defence Staff on 29 October 2010, taking a seat in the House of Lords in 2011. Graham Eric Stirrup was born on 4 December 1949, the son of William Hamilton Stirrup and his wife and he was educated at Merchant Taylors School in Northwood, Hertfordshire. Stirrup married Mary Alexandra Elliott in 1976 and they have one son, Stirrup includes golf, music, theatre and history among his interests. He is a fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society, a fellow of the Chartered Management Institute, Stirrup started his military career at the RAF College Cranwell in Lincolnshire on 1 April 1968 and it was from Cranwell that he received his commission on 31 July 1970. He was promoted to flying officer on 31 July 1971 with seniority backdated to 31 January, from 1973 to 1975, Stirrup was on loan service with the Sultan of Oman’s Air Force. After he returned to Great Britain in 1975, Stirrup was posted to No.41 Squadron where he flew the SEPECAT Jaguar in the reconnaissance role. Stirrup went on to serve in a tour in the United States where he flew the all-weather tactical reconnaissance RF-4C Phantom. Promoted to squadron leader on 1 January 1980, Stirrup was serving as a commander on No. Stirrup was later awarded the Air Force Cross in recognition of his handling of the incident, Stirrup was promoted to wing commander on 1 July 1984. In 1985 Stirrup received an appointment, as the Officer Commanding No. Stirrup gained first hand experience of the workings of the RAF when, in 1987. In 1993 Stirrup attended the Royal College of Defence Studies, Stirrup was promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1994, and appointed Director of Air Force Plans and Programmes that year. His appointment at Strike Command also entailed taking on the roles of being the Commander of NATOs Combined Air Operations Centre 9. From September 2001 to January 2002, Stirrup was UK National Contingent Commander for Operation Veritas in Afghanistan, at MacDill Air Force Base, Stirrup headed the 60 strong British team who were contributing to the US-led operational planning
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Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup c. 2010
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Jaguar, a type flown by Stirrup in the 1970s
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Stirrup (left) with General Fraser in 2005.
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Stirrup with US General Peter Pace in 2006.
170.
Eliza Manningham-Buller
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She became a crossbench life peer on 18 April 2008. She was recruited to the Security Service at a party when someone suggested that she see someone at the Ministry of Defence. Specializing in counter-terrorism rather than MI5s then-classical counter-espionage, she was active at the time of the Lockerbie bombing by Libya in 1988 and she worked for K-branch against the IRA. During the early 1980s she was one of only five people aware that Oleg Gordievsky. She was a senior liaison working out of Washington, D. C and she was appointed Deputy Director General in 1997, and succeeded Sir Stephen Lander as Director General in 2002, the second woman to take on the role after Dame Stella Rimington. As Director General, she was paid £150,000 a year and she has been credited with making the agency more open, she established a website and recruited agents through newspaper advertisements. Under her direction, terror risk assessments were made public for the first time, in the 2005 Birthday Honours, Manningham-Buller was appointed to the Order of the Bath as a Dame Commander. She resigned from MI5 on 21 April 2007, and was succeeded by her deputy and that month marked the end of her 33rd year in the Security Service. She reportedly joined the public speaking circuit and she was appointed to the Court and Council of Imperial College London in 2009, becoming Deputy chairman later that year, and named chairman in July 2011. She became a governor of biomedical research charity the Wellcome Trust in 2008, on St Georges Day,2014, Lady Manningham-Buller was appointed to the Order of the Garter by HM The Queen. Manningham-Buller was the daughter in a family of four, of Viscount Dilhorne. She was educated at Northampton High School and Benenden School, on 15 July 1991, she married David John Mallock and has five stepchildren by her husbands prior marriage. Manningham-Bullers father, Lord Dilhorne, was a Conservative MP from 1943 to 1962 and he was Britains second highest legal officer, the Solicitor General, he later held the office of Lord Chancellor for two years, thereafter, he was created an hereditary peer with a viscountcy. Her mother, Mary, Viscountess Dilhorne, trained carrier pigeons that were used to fly coded messages in World War II, the pigeons were dropped in wicker baskets with little parachutes over France and Germany and they were used to fly back to her mothers pigeon loft carrying intelligence. One of the won the Dickin Medal, and one brought back intelligence of the V-2 rocket project in Peenemünde. Mary, Viscountess Dilhorne, died in Oxfordshire on 25 March 2004, Manningham-Buller has made speeches to invited audiences containing members of the press, as well as making court statements. She also warned that the threat from international terrorism would be with us for a long time. On 21 October 2005, BBC News reported Manningham-Bullers leaked court statement to the Law Lords regarding methods for collecting intelligence from overseas
Eliza Manningham-Buller
171.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
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Prince Philip in March 2015
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Mon Repos, the birthplace of Philip
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Philip studied at Gordonstoun school, Scotland.
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Philip served aboard HMS Valiant in the Battle of the Mediterranean.
172.
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent
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Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, KG, GCMG, GCVO, ADC is a grandchild of King George V and Queen Mary. He has held the title of Duke of Kent since the death of his father in 1942, the Duke of Kent carries out engagements on behalf of his first cousin, Elizabeth II. He is perhaps best known as president of the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, presenting the trophies to the Wimbledon champion and he also served as the United Kingdoms Special Representative for International Trade and Investment, retiring in 2001. He is also the president of The Scout Association, the Royal United Services Institute, and the Royal Institution of Great Britain, and since 1967 Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England. The Duke of Kent is also patron of the Institute of Advanced Motorists, as of the birth of the Duke of Cambridges second child, the Queens fifth great-grandchild, on 2 May 2015, the Duke of Kent was 34th in line. As of the death of the 7th Earl of Harewood in 2011, he became the Queens oldest living paternal cousin, since his mother was a cousin of Prince Philip, he is also a second cousin to Prince Charles and his siblings. Prince Edward was born on 9 October 1935, at No.3 Belgrave Square, home Secretary Sir John Simon was present to verify the birth. Prince Edwards father was Prince George, Duke of Kent, the son of George V. His mother was Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, the daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and he was baptised in the Private Chapel of Buckingham Palace on 20 November 1935 by the Archbishop of Canterbury Cosmo Lang. Prince Edward began his schooling at Ludgrove, a school in Berkshire, before going on to Eton College. After school he entered the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst where he won the Sir James Moncrieff Grierson prize for foreign languages, on 25 August 1942, Prince Edwards father, the Duke of Kent, was killed when his plane crashed in bad weather in Caithness. Prince Edward, who was almost 7, succeeded his father as Duke of Kent, Earl of St Andrews and he later took his seat in the House of Lords in 1959. As a member of the family, he began performing engagements at an early age. In 1953, he attended the coronation of his cousin, Elizabeth II, the Duke of Kent graduated from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst on 29 July 1955 as a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Scots Greys, the beginning of a military career that would last over 20 years. He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1961, the Duke of Kent saw service in Hong Kong from 1962–63 and later served on the staff in Eastern Command. He was promoted to Major on 31 December 1967, during the early 70s, the Duke also served in Northern Ireland with his Regiment. He was promoted to Lieutenant-Colonel on 30 June 1973, the Duke retired from the Army on 15 April 1976. He was subsequently promoted Major-General on 11 June 1983 and Field Marshal on 11 June 1993, the Duke of Kent married Katharine Worsley at York Minster on 8 June 1961
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent
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Prince Edward
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The Duke and Duchess of Kent on the balcony of Buckingham Palace at the 2013 Trooping the Colour.
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A 1989 photograph of the Duke of Kent, by Allan Warren
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People
173.
Anne, Princess Royal
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Anne, Princess Royal, KG KT GCVO GCStJ QSO GCL CD is the second child and only daughter of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At the time of her birth, she was third in the line of succession, behind her mother – then Princess Elizabeth – and elder brother and she rose to second after her mothers accession, but is currently 12th in line. Anne is known for her work, and is patron of over 200 organisations. Princess Anne has held the title of Princess Royal since 1987 and is its seventh holder, Anne was married to Captain Mark Phillips in 1973, they divorced in 1992. They have two children and three grandchildren, in 1992, within months of her divorce, Anne married Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, whom she had met while he served as her mothers equerry between 1986 and 1989. Anne was born at Clarence House on 15 August 1950 at 11,50 am, as the child and only daughter of Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh. She was the grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Anne was baptised in the Music Room of Buckingham Palace on 21 October 1950, by Archbishop of York, after the death of George VI, Annes mother ascended the throne as Queen Elizabeth II. Given her young age at the time, she did not attend the coronation, the Company was active until 1963, when Anne went to boarding school. Anne enrolled at Benenden School in 1963, in 1968 she left school with six GCE O-Levels and two A-Levels. In the next couple of years, Anne started dating, in 1970 her first boyfriend was Andrew Parker Bowles, who later became the first husband of Camilla Shand. Following the wedding, Anne and her husband lived at Gatcombe Park and he was made acting captain by the start of 1974 when he was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II. By 1989, however, Princess Anne and Mark Phillips announced their intention to separate, the couple divorced on 23 April 1992. The Queen had offered Phillips an earldom on his wedding day, the couple had two children, Peter Phillips and Zara Phillips. As female-line descendants of royalty, the children have no title despite being the grandchildren of a monarch, Anne became a grandmother on 29 December 2010 when Peter and his wife Autumn had a daughter, Savannah. On 29 March 2012, the couple had daughter, Isla. Annes third granddaughter, Mia Grace, was born on 17 January 2014 to Zara and her husband Mike Tindall. As Princess Anne and Mark Phillips were returning to Buckingham Palace on 20 March 1974, from a charity event on Pall Mall, the driver of the Escort, Ian Ball, jumped out and began firing a pistol
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The Princess Royal at Chatham House, October 2015
Anne, Princess Royal
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Princess Anne with her parents and elder brother in October 1957
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Anne and Charles at the White House with Tricia Nixon and Julie & David Eisenhower in June 1970
174.
Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex
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Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, KG, GCVO, CD, ADC is the youngest of four children and the third son of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At the time of his birth, he was third in line to succeed his mother, as of 2017, he is ninth in line. Prince Edward was born on 10 March 1964, at Buckingham Palace, as the son and fourth and youngest child of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip. He was baptised on 2 May 1964 in the chapel at Windsor Castle by the then-Dean of Windsor. As with his siblings, a governess was appointed to look after Edward and was responsible for his early education at Buckingham Palace. At the age of seven, Edward was then sent to Gibbs School before attending, in September 1972, Heatherdown School, near Ascot in Berkshire. He then, as his father and elder brothers had done him, moved to Gordonstoun, in northern Scotland. Upon his return to Britain, Edward matriculated at Jesus College, Cambridge and his admission to Cambridge caused some controversy at the time, since his A-level grades were far below the standard normally required, straight As, for Oxbridge entrance. Edward graduated in 1986 as BA and proceeded Master of Arts in 1991, Prince Edward made two very public attempts to pursue a career. However, in January 1987 he dropped out of the commando course after completing just one third of the 12-month training. Media reported, at the time, that the move prompted a berating from Prince Philip who reduced his son to prolonged tears, after leaving the Marines, Edward opted for a career in entertainment. His duties reportedly involved making tea for the artistic staff, while there he met actress Ruthie Henshall, whom he dated for three years. The media attacked the programme, it was reported that the Queen was not in favour of the event. In 1993, Edward formed the production company Ardent Productions. Commercial breaks are filled with army recruiting advertisements, ardents productions were somewhat better received in the United States and a documentary Edward made about his great-uncle, Edward VIII in 1996, sold well worldwide. Nonetheless, the reported losses every year it operated save one when Edward did not draw a salary. The Prince of Wales was reportedly angered by the incident, Ardent Productions was voluntarily dissolved in June 2009, with assets reduced to just £40. Edwards original backers in the venture are said to have lost every penny, Edward met Sophie Rhys-Jones, then a public relations executive with her own firm, in 1994
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The Earl in Belfast, February 2015
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The Earl and Countess of Wessex at the wedding of the Crown Princess of Sweden in June 2010
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The Earl and Countess of Wessex at Trooping the Colour in June 2013
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The Earl of Wessex at Yate, Gloucestershire, December 2011
175.
Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg
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Jean reigned as Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He is the father of the current ruler, Grand Duke Henri, Jean was born on 5 January 1921, at Berg Castle, in central Luxembourg, the son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and of Prince Félix of Bourbon-Parma. Among his godparents was Pope Benedict XV, who gave him his second name and he attended primary school in Luxembourg, where he continued the initial stage of secondary education. He completed secondary school at Ampleforth College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in the United Kingdom, upon reaching maturity, on 5 January 1938, he was styled Hereditary Grand Duke, recognising his status as heir apparent. On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, beginning a four-year occupation, having been warned of an imminent invasion, the Grand Ducal Family escaped the previous night. At first, they sought refuge in Paris, before fleeing France only weeks later, the Grand Ducal Family sought refuge in the United States, renting an estate in Brookville, New York. Jean studied Law and Political Science at Université Laval, Quebec City and he joined the British Army as a volunteer in the Irish Guards in November 1942. After receiving officer training at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, Jean was commissioned as a Lieutenant in July 1943 and he landed in Normandy on 11 June 1944, and took part in the Battle for Caen and the liberation of Brussels. On 10 September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Luxembourg before moving on to Arnhem and the invasion of Germany. After the war, from 1984 until his abdication, he served as Colonel of the Regiment of the Irish Guards and he was named Lieutenant-Representative of the Grand Duchess on 28 April 1961. He became Grand Duke when his mother, the Grand Duchess Charlotte, the same day, he was made a General of the Luxembourg Army. Grand Duke Jean abdicated on 7 October 2000, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Henri, Grand Duke Jean now lives at Fischbach Castle. On 27 December 2016, Grand Duke Jean was hospitalized due to bronchitis and was discharged from hospital on 4 January 2017, the Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art bears his name. He was married in Luxembourg on 9 April 1953 to Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium, daughter of Léopold III, King of the Belgians. They had three sons and two daughters, Princess Marie-Astrid, Grand Duke Henri, who ascended to the ducal throne in 2000, Prince Jean, Princess Margaretha. Many of the titles are held without regard to the rules of salic inheritance. Jean renounced the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family in 1986 when his eldest son and it is not known if the marriage of Prince Guillaume was seen by Carlos Hugo as equal. The Arrêté Grand-Ducal of 21 September 1995 established that the title of Prince/Princesse de Luxembourg is reserved for the children of the sovereign and the heir to the throne
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Jean at the wedding of his grandson Prince Louis of Luxembourg in 2006
176.
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos I was King of Spain from 1975 until his abdication in 2014. Juan Carlos is the grandson of Alfonso XIII, the last king of Spain prior to the abolition in 1931. Juan Carlos was born in Rome, Italy, during his familys exile, Juan Carloss father, Don Juan, was the fourth child of Alfonso who had renounced his claims to the throne in January 1941. Don Juan was seen by Franco to be too liberal and in 1969, was bypassed in favour of Juan Carlos as Francos successor, Juan Carlos spent his early years in Italy and came to Spain in 1947 to continue his studies. After completing his education in 1955, he began his military training. Later, he attended the Naval Military School, the General Academy of the Air, in 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece in Athens, daughter of King Paul. The couple had two daughters and a son together, Elena, Cristina, and Felipe, due to Francos declining health, Juan Carlos first began periodically acting as Spains head of state in the summer of 1974. Expected to continue Francos legacy, soon after his accession, Juan Carlos, however, introduced reforms to dismantle the Francoist regime and this led to the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum, which re-established a constitutional monarchy. In 1981, Juan Carlos played a role in preventing a coup that attempted to revert Spain to Francoist government in the Kings name. In 2008, he was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, in 2014, Juan Carlos, citing personal reasons, abdicated in favour of his son, who acceded the throne as Felipe VI. He was baptized as Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias and he was given the name Juan Carlos after his father and maternal grandfather, Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. His early life was dictated largely by the concerns of his father. He moved to Spain in 1948 to be educated there after his father persuaded Franco to allow it and he began his studies in San Sebastián and finished them in 1954 at the San Isidro Institute in Madrid. He then joined the army, doing his officer training from 1955 to 1957 at the Military Academy of Zaragoza, Juan Carlos has two sisters, Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz, and Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria. He also had a brother, Alfonso. On the evening of Holy Thursday,29 March 1956, Juan Carloss younger brother Alfonso died in a gun accident at the familys home Villa Giralda in Estoril, Portugal. The accident took place at 20.30 hours, after the Infantes return from the Maundy Thursday religious service and it is alleged that Juan Carlos began playing with a gun that had apparently been given to Alfonso by General Franco. Rumors appeared in newspapers that the gun had actually held by Juan Carlos at the moment the shot was fired
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos I in 2009
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos de Borbón, painting by Augusto Ferrer-Dalmau (2014)
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos de Borbón in 1971
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos I of Spain on a 100 peseta coin from 1988
177.
Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Beatrix reigned as Queen of the Netherlands from 1980 until her abdication in 2013, after a reign of exactly 33 years. Beatrix is the eldest daughter of Queen Juliana and her husband, upon her mothers accession in 1948, she became heir presumptive. Beatrix attended a primary school in Canada during World War II. In 1961, she received her law degree from Leiden University, in 1966, Beatrix married Claus von Amsberg, a German diplomat, with whom she had three children. When her mother abdicated on 30 April 1980, Beatrix succeeded her as queen, on Koninginnedag,30 April 2013, Beatrix abdicated in favour of her eldest son, Willem-Alexander, and resumed the title of princess. At the time of her abdication, Beatrix was the oldest reigning monarch of the Netherlands, Beatrix was born Princess Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Princess of Lippe-Biesterfeld, on 31 January 1938 at the Soestdijk Palace in Baarn, Netherlands. She is the first child of Princess Juliana of the Netherlands, Beatrix was baptized on 12 May 1938 in the Great Church in The Hague. Beatrixs middle names are the first names of her grandmother, the then reigning Queen Wilhelmina. When Beatrix was one old, in 1939, her younger sister Princess Irene was born. World War II broke out in the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, on 13 May, the Dutch Royal Family evacuated to London, United Kingdom. One month later, Beatrix went to Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with her mother Juliana and her sister Irene, while her father Bernhard, the family lived at the Stornoway residence. With bodyguards and ladies in waiting, the family summered at Bigwin Inn on Lake of Bays, while on Bigwin Island, the constitution of the Netherlands was stored in the cast iron safe of Bigwin Inns Rotunda building. In order to them with a greater sense of security, culinary chefs. Upon their departure, the musicians of the Bigwin Inn Orchestra assembled dockside, and at every public performance afterward through to the end of World War II. In the years following the shuttering and neglect of the island resort, the second sister of Beatrix, Princess Margriet, was born in Ottawa in 1943. During their exile in Canada, Beatrix attended nursery and Rockcliffe Park Public School, on 5 May 1945, the German troops in the Netherlands surrendered. The family returned to the Netherlands on 2 August 1945, Beatrix went to the progressive primary school De Werkplaats in Bilthoven. Her third sister Princess Christina was born in 1947, in April 1950, Princess Beatrix entered the Incrementum, a part of Baarnsch Lyceum, where, in 1956, she passed her school-graduation examinations in the subjects of arts and classics
Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Beatrix in 2008
Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Princess Beatrix in February 1938 with her parents Princess Juliana and Prince Bernhard
Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Princess Beatrix and Queen Juliana in 1960
Beatrix of the Netherlands
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Queen Beatrix and President Vladimir Putin during his state visit to the Netherlands in 2005
178.
Thomas Woodcock (officer of arms)
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Thomas Woodcock CVO DL FSA is the Garter Principal King of Arms. Woodcock was educated at Eton College and he went to University College, Durham, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree. He then went to Darwin College, Cambridge where he received his LLB degree and he was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple. In 1998, Woodcock married Lucinda Harmsworth King and he was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple. He began his career in 1975 as a research assistant to Sir Anthony Wagner, Garter King of Arms. In 1978 he was appointed Rouge Croix Pursuivant, in 1982 he was promoted to Somerset Herald. He held this office until his appointment as Norroy and Ulster in 1997, Woodcock was appointed the Garter Principal King of Arms on 1 April 2010. Woodcock was appointed Lieutenant of the Royal Victorian Order in the 1996 Birthday Honours and was advanced to Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in the 2011 Birthday Honours. In December 2005 he was appointed a deputy lieutenant for the County of Lancashire, in which capacity he assists the Lord Lieutenant, Lord Shuttleworth, to represent Queen Elizabeth II in the county. Heraldry College of Arms King of Arms Herald Pursuivant Thomas Woodcocks Coat of Arms - Granted in 1961 CUHAGS Officer of Arms Index Debretts People of Today
Thomas Woodcock (officer of arms)
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Woodcock at Garter Day, Windsor Castle on 19 June 2006 (as Norroy and Ulster) (Photograph by: Philip Allfrey)
179.
David Leakey
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Lieutenant General Arundell David Leakey, CMG, CBE is a former British military commander. He was Director General of the European Union Military Staff in the Council of the European Union, in 2010 he was appointed Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod. Leakey is the son of Major General Rea Leakey and nephew of Victoria Cross recipient Nigel Leakey, Leakey was educated at Sherborne School. He is also related to the Victoria Cross recipient Joshua Leakey, after attending the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, Leakey was commissioned into the Royal Tank Regiment as a second lieutenant on 27 February 1971. From 4 September 1971 to 1 July 1974 he was a university cadet while he read law at Fitzwilliam College and his commission was confirmed on 1 July 1974 with seniority from 1 February 1971. He was promoted to lieutenant on 1 July 1974 with seniority from 1 February 1973 and he served in the UK, Northern Ireland, Germany, Bosnia and in Canada in armoured vehicles and in tanks. Having attended the Staff College, Camberley, he was promoted to major on 30 September 1984 and he was appointed Chief of Staff at 7th Armoured Brigade, Military Assistant to the Chief of the Defence Staff and then Commanding Officer of the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment. He was promoted to colonel on 31 December 1993 with seniority from 30 June 1993 and he was then posted to the Ministry of Defence as a Colonel Military Operations. In that role, he was responsible for Operational planning and policy affecting Eastern and Western Europe, in early 1995, he attended the Higher Command and Staff Course. In late 1995, he was the UKs Military Representative at the negotiations to end the Bosnian War held in the United States. The successful negotiations resulted in the signing of the Dayton Agreement and he was promoted to brigadier on 31 December 1995 with seniority from 30 June 1995. He was appointed Commander of 20th Armoured Brigade in Germany in 1996, with his brigade, he was posted to the former Yugoslavia from 21 December 1996 to 20 June 1997. He returned to the Ministry of Defence as Director of Military Operations from July 1997 to December 1999, in 2000, he attended the Royal College of Defence Studies. He was Chief of Staff at Headquarters Northern Ireland from February to December 2001 and he was promoted to major general on 15 December 2001. From December 2001 to October 2004, he was Director General of Army Training and Recruiting, on 6 October 2004, he was appointed Commander of European Union Force Althea, the European Union peacekeeping force, which replaced the NATO-led SFOR in Bosnia and Hercegovina. He was promoted to lieutenant general on 28 February 2007, from 1 March 2007 until 2010, he was Director General of the European Union Military Staff in Brussels. He retired from the military on 22 September 2010, Leakey was appointed as Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod in the House of Lords from 21 December 2010. He is a piano player and singer
David Leakey
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Lieutenant-General David Leakey CMG CBE
180.
Black Rod
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The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, generally shortened to Black Rod, is an official in the parliaments of several Commonwealth countries. The position originates in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, in the United Kingdom, Black Rod is responsible for maintaining the buildings, services, and security of the Palace of Westminster. The office was created in 1350 by royal patent, though the current title dates from 1522. The position was adopted by members of the Commonwealth when they adopted the British Westminster system. The title is derived from the staff of office, a staff topped with a golden lion. Black Rod is formally appointed by the Crown based on a recruitment search performed by the Clerk of the Parliaments, prior to 2002 the office rotated among retired senior officers from the Royal Navy, the British Army and the Royal Air Force. Black Rod is an officer of the English Order of the Garter and his deputy is the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod. He is responsible, as the representative of the Administration and Works Committee, for maintaining the buildings, previous responsibilities for security have been passed to the Parliamentary Security Director. Black Rod also arrests any Lord guilty of breach of privilege or other Parliamentary offence, such as contempt or disorder and his equivalent in the House of Commons is the Serjeant at Arms. Black Rod, along with his deputy, is responsible for organizing ceremonial events within the Palace of Westminster, the mace was introduced in 1876. Black Rod is best known for his part in the surrounding the State Opening of Parliament. He summons the Commons to attend the speech and leads them to the Lords, as part of the ritual, as Black Rod approaches the doors to the chamber of the House of Commons to make his summons, they are slammed in his face. This is to symbolize the Commons independence of the Sovereign, Black Rod then strikes the door three times with his staff, and is then admitted and issues the summons of the monarch to attend. This ritual is derived from the attempt by King Charles I to arrest the Five Members in 1642 and this and prior actions of the King led to the Civil War. From 1783 the Irish Black Rod was also Usher of the Order of St Patrick, no-one was appointed to the office after the separation of the Irish Free State in 1922. 1707 Andrew Fountaine c. 1708–1709 Thomas Ellys 1711–17, brinsley Butler, 1st Viscount Lanesborough 1745–17. Robert Langrishe 1745–1747 Solomon Dayrolles 1747–17, William FitzWilliam 1757 James Gisborne 1761–1763 George Montagu 1763–1765 Sir Archibald Edmonstone 1772. This office is held by The Rt Rev. John Armes, Bishop of Edinburgh
Black Rod
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Incumbent Lt Gen David Leakey CMG CBE since 1 February 2011
Black Rod
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Caricature from Vanity Fair of Admiral Sir Augustus W.J. Clifford, 1st Bt, as Black Rod.
181.
Mauricio Macri
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Mauricio Macri is the current President of Argentina, in office since 2015. A former civil engineer, Macri won the first presidential runoff ballotage in Argentinas history and is the first democratically elected non-Radical or Peronist President since 1916, figuring prominently in Macris agenda is the objective to reintegrate Argentina in the international community. Son of Francesco Macri, a prominent Italian businessman in the industrial and construction sectors and he gained recognition when in 1995 he became President of Boca Juniors, one of the two most popular football clubs in the country. In 2005 he created the electoral front Republican Proposal, also known as PRO. He was considered a candidate for the 2011 general elections. He got nearly 47% of the vote in the election, leading to a runoff vote on 31 July 2011 against candidate Daniel Filmus. On 22 November 2015, after a tie in the first round of elections on 25 October, he obtained 51. 34% of the votes. He was inaugurated on 10 December 2015 in the National Congress of Argentina, in 2016, Macri was named one of the Worlds 100 Most Influential People and the Most Powerful President in Latin America by U. S. news magazine Time. Mauricio Macri was born in Tandil, in the province of Buenos Aires, as the son of the Italian-born tycoon Francisco Macri and Alicia Blanco Villegas, the family moved to Buenos Aires a short time later, and kept the houses in Tandil as vacation properties. His father influenced him to be a businessman, as well as his uncle Jorge Blanco Villegas, Franco expected Mauricio to eventually succeed him as leaders of his firms. Macri preferred the company of his uncle, to avoid the constant scrutiny of his father, Macri was educated at Colegio Cardenal Newman and studied at the Catholic University of Argentina, where he received a degree in civil engineering. During this time he became interested in neoliberalism, and joined a tank led by the former minister Álvaro Alsogaray. As a result, he affiliated to the now defunct Union of the Democratic Centre party, in 1985, he also attended short courses at Columbia Business School, Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania and the local Universidad del CEMA. In 1984, he worked in the department of Citibank Argentina. He joined Socma the same year, and from 1985 onward he served as general manager, in 1992 he became the vice president of Sevel Argentina, climbing to the presidency in 1994. In 1991, he was kidnapped for 12 days by officers of the Argentine Federal Police and he was kept inside a very small room, with a chemical bathroom and a hole in the roof to receive food. He was freed after his family paid a multimillion-dollar ransom. He has since said that the ordeal led him to decide to enter politics and his first wife was Ivonne Bordeu, daughter of the racecar driver Juan Manuel Bordeu
Mauricio Macri
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Mauricio Macri
Mauricio Macri
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Macri and his family meeting Pope Francis at the Vatican City.
Mauricio Macri
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Macri during a press conference in 2013.
Mauricio Macri
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Macri meeting with the then Minister of State for Finance and Transport of Singapore, Josephine Teo, in 2012
182.
President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
President of Argentina
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Incumbent Cristina Fernández de Kirchner since December 10, 2007
President of Argentina
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Presidential Standard
President of Argentina
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Bernardino Rivadavia the first president of the Argentine Nation
President of Argentina
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La Casa Rosada.
183.
Governor-General of Australia
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The Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia is the representative in Australia of the Australian monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The Governor-General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of Australia, when travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia, and of the Queen of Australia, so is treated as a head of state. The Governor-General is supported by a staff headed by the Official Secretary to the Governor-General, a Governor-General is not appointed for a specific term, but is generally expected to serve for five years subject to a possible short extension. Since 28 March 2014, the Governor-General has been General Sir Peter Cosgrove, from Federation in 1901 until 1965,11 out of the 15 Governors-General were British aristocrats, they included four barons, three viscounts, three earls, and one prince. Since then, all but one of the Governors-General have been Australian-born, as of 2017, only one Governor-General, Dame Quentin Bryce, was a woman. The selection of a Governor-General is a responsibility for the Prime Minister of Australia, the candidate is approached privately to confirm whether they are willing to accept the appointment. The prime minister advises the monarch to appoint his nominee. This has been the procedure since November 1930, when James Scullins proposed appointment of Sir Isaac Isaacs was fiercely opposed by the British government, Scullin was equally insistent that the monarch must act on the relevant prime ministers direct advice. Both of these appointments had been agreed to despite British government objections, despite these precedents, George V remained reluctant to accept Scullins recommendation of Isaacs and asked him to consider Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood. However, Scullin stood firm, and, on 29 November, the King agreed to Isaacss appointment and this right to not only advise the monarch directly, but also to expect that advice to be accepted, was soon taken up by all the other Dominion prime ministers. This, among other things, led to the Statute of Westminster 1931, having agreed to the appointment, the monarch then permits it to be publicly announced in advance, usually several months before the end of the current Governor-Generals term. During these months, the person is referred to as the Governor-General-designate, the actual appointment is made by the monarch. Governors-General have during their tenure the style His/Her Excellency the Honourable, since May 2013, the style used by a former Governor-General is the Honourable, it was at the same time retrospectively granted for life to all previous holders of the office. From the creation of the Order of Australia in 1975, the Governor-General was, ex officio, Chancellor and Principal Companion of the Order, and therefore became entitled to the post-nominal AC. In 1986 the Letters Patent were amended again, and Governors-General appointed from that time were again, ex officio, until 1989, all Governors-General were members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus held the additional style the Right Honourable for life. The same individuals were also usually either peers, knights, or both, in 1989, Bill Hayden, a republican, declined appointment to the British Privy Council and any imperial honours. Dame Quentin Bryce was the first Governor-General to have had no title or pre-nominal style. Until 2015, the honour continued after the retirement from office of the Governor-General, formerly, the Governor-General automatically became a knight or dame upon being sworn in
Governor-General of Australia
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The letters patent issued by Queen Victoria in 1900 creating the office of governor-general
Governor-General of Australia
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Flag of the Governor-General of Australia
Governor-General of Australia
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Governor-general's Holden WM Caprice with St. Edward's Crown on the number plate
Governor-General of Australia
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The Earl of Hopetoun, the first governor-general, 1901–1903
184.
Michel Temer
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Michel Miguel Elias Temer Lulia is a Brazilian lawyer and politician who is the 37th and current President of Brazil. At 75 years, he is the oldest person to assume the office, on 31 August 2016, the Senate voted 61–20 to convict the impeached President Dilma Rousseff and remove her from office, allowing a political shift from a center-left to a center-right government. Temer succeeded to the presidency, to serve out what would have been the remainder of Rousseffs second term until 1 January 2019, in his first speech in office, Temer called for a government of national salvation and asked for the trust of the Brazilian people. He also signaled his intention to overhaul the system and labor laws. Born in Tietê, São Paulo, Temer is the son of Nakhoul Miguel Elias Temer Lulia and March Barbar Lulia and his parents, along with three older siblings, immigrated to Brazil from Btaaboura, in Northern Lebanon, to escape famine and instability due to World War I. In Brazil, his parents had five children, and Temer is the youngest. Temer does not speak fluent Arabic, but is able to understand the subject of a conversation in that language, in his childhood, Temer dreamed of being a pianist. His dream, however, could not be accomplished, as there were no teachers in his city. As a teenager, he wanted to be a writer, after failing chemistry and physics classes in his first year of high school, he gave up the curso científico, which prioritized hard sciences and math. In 1957, he moved to São Paulo to finish the school in the curso clássico. In 1959, he followed the footsteps of his four brothers and joined the Law School of the University of São Paulo. In his freshman year, he involved with politics by becoming a treasurer of the schools students union. In 1962, Temer ran for the presidency of the union, Temer stayed neutral before the 1964 coup détat. With the beginning of rule, he moved away from politics. In 1974, he completed a doctorate in law at the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo. Raised Maronite, an Eastern Catholic sui iuris church of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1968, Temer began lecturing on constitutional law at PUC-SP and he was also director of the Brazilian Institute Of Constitutional Law and member of the Ibero-American Institute of Constitutional Law. Temer published four works in constitutional law
Michel Temer
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His Excellency Michel Temer GOIH
Michel Temer
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Signature
Michel Temer
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Vice President Michel Temer bids farewell to Pope Francis in July 2013.
Michel Temer
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Temer with U.S. Vice President Joe Biden in Brasília, October 2013.
185.
President of the People's Republic of China
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The President of the Peoples Republic of China is the head of state of the Peoples Republic of China. Under the constitution, the presidency is a ceremonial office with limited powers. However, since 1993, as a matter of convention, the presidency has been held simultaneously by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, the current President is Xi Jinping, who took office in March 2013. Since 1993, apart from periods of transition, the top leader of China simultaneously serves as the President, the head of the party. This individual then carries out different duties under separate titles, the office was first established in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China in 1954 and successively held by Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi. Liu fell into disgrace during the Cultural Revolution, after which the office became vacant. The office was abolished under the Constitution of 1975, then reinstated in the Constitution of 1982, the official English-language translation of the title was Chairman, after 1982, this translation was changed to President, although the Chinese title remains unchanged. The President is limited to serve up to two terms of five years each, according to the current Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China, the President must be a Chinese citizen with full electoral rights who has reached the age of 45. The Presidents term of office is the same as the term of the National Peoples Congress, the President is elected by the National Peoples Congress, Chinas highest state body, which also has the power to remove the President and other state officers from office. Elections and removals are decided by a majority vote. According to the Organic Law of the NPC, the President is nominated by the NPC Presidium, in practice, however, the ruling Communist Party of China reserves the post of President for its current General Secretary. Like all officers of state elected by the NPC, the President is elected from a one name ballot, in the event that the office of President falls vacant, the Vice-President succeeds to the office. In the event that both offices fall vacant, the Chairman of the NPC Standing Committee temporarily acts as President until the NPC can elect a new President and Vice-President, in addition, the President names and dismisses ambassadors to foreign countries, signs and annuls treaties with foreign entities. According to the Constitution, all of these require the approval or confirmation of the National Peoples Congress. The President also conducts state visits on behalf of the Peoples Republic, under the constitution the state visit clause is the only presidential power that does not stipulate any form of oversight from the National Peoples Congress. As the vast majority of powers are dependent on the ratification of the NPC, the President is, in essence. It is therefore conceived to function as an symbolic institution of the state rather than an office with true executive powers. Upon the nomination of the Premier, the NPC convenes to confirm the nomination, to date, it has never rejected a personnel nomination
President of the People's Republic of China
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Incumbent Xi Jinping since 14 March 2013
President of the People's Republic of China
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Mao Zedong 1st Chairman (27 September 1954 – 27 April 1959)
President of the People's Republic of China
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Liu Shaoqi 2nd Chairman (27 April 1959 – 31 October 1968)
President of the People's Republic of China
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Dong Biwu Acting Chairman (24 February 1972 – 17 January 1975)
186.
Pranab Mukherjee
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Pranab Kumar Mukherjee is the 13th and current President of India, he has been in office since July 2012. In a political career spanning six decades, Mukherjee was a leader of the Indian National Congress. Prior to his election as President, Mukherjee was Union Finance Minister from 2009 to 2012, Mukherjee got his break in politics in 1969 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi helped him get elected to the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of Parliament, on a Congress ticket. Following a meteoric rise, he one of Indira Gandhis most trusted lieutenants. During the controversial Internal Emergency of 1975–77, he was accused of committing gross excesses, Mukherjees service in a number of ministerial capacities culminated in his first stint as finance minister in 1982–84. Mukherjee was also Leader of the House in the Rajya Sabha from 1980 to 1985, Mukherjee was sidelined from the Congress during the premiership of Rajiv Gandhi, Indiras son. Mukherjee had viewed himself, and not the inexperienced Rajiv, as the successor to Indira following her assassination in 1984. Mukherjee lost out in the power struggle. He formed his own party, the Rashtriya Samajwadi Congress, which merged with the Congress in 1989 after reaching a consensus with Rajiv Gandhi, Mukherjees political career revived when Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao appointed him Planning Commission head in 1991 and foreign minister in 1995. Following this, as elder statesman of the Congress, Mukherjee was the principal, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance came into power in 2004, Mukherjee won a Lok Sabha seat for the first time. From then until his resignation in 2012, Mukherjee was practically number-two in Prime Minister Manmohan Singhs government and he held a number of key cabinet portfolios—Defence, External Affairs and Finance —apart from heading several Groups of Ministers and being Leader of the House in the Lok Sabha. He is the wealthiest president of India to date, Pranab was born in a Bengali Brahmin family in Mirati in the Birbhum district of Bengal province. He attended the Suri Vidyasagar College in Suri, then affiliated to University of Calcutta and he subsequently earned an MA degree in Political Science and History and also LL. B. degree both from University of Calcutta. He was an upper-division Clerk in the Office of the Deputy Accountant-General in Calcutta, in 1963, he became Lecturerteaching Political Science at the Vidyanagar College and he also worked as a Journalist with the Desher Dak before entering politics. Mukherjees political career began in 1969, when he managed the successful Midnapore by-election campaign of an independent candidate, then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, recognised Mukherjees talents and recruited him to her party, the Indian National Congress. He became a member of the Rajya Sabha in July 1969, Mukherjee was re-elected to the house in 1975,1981,1993 and 1999. Mukherjee became a Gandhi loyalist, and is described as his man for all seasons. Mukherjees rise was rapid in the phase of his career
Pranab Mukherjee
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The Honourable Pranab Mukherjee
Pranab Mukherjee
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Pranab Mukherjee addressing delegates of 42nd Regional Conference of SIRC of Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
Pranab Mukherjee
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Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee with US President George W. Bush in 2008.
Pranab Mukherjee
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Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee with United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton at Washington, D.C. in 2011
187.
President of India
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The President of the Republic of India is the Head of State of India and the Commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. The oath of the President is taken in the presence of the Chief Justice of India, the President resides in an estate known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan situated in Raisina Hill in New Delhi. The presidential retreats are The Retreat in Chharabra, Shimla and Rashtrapati Nilayam in Hyderabad, the 13th and current President is Pranab Mukherjee, who was elected on 22 July 2012, and sworn in on 25 July 2012. He is also the first Bengali to be elected as President, India achieved independence from the British on 15 August 1947, initially as a Dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations with George VI as king, represented in the country by a governor-general. Still, following this, the Constituent Assembly of India, under the leadership of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Constitution of India was eventually enacted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950, making India a republic. The offices of monarch and governor-general were replaced by the new office of President of India, the constitution of the Republic of India gave the President the responsibility and authority to defend and protect the constitution of India and its rule of law. Invariably, any action taken by the executive or legislature entities of the constitution shall become law only after Presidents assent, the president shall not accept any actions of the executive or legislature which are unconstitutional. The president is the foremost, most empowered and prompt defender of the constitution, the primary duty of the President is to preserve, protect and defend the constitution and the law of India as made part of his oath. The President is the head of all independent constitutional entities. All his actions, recommendations and supervisory powers over the executive and legislative entities of India shall be used in accordance to uphold the constitution, there is no bar on the actions of the President to contest in the court of law. Legislative power is vested by the Parliament of India of which the president is the head. The President of the Republic summons both the Houses of the Parliament and prorogues them and he can dissolve the Lok Sabha. The President inaugurates Parliament by addressing it after the general elections, the Presidential address on these occasions is generally meant to outline the new policies of the government. All bills passed by the Parliament can become laws only after receiving the assent of the President per Article 111, after a bill is presented to him, the President shall declare either that he assents to the Bill, or that he withholds his assent from it. As a third option, he can return a bill to Parliament, if it is not a money bill, when, after reconsideration, the bill is passed accordingly and presented to the President, with or without amendments, the President cannot withhold his assent from it. Article 143 gave power to the president to consult the Supreme Court about the validity of any issue. These are in the nature of interim or temporary legislation and their continuance is subject to parliamentary approval, ordinances remain valid for no more than six weeks from the date the Parliament is convened unless approved by it earlier. Re-promulgation of ordinances after failing to get approval within stipulated time of the houses of parliament is unconstitutional act by the President
President of India
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Incumbent Pranab Mukherjee since 25 July 2012
President of India
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Presidential Standard of India (1950-1971)
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Rashtrapati Bhavan, official residence of the President, located at New Delhi.
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Rashtrapati Nilayam is the official retreat of the President located in Hyderabad.
188.
Joko Widodo
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Joko Widodo is the seventh President of Indonesia, in office since 2014. Previously he was the Mayor of Surakarta from 2005 to 2012 and he is the first Indonesian president without a high-ranking political or military background. Jokowi was nominated by his party, the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle, Jokowi was elected as Governor of Jakarta on 20 September 2012 after a second round runoff election in which he defeated the incumbent governor Fauzi Bowo. Jokowis win was seen as reflecting popular voter support for new or clean leaders rather than the old style of politics in Indonesia. His nomination as PDI-P candidate for the 2014 presidential election was announced on 14 March 2014, the presidential election was held on 9 July 2014. After some controversy about the result of the election, Jokowi was named as president-elect on 22 July, Joko Widodo is of Javanese descent. Before changing his name, Jokowi was called Mulyono and his father came from Karanganyar, his grandparents came from a village in Boyolali. His education began in State Primary School 111, Tirtoyoso, known for being a school for the wealthy citizens. At the age of twelve, he started working in his fathers furniture workshop, the evictions he experienced three times in his childhood affected his way of thinking and his leadership later on as the mayor of Surakarta as he organised housing in the city. After primary school, he continued his studies in SMP Negeri 1 Surakarta and he had wanted to continue his education in SMA Negeri 1 Surakarta, but he failed the entrance exam and went to SMA Negeri 6 Surakarta instead. Joko Widodo graduated from Faculty of Forestry at Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta in 1985 to study, Jokowi began his tenure at a state-owned enterprise company called PT Kertas Kraft Aceh, but went home not long after due to his disinterest. He then began working for his grandfathers furniture factory, before establishing his own company called Rakabu, the companys fine product has its fame heard internationally, as they are also exported to the Western World. It was in France where his furniture product first start penertrating European market and this brought Widodo to a customer named Bernard, who gave him the nickname he is famous for, Jokowi. Ultimately he was inspired to become a politician so that he can transform his hometown, Surakarta, Jokowi ran for mayoral race in 2005 together with his running mate, F. X. Hadi Rudyatmo, winning 36. 62% of the vote against the incumbent Slamet Suryanto and 2 other candidates, when he first ran for the office of mayor of Surakarta, his background as a property and furniture businessman was questioned. He adopted the development framework of European cities into his own city of Surakarta, in 2007, Surakarta had also hosted the World Music Festival which was held at the complex of Fort Vastenburg. The FMD in 2008 was held in the Mangkunegaran Palace Complex, part of Jokowis personal style was his populist can-do elements designed to build bonds with the broad electorate. Following the electric company policy to pursue a more disciplined approach to collecting overdue bills, the city government quickly authorized payment but in settling the bill protested that it should consider the public interest before taking this type of action
Joko Widodo
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Joko Widodo
Joko Widodo
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Joko Widodo in his official portrait as Governor of Jakarta (2012)
Joko Widodo
Joko Widodo
189.
President of Indonesia
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The President of the Republic of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government of the Republic of Indonesia. The President leads the executive branch of the Indonesian government and is the commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, on 20 October 2014, Joko Widodo became the 7th and current President of Indonesia. The Indonesian presidency was established during the formulation of the 1945 Constitution by the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence, on 16 October 1945, Vice-President Mohammad Hatta announced a vice-presidential decree which turned the Central National Committee of Indonesia equal status with that of the president. On 11 November 1945, the KNIP made the decision to separate the role of Head of State with that of Head of Government, during the Indonesian National Revolution, both Sukarno and Hatta were captured by the Dutch in Yogyakarta on 18 December 1948. Sukarno then gave a mandate for Sjafruddin Prawiranegara to form an emergency Government and this was done and the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia was formed in Sumatra with Prawiranegara as its Chairman. Prawiranegara handed back his mandate to Sukarno on 13 July 1949, on 17 December 1949, Sukarno was elected president of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia and presidential mandate passed to Assaat. When it became clear that RIS was going to be replaced by a state, Asaat stepped down from the presidency. Indonesia now adopted the constitution that had been intended for RIS, officially known as the Provisional Constitution, the document confirmed the presidents role as the Head of State, but limited him to a mostly ceremonial role. He appointed a Prime Minister on the advice of formateurs, despite his limited constitutional role, Sukarno commanded great moral authority. Nonetheless, he was never content with the role of ceremonial Head of State, the rest of the decade saw a series of unstable governments. Taking advantage of the situation, Sukarno made a speech in April 1959, the People reacted enthusiastically and there was strong pressure on the Constituante, the body responsible for formulating a new constitution, to adopt the 1945 Constitution. When the Constituante did not budge, Sukarno issued a Presidential Decree on 5 July 1959 declaring that Indonesia was returning to the 1945 Constitution and that document made the president head of government as well as head of state. In 1963, Sukarno declared himself president for Life, although Indonesia had re-adopted the 1945 Constitution, it did not mean that it was strictly adhered to. The MPR, which at this stage was still on a basis, was subservient to the president despite its status of the Nations highest Governing Body. It was only in 1966, when the tide began to turn against Sukarno that the MPRS nominally regained its rightful constitutional status. All throughout his rise to power, General Suharto seemed determined to do things constitutionally, Suharto allowed the MPR to execute its constitutional duty of formulating the Broad Outlines of State Policy whilst he as the president would be responsible for implementing GBHN. Suharto also made it an obligation to deliver accountability speeches towards the end of his terms. During the speech, Suharto outlined the achievements that his administration had made, despite the constitutional and democratic façade, Suharto made sure that the MPR was also subservient to him
President of Indonesia
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Incumbent Joko Widodo since 20 October 2014
President of Indonesia
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Presidential Standard
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Sukarno, the first President of Indonesia
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Merdeka Palace, the official residence of the President of Indonesia
190.
Sergio Mattarella
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Sergio Mattarella, OMRI, OMCA is an Italian politician, lawyer and judge who is the 12th and current President of Italy since 2015. He was a member of Parliament from 1983 to 2008, serving as Minister of Education from 1989 to 1990, in 2011, he became an elected judge on the Constitutional Court. On 31 January 2015, he was elected by parliament to be the 12th President of the Italian Republic and he is the first Sicilian to have held the post. Sergio Mattarella was born in Palermo of a prominent Sicilian family, Sergio Mattarellas brother, Piersanti Mattarella, was also a Christian Democratic politician and President of Sicily from 1978 until his death in 1980, when he was killed by the Sicilian Mafia. During his youth, Sergio Mattarella was a member of Azione Cattolica, in 1964, he graduated in law at the Sapienza University of Rome, after a few years he started teaching Parliamentary procedure at the University of Palermo. Mattarella entered politics after the assassination of his brother Piersanti by the Mafia, in 1985 Mattarella helped the young lawyer Leoluca Orlando, who had worked alongside his brother Piersanti during his governorship of Sicily, to become the new Mayor of Palermo. In 1990 Mattarella was appointed Vice-Secretary of Christian Democracy and he left the post two years later to become director of Il Popolo, the official newspaper of the party. Following the Italian referendum of 1993 he drafted the new electoral law nicknamed Mattarellum, in the ensuing 1994 general election Martinazzoli was again elected to the Chamber of Deputies. Following Buttigliones appointment, Mattarella resigned as director of Il Popolo in opposition to this policy, Mattarella was one of the first supporters of the economist Romano Prodi at the head of the centre-left coalition known as The Olive Tree in the 1996 general election. After the electoral victory of the centre-left, Mattarella served as President of the PPIs parliamentary group, after the resignation of DAlema in 2000, Mattarella kept his position as Minister of Defence in the government of Giuliano Amato. In October 2000 the PPI joined with other centrist parties to form an alliance called The Daisy, on 5 October 2011 he was elected by the Italian Parliament with 572 votes to be a judge of the Constitutional Court. He was sworn in on 11 October 2011 and he served until he was sworn in as president of the Republic of Italy. Mattarella was officially endorsed by the Democratic Party, after his name was put forward by the Prime Minister Matteo Renzi, Mattarella replaced Giorgio Napolitano, who had served for nine years, the longest presidency in the history of the Italian Republic. His first statement as new President was, My thoughts go first, Mattarella stated that Europe and the world must be united to defeat whoever wants to drag us into a new age of terror. Candidates run for election in 100 multi-member constituencies with open lists, on 7 December 2016, Prime Minister Matteo Renzi announced his resignation, following the rejection of his proposals in the 2016 Italian constitutional referendum. On 11 December Mattarella appointed the incumbent Minister of Foreign Affairs Paolo Gentiloni as new head of the government and he was married to Marisa Chiazzese, daughter of Lauro Chiazzese, a professor of Roman law and rector of the University of Palermo. Parliamentary profile of Sergio Mattarella in the 15th term of the Italian Chamber of Deputies
Sergio Mattarella
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Sergio Mattarella OMRI OMI OML OSI OVV OMCA
Sergio Mattarella
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Mattarella with the U.S. Secretary of Defense William Cohen in March 2000.
Sergio Mattarella
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Sergio Mattarella with his predecessor, Giorgio Napolitano
191.
Vladimir Putin
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Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin is a Russian politician. Putin is the current President of the Russian Federation, holding the office since 7 May 2012 and he was Prime Minister from 1999 to 2000, President from 2000 to 2008, and again Prime Minister from 2008 to 2012. During his second term as Prime Minister, he was the Chairman of the ruling United Russia Party, born in Leningrad, Putin studied German in high school and speaks the language fluently. He studied Law at the Saint Petersburg State University, graduating in 1975, Putin was a KGB Foreign Intelligence Officer for 16 years, rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel before retiring in 1991 to enter politics in Saint Petersburg. He moved to Moscow in 1996 and joined President Boris Yeltsins administration, rising quickly through the ranks and becoming Acting President on 31 December 1999, when Yeltsin resigned. Putin won the subsequent 2000 Presidential election by a 53% to 30% margin, thus avoiding a runoff with his Communist Party of the Russian Federation opponent and he was re-elected President in 2004 with 72% of the vote. During Putins first presidency, the Russian economy grew for eight straight years, the growth was a result of the 2000s commodities boom, high oil prices, and prudent economic and fiscal policies. Because of constitutionally mandated term limits, Putin was ineligible to run for a third presidential term in 2008. The 2008 Presidential election was won by Dmitry Medvedev, who appointed Putin Prime Minister, in September 2011, after presidential terms were extended from four to six years, Putin announced he would seek a third term as president. He won the March 2012 Presidential election with 64% of the vote, Putin has enjoyed high domestic approval ratings during his career, and received extensive international attention as one of the worlds most powerful leaders. In 2007, he was the Time Person of the Year, in 2015, he was #1 on the Times Most Influential People List. Forbes ranked him the Worlds Most Powerful Individual every year from 2013 to 2016, Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin was born on 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, the youngest of three children of Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin and Maria Ivanovna Putina. His birth was preceded by the death of two brothers, Viktor and Albert, born in the mid-1930s, Albert died in infancy and Viktor died of diphtheria during the Siege of Leningrad. Putins mother was a worker and his father was a conscript in the Soviet Navy. Early in World War II, his father served in the battalion of the NKVD. Later, he was transferred to the army and was severely wounded in 1942. On 1 September 1960, Putin started at School No.193 at Baskov Lane and he was one of a few in the class of approximately 45 pupils who was not yet a member of the Young Pioneer organization. At age 12, he began to practice sambo and judo and he wished to emulate the intelligence officers portrayed in Soviet cinema
Vladimir Putin
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Vladimir Putin Владимир Путин
Vladimir Putin
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Putin's father, Vladimir Spiridonovich Putin
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Maria Ivanovna Shelomova, the mother of Vladimir Putin.
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Putin with his mother, Maria Ivanovna, in July 1958
192.
President of Russia
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The President of the Russian Federation is the elected head of state, Supreme Commander-in-Chief and holder of the highest office within the Russian Federation. The current President of Russia is Vladimir Putin, in 1991, the office was briefly known as the President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic until 25 December 1991. According to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the President of Russia was head of the executive branch, according to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the President of Russia is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power. In all cases where the President of the Russian Federation is unable to fulfill his duties, they shall be temporarily delegated to the Prime Minister, the Chairman of the Federation Council is the third important position after the President and the Prime Minister. In the case of incapacity of both the President and Prime Minister, the chairman of the house of parliament becomes acting head of state. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Federation, the president is elected directly through a popular vote to a six-year term. The law prohibits anyone from ever being elected to the presidency for a consecutive term. In all,3 individuals have served 4 presidencies spanning 6 full terms, on May 7,2012, Vladimir Putin became the 4th and current president. A candidate for office must be a citizen of the Russian Federation who is at least 35 years old and has resided in Russia for at least 10 years. The Constitution of Russia limits the election of one person to the Presidency to two consecutive terms, since the constitution contains no ruling on a total number of terms that a President may serve, a former president may seek re-election after sitting out one complete term. The election of the President is mainly regulated by the Presidential Election Law, the Federation Council calls the presidential elections. If it does not call an election that is due. The Election Day is the second Sunday of the month and the electoral constituency is the territory of the Russian Federation as a whole. Each faction in the State Duma, the house of the Russian parliament has the right to nominate a candidate for the presidential elections. The minimum number of signatures for a presidential candidate fielded by a party with no parliamentary representation is 100,000. Terms were extended from four to six years in 2008, during Dmitry Medvedevs administration, the President is elected in a two-round system every six years, with a two consecutive term limitation. If no candidate wins by an majority in the first round
President of Russia
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Incumbent Vladimir Putin since 7 May 2012
President of Russia
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Standard of the President of the Russian Federation
President of Russia
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Chain of office
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Vladimir Putin takes the Presidential Oath while placing his right hand on the Presidential copy of the Russian Constitution.
193.
King of Saudi Arabia
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The King of Saudi Arabia is Saudi Arabias head of state and absolute monarch. He serves as the head of the Saudi monarchy — House of Saud, the King is called the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The title, which signifies Saudi Arabias jurisdiction over the mosques of Masjid al Haram in Mecca and Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, King Abdulaziz began conquering todays Saudi Arabia in 1902, by restoring his family as emirs of Riyadh. He then proceeded to conquer first the Nejd and then the Hejaz and he progressed from Sultan of Nejd, to King of Hejaz and Nejd, and finally to King of Saudi Arabia in 1932. The kings since Ibn Sauds death have all been his sons, sons of Ibn Saud are considered to have primary claim on the throne of Saudi Arabia. This makes the Saudi monarchy quite distinct from Western monarchies, which feature large, clearly defined royal families. The current Crown Prince is the first grandson of Ibn Saud to be in the line of succession, Saudi Arabia is ruled by Islamic law and purports to be an Islamic state, but many Muslims see a hereditary monarchy as being a discouraged system of government in Islam. The King of Saudi Arabia is also considered the Head of the House of Saud, the Crown Prince is also the Deputy Prime Minister. The kings after Faisal have named a second Deputy Prime Minister as the subsequent heir after the Crown Prince. Crown Prince Muhammad bin Nayef, born 30 August 1959, son of Nayef bin Abdulaziz and Al Jawhara bint Abdulaziz bin Musaed bin Jiluwi Al Saud, Grandson of Ibn Saud and Hassa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. Deputy Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman, born 31 August 1985, son of King Salman, the Royal Standard consists of a green flag, with an Arabic inscription and a sword featured in white, and with the national emblem embroidered in gold in the lower right canton. The script on the flag is written in the Thuluth script, Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia Succession to the Saudi Arabian throne List of rulers of Saudi Arabia
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King of Saudi Arabia
King of Saudi Arabia
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Emblem of Saudi Arabia
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Ibn Saud
King of Saudi Arabia
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سعود
194.
Jacob Zuma
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Jacob Gedleyihlekisa Zuma, GCB is the President of South Africa, elected by parliament following his partys victory in the 2009 general election. He was re-elected in the 2014 election, Zuma is the President of the African National Congress, the governing political party, and was Deputy President of South Africa from 1999 to 2005. Zuma is also referred to by his initials JZ and his clan name Msholozi, Zuma became the President of the ANC on 18 December 2007 after defeating incumbent Thabo Mbeki at the ANC conference in Polokwane. He was re-elected as ANC leader at the ANC conference in Mangaung on 18 December 2012, Zuma was also a member of the South African Communist Party, briefly serving on the partys Politburo until he left the party in 1990. On 20 September 2008, Thabo Mbeki announced his resignation after being recalled by the African National Congresss National Executive Committee, Zuma has faced significant legal challenges. He was charged with rape in 2005, but was acquitted and he fought a long legal battle over allegations of racketeering and corruption, resulting from his financial advisor Schabir Shaiks conviction for corruption and fraud. Zuma was born in Nkandla, Natal Province and his father was a policeman who died when Zuma was young, and his mother was a domestic worker. As a child, Zuma constantly moved around Natal Province and the suburbs of Durban in the area of Umkhumbane and he has two brothers, Michael and Joseph. Zuma began engaging in politics at an age and joined the African National Congress in 1959. He became a member of Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1962. Zuma joined the South African Communist Party in 1963 and that year, he was arrested with a group of 45 recruits near Zeerust in the western Transvaal, currently part of the North West Province. Whilst imprisoned, Zuma served as a referee for prisoners association football games, organised by the prisoners own governing body, after his release from prison, Zuma was instrumental in the re-establishment of ANC underground structures in the Natal province. During this time Zuma joined the African National Congress Department of Intelligence where he became the departments Head of Intelligence. Zuma first left South Africa in 1975 and met Thabo Mbeki in Swaziland, and proceeded to Mozambique, Zuma became a member of the ANC National Executive Committee in 1977. He also served as Deputy Chief Representative of the ANC in Mozambique, after signing the Accord, he was appointed as Chief Representative of the ANC. He served on the ANCs political and military council when it was formed in the mid-1980s, in December 1986, the South African government requested Mozambican authorities expel six senior members of the ANC including Jacob Zuma. As a result of the pressure applied by the government on Mozambique, in January 1987. He moved to the ANC Head Office in Lusaka, Zambia, following the end of the ban on the ANC in February 1990, Zuma was one of the first ANC leaders to return to South Africa to begin the process of negotiations
Jacob Zuma
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His Excellency Jacob Zuma
Jacob Zuma
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President Zuma and one of his wives with Barack Obama and Michelle Obama in New York, 2009
Jacob Zuma
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Argentinean President Cristina Fernández and South African President Zuma in discussion
Jacob Zuma
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Obama, Cameron, and Zuma talking at the African Outreach session.
195.
President of South Africa
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The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa. From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President, the role was founded to be distinct from the now defunct role of prime minister, but the two roles were merged in the 1983 constitution which specified a four-year term of office. The 1993 and later constitutions limits the time in office to two five-year terms. The first President to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela, under the interim constitution, there was a Government of National Unity, in which a Member of Parliament from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as Deputy President. But De Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party, a voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution, although there have been no appointments of opposition politicians to the post of Deputy President. The President is required to be a member of the National Assembly at the time of his election, upon his election, he immediately resigns his seat for the duration of his term. The President may be removed either by a motion of no-confidence or an impeachment trial, a number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today, alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War. The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910, upon the declaration of South Africa as a republic on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created. It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister, South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa rather than by the people directly and he is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party. The president is elected at the first sitting of parliament after an election, the president is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election, once elected, a person is no longer a member of the national assembly. They must then be sworn in as president within five days of the election, should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs. The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner, only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in a way, with an elected prime minister. Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, the presidential term is five years, with a limit of two consecutive terms. Thus the electoral system attempts to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries
President of South Africa
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Incumbent Jacob Zuma since 9 May 2009
President of South Africa
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Seal of the President of South Africa
President of South Africa
President of South Africa
196.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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Queen of the United Kingdom
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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Royal coat of arms
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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The English Bill of Rights of 1689 curtailed the monarch's governmental power.
Monarchy of the United Kingdom
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The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Norman Conquest of 1066.
197.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012
198.
National Library of Australia
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In 2012–2013, the National Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, and an additional 15,506 metres of manuscript material. In 1901, a Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was established to serve the newly formed Federal Parliament of Australia, from its inception the Commonwealth Parliamentary Library was driven to development of a truly national collection. The present library building was opened in 1968, the building was designed by the architectural firm of Bunning and Madden. The foyer is decorated in marble, with windows by Leonard French. In 2012–2013 the Library collection comprised 6,496,772 items, the Librarys collections of Australiana have developed into the nations single most important resource of materials recording the Australian cultural heritage. Australian writers, editors and illustrators are actively sought and well represented—whether published in Australia or overseas, approximately 92. 1% of the Librarys collection has been catalogued and is discoverable through the online catalogue. The Library has digitized over 174,000 items from its collection and, the Library is a world leader in digital preservation techniques, and maintains an Internet-accessible archive of selected Australian websites called the Pandora Archive. A core Australiana collection is that of John A. Ferguson, the Library has particular collection strengths in the performing arts, including dance. The Librarys considerable collections of general overseas and rare materials, as well as world-class Asian. The print collections are further supported by extensive microform holdings, the Library also maintains the National Reserve Braille Collection. The Library has acquired a number of important Western and Asian language scholarly collections from researchers, williams Collection The Asian Collections are searchable via the National Librarys catalogue. The National Library holds a collection of pictures and manuscripts. The manuscript collection contains about 26 million separate items, covering in excess of 10,492 meters of shelf space, the collection relates predominantly to Australia, but there are also important holdings relating to Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Pacific. The collection also holds a number of European and Asian manuscript collections or single items have received as part of formed book collections. Examples are the papers of Alfred Deakin, Sir John Latham, Sir Keith Murdoch, Sir Hans Heysen, Sir John Monash, Vance Palmer and Nettie Palmer, A. D. Hope, Manning Clark, David Williamson, W. M. The Library has also acquired the records of many national non-governmental organisations and they include the records of the Federal Secretariats of the Liberal party, the A. L. P, the Democrats, the R. S. L. Finally, the Library holds about 37,000 reels of microfilm of manuscripts and archival records, mostly acquired overseas and predominantly of Australian, the National Librarys Pictures collection focuses on Australian people, places and events, from European exploration of the South Pacific to contemporary events. Art works and photographs are acquired primarily for their informational value, media represented in the collection include photographs, drawings, watercolours, oils, lithographs, engravings, etchings and sculpture/busts
National Library of Australia
National Library of Australia
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National Library of Australia as viewed from Lake Burley Griffin, Canberra
National Library of Australia
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The original National Library building on Kings Avenue, Canberra, was designed by Edward Henderson. Originally intended to be several wings, only one wing was completed and was demolished in 1968. Now the site of the Edmund Barton Building.
National Library of Australia
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The library seen from Lake Burley Griffin in autumn.
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National Library of the Czech Republic
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The National Library of the Czech Republic is the central library of the Czech Republic. It is directed by the Ministry of Culture, the librarys main building is located in the historical Clementinum building in Prague, where approximately half of its books are kept. The other half of the collection is stored in the district of Hostivař, the National Library is the biggest library in the Czech Republic, in its funds there are around 6 million documents. The library has around 60,000 registered readers, as well as Czech texts, the library also stores older material from Turkey, Iran and India. The library also houses books for Charles University in Prague, the library won international recognition in 2005 as it received the inaugural Jikji Prize from UNESCO via the Memory of the World Programme for its efforts in digitising old texts. The project, which commenced in 1992, involved the digitisation of 1,700 documents in its first 13 years, the most precious medieval manuscripts preserved in the National Library are the Codex Vyssegradensis and the Passional of Abbes Kunigunde. In 2006 the Czech parliament approved funding for the construction of a new building on Letna plain. In March 2007, following a request for tender, Czech architect Jan Kaplický was selected by a jury to undertake the project, later in 2007 the project was delayed following objections regarding its proposed location from government officials including Prague Mayor Pavel Bém and President Václav Klaus. Later in 2008, Minister of Culture Václav Jehlička announced the end of the project, the library was affected by the 2002 European floods, with some documents moved to upper levels to avoid the excess water. Over 4,000 books were removed from the library in July 2011 following flooding in parts of the main building, there was a fire at the library in December 2012, but nobody was injured in the event. List of national and state libraries Official website
National Library of the Czech Republic
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Baroque library hall in the National Library of the Czech Republic
National Library of the Czech Republic
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General reading room (former refectory of the Jesuit residence in Clementinum)
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Akihito
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Akihito is the reigning Emperor of Japan. He is the 125th emperor of his line according to Japans traditional order of succession, Akihito succeeded his father Shōwa and acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne on 7 January 1989. There has been ongoing coverage of his possible abdication due to age,31 December 2018 and 1 January 2019 has been mentioned as possible dates of such abdication. In Japan, the Emperor is never referred to by his given name, in writing, the Emperor is also referred to formally as The Reigning Emperor. The Era of Akihitos reign bears the name Heisei, and according to custom he will be renamed Emperor Heisei by order of the Cabinet after his death, at the same time, the name of the next era under his successor will also be established. Akihito was born in the Tokyo Imperial Palace, Tokyo City, Japan, and is the elder son and the fifth child of the Emperor Shōwa and Empress Kōjun. Titled Prince Tsugu as a child, he was raised and educated by his private tutors, unlike his predecessors in the Imperial family, he did not receive a commission as an army officer, at the request of his father, Hirohito. During the American firebombing raids on Tokyo in March 1945, Akihito and his younger brother, during the American occupation of Japan following World War II, Prince Akihito was tutored in the English language and Western manners by Elizabeth Gray Vining. He briefly studied at the Department of Political Science at Gakushuin University in Tokyo, Akihito was heir-apparent to the Chrysanthemum Throne from the moment of his birth. His formal Investiture as Crown Prince was held at the Tokyo Imperial Palace on 10 November 1952, in June 1953 Akihito represented Japan at the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London. Crown Prince Akihito and Crown Princess Michiko made official visits to thirty-seven countries, upon the death of Emperor Hirohito on 7 January 1989, his eldest son the Crown Prince Akihito succeeded to the throne, with an enthronement ceremony taking place on 12 November 1990. In 1998, during a visit to the United Kingdom. Emperor Akihito underwent surgery for cancer on 14 January 2003. Since succeeding to the throne, Emperor Akihito has made an effort to bring the Imperial family closer to the Japanese people, the Emperor and Empress of Japan have made official visits to eighteen countries and to all forty-seven Prefectures of Japan. The Emperor and Empress also made a visit on Wednesday,30 March 2011 to a temporary shelter housing refugees of the disaster and this kind of event is also extremely rare, though in line with the Emperors attempts to bring the Imperial family closer to the people. Later in 2011 he was admitted to suffering from pneumonia. In February 2012 it was announced that the Emperor would be having a coronary examination, however, senior officials within the Imperial Household Agency have denied that there is any official plan for the monarch to abdicate. A potential abdication by the Emperor would require an amendment to the Imperial Household Act, on 8 August 2016, the Emperor gave a rare televised address, where he emphasized his advanced age and declining health, this address is interpreted as an implication of his intention to abdicate
Akihito
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Emperor Akihito 明仁 (今上天皇)
Akihito
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The newly married Crown Prince and Crown Princess in Japanese traditional attire, with the Prince wearing a sokutai, the Princess a jūnihitoe
Akihito
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Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko of Japan on 28 June 2005
Akihito
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Crown Prince Akihito on his wedding day, 10 April 1959
English pronunciation (help·info)) is the reigning Emperor of Japan. He is the 125th emperor of his line according to Japan's traditional order of succession. Akihito succeeded his father Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) and acceded to the Chrysanthemum Throne on 7 January 1989. There has been ongoing coverage of his possible abdication due to age and health issues; 31 December 2018 and 1 January 2019 have been mentioned as possible dates of abdication.[1]
Collar and Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum
Grand Cordon of The Order of the Rising Sun with the Paulownia Blossoms (renamed Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers from 2003)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure
Order of Culture
The Golden Medal of Merit of the Japanese Red Cross
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