1.
51st New Zealand Parliament
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The 51st New Zealand Parliament was elected at the 2014 general election. This Parliament consists of 121 members and will be in place from September 2014 until the New Zealand general election,2017, following the final vote count John Key was able to continue to lead the Fifth National Government. The Parliament was elected using a proportional representation voting system. Members of Parliament represent 71 geographical electorates,16 in the South Island,48 in the North Island and 7 Māori electorates, the remaining members were elected from party lists using the Sainte-Laguë method to realise proportionality. The number of electorates was increased from 70 at the previous election. The Representation Commission is tasked with reviewing electorate boundaries every five years following each New Zealand census, the last review was undertaken in 2007 following the 2006 census, and the electorate boundaries determined then were used in both the 2008 and 2011 general elections. The next census was scheduled for 8 March 2011, but it was postponed due to the disruption caused by the 2011 Christchurch earthquake on 22 February. The boundaries were based on population distribution and the Māori electoral option. At the 2011 election, there were 47 North Island general electorates and seven Māori electorates, following significant consultation final boundaries were released by the Representation Commission on 17 April 2014. The 2014 general election was conducted under these boundaries on 20 September 2014, the increase in population in the Auckland region as recorded in the 2013 census meant an extra electorate was required to keep all electorates within five percent of their quota. Boundaries within Christchurch changed substantially, with several electorates growing and decreasing due to population movement around the city since the 2010–11 Christchurch earthquakes. In particular a dramatic change was seen in the electorates of Christchurch East, Christchurch Central and Port Hills with lesser changes in Selwyn, Wigram, the tables below show the members of the 51st Parliament based on preliminary counts of the 2014 general election. The National Party won 47. 04% of the vote, entitling it to 60 seats, as it won 41 electorates, an additional 19 members were taken from the party list. After the resignation of Northland MP Mike Sabin a by-election was held, the partys share of seats was reduced to 59. 15 new National Party members were elected, nine from electorates,45 members from the 50th Parliament were returned. The Labour Party won 25. 13% of the vote, entitling it to 32 seats, as it won 27 electorates, an additional 5 members were taken from the party list. After the resignation of David Shearer in 2017, the share of seats was reduced to 31 until Raymond Huo was sworn in in March 2017. Three new Labour Party members were elected from the list,29 members from the 50th Parliament were returned
51st New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
2.
Unicameral
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In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015
Unicameral
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Nations with bicameral legislatures.
3.
Monarchy of New Zealand
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The Crown is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the New Zealand government, which is a Westminster-style parliamentary democracy. Most of the powers are exercised by the elected parliamentarians, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them. The New Zealand monarchy has its roots in the British Crown, from which it has evolved to become a distinctly New Zealand institution, however, the Queen is the only member of the Royal Family with any constitutional role. New Zealand shares the same monarch with the other 15 monarchies in the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations, supports of the monarchy argue it costs New Zealand taxpayers only a small outlay for royal engagements and tours and the expenses of the governor-generals establishment. Monarchy New Zealand states his figure is one dollar per person per year. Thus, New Zealands line of succession remains identical to that of the United Kingdom, as such, the rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by a constitutional amendment. The Constitution Act 1986 specifies that should a regent be installed in the United Kingdom, upon a demise of the Crown, the late sovereigns heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony—hence arises the phrase The King is dead. It is customary, though, for the accession of the new monarch to be proclaimed by the governor-general on behalf of the Executive Council of New Zealand. Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she continues to reign until death. One of the first post-Second World War examples of New Zealands status as an independent monarchy was the alteration of the title by the Royal Titles Act 1953. This is one of the key differences from the Queens role in England and this is done in reciprocation to the sovereigns Coronation Oath, wherein he or she promises to govern the Peoples of. According to their laws and customs. Though this power stems from the people, all New Zealanders live under the authority of the monarch, the government of New Zealand is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her Executive Council. In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the advice tendered is typically binding, meaning the monarch reigns. The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs, the sovereign or the governor-general conducts treaties, alliances, the governor-general, on behalf of the Queen, also accredits New Zealand high commissioners and ambassadors, and receives similar diplomats from foreign states. In addition, the issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative, the Crown is further responsible for summoning, proroguing, and dissolving the House of Representatives, after which the governor-general usually calls for a general election. The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all her subjects, however, she does not personally rule in judicial cases, instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the Queens name by Officers of Her Majestys Court
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Queen of New Zealand
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Coat of arms of New Zealand
Monarchy of New Zealand
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Charles, Prince of Wales, is the heir apparent to the New Zealand throne
Monarchy of New Zealand
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The ministers of the Fifth Labour Government with then Governor-General Dame Silvia Cartwright, 20 October 2005
4.
Governor-General of New Zealand
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The Governor-General of New Zealand is the viceregal representative of the monarch of New Zealand, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The office is mandated by letters patent and the officeholder is formally titled the Governor-General, when travelling abroad, the governor-general is seen as the representative of New Zealand, and of the Queen of New Zealand. For this reason, the governor-general is viewed by some as the de facto head of state, under the Niue Constitution Act, the governor-general also represents the monarch in Niue. The governor-general initially represented the British monarch and the government of the United Kingdom, therefore, many officeholders have been British statesmen. In 1972, Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office, governors-general are not appointed for a specific term, but are generally expected to serve for five years. The current Governor-General is Dame Patsy Reddy, who has served since 28 September 2016, administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Appointment to the Office is made by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister of New Zealand, the Prime Ministers advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet, although there is no requirement for this. The appointment of Anand Satyanand met with the approval of every leader in the House of Representatives, by convention the Leader of the Opposition is also consulted on the appointment, however this too has not always been the case. This suggestion was in turn criticised by the Government, as Sir Edmund had backed Labour in 1975 as part of the Citizens for Rowling campaign, however, the right granted by the convention was not exercised directly by a New Zealand Prime Minister until 1967. Although non-partisan while in office, there have been a number of appointments of Governors-General to the office that have attracted considerable controversy, despite their political backgrounds, neither of these appointments could be said to have discharged their duties in a partisan way. There has often been speculation that a member of the Royal Family might take up the position, before the Governor-General enters office, his or her commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the Chief Justice of New Zealand and the members of the Executive Council. The Governor-General must take the Oath of Allegiance and the oath for the due execution of the office, from time to time, there have been proposals to elect the Governor-General. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained provision for the Governor to be elected by New Zealands Parliament. This provision was removed from the enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealands colonial government. In 1887 Sir George Grey, by then also a former Premier, the Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson. In 2006 political commentator Colin James suggested that the Governor-General could be elected by a 60% majority of votes cast in Parliament, James argued that the New Zealand public should be given the ability to choose the Queens representative, and that the current system is undemocratic and not transparent. National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, the Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable. The Governor-General holds office at the pleasure of the Queen, under clause II of the Letters Patent
Governor-General of New Zealand
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Incumbent Lieutenant General Sir Jerry Mateparae GNZM, QSO since 31 August 2011
Governor-General of New Zealand
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Flag of the Governor-General
Governor-General of New Zealand
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Government House, Wellington, the primary residence of the Governor-General.
Governor-General of New Zealand
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The official vehicle of Government House in 2010, a Jaguar XJ8. During official travel it is the only vehicle in the country not required to use standard number plates.
5.
New Zealand National Party
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The New Zealand National Party is a centre-right political party in New Zealand. It is one of two parties in contemporary New Zealand politics, alongside its historic rival, the New Zealand Labour Party. The party originated in 1936 with the merger of the United and Reform parties, National is the nations second-oldest extant political party. National governed for four periods in the course of the 20th century and it has favoured economic liberal policies since the 1990s. Since November 2008, National has been the largest party in minority governments with support from the centrist United Future, the liberal ACT Party, Bill English has been the party leader and Prime Minister of New Zealand since 12 December 2016. The New Zealand National Party has been characterised as conservative and liberal, with outlying populist, the partys principles, last revised in 2003, seek a safe, prosperous and successful New Zealand that creates opportunities for all New Zealanders to reach their personal goals and dreams. It supports a limited welfare state but says that work, merit, innovation and personal initiative must be encouraged to reduce unemployment, historically, the party has supported a higher degree of protectionism and interventionism than it has in recent decades. The last major interventionist policy was Prime Minister Robert Muldoons massive infrastructure projects designed to ensure New Zealands energy independence after the 1973 oil shock, Think Big. The Fourth National Government mostly carried on the sweeping reforms of the Fourth Labour Government known as Rogernomics. Following a moderate Fifth Labour Government, the Fifth National Government of New Zealand took power in 2008 under John Key. For instance they extended free general practitioner visits to children under 13 as part of their 2014 election package, in the most recent general election, in 2014, the National Party ran a campaign focusing on stability. They promised to limit new spending every year, to not introduce any new taxes and they also campaigned on the possibility of moderate tax cuts within the next few years and are generally in favour of free-trade agreements such as the Trans-Pacific Partnership. The National Party was formed in May 1936, but its roots go further back. The party came about as the result of a merger between the United Party and the Reform Party, historically, the Liberal and Reform parties had competed against each other, but from 1931 until 1935 a United-Reform Coalition held power in New Zealand. The coalition went into the 1935 election under the title of the National Political Federation, the two parties were cut down to 19 seats between them. Another factor was a party, the Democrat Party formed by Albert Davy. The new party split the vote and aided Labours victory. In hopes of countering Labours rise, United and Reform decided to turn their alliance into a single party and this party, the New Zealand National Party, was formed at a meeting held in Wellington on 13 and 14 May 1936
New Zealand National Party
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Sidney Holland was the first National Prime Minister, 1949–1957.
New Zealand National Party
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Keith Holyoake, Prime Minister 1957 and 1960–1972.
New Zealand National Party
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Sir Robert Muldoon, Prime Minister 1975–1984
New Zealand National Party
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Jim Bolger, Prime Minister 1990–1997.
6.
United Future
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United Future New Zealand, usually known as United Future, is a centrist political party in New Zealand. The result of the 2014 general election was much the same for United Future, the Party has been in government since 2005 under Labour and then National. United Future was formed from the merger of liberal centrist party United New Zealand, United, formed as a centrist party by a group of moderate Labour and National MPs, held one seat in parliament—that of Dunne. United Futures first party president, Inky Tulloch, stated that United Future isnt a Christian party – its a party that has a lot of Christians in it. Tulloch said that the principles of family, of common sense, of looking after one another, of compassion. Support for United Future, which was growing in early 2002, was boosted further by Peter Dunnes strong television debating performance. United Future made a showing in the 2002 election, taking 6.7 percent of the vote and eight seats, Dunnes electorate seat of Ohariu-Belmont. After 2002 United Future in its law reform proposals took to heart the trauma. In December 2004, United Future MPs exercised their individual votes to oppose a Bill to enable civil unions. This provided an alternative to marriage for couples and to opposite-sex couples who choose not to marry. A civil union provides a couple with most of the rights as married couples. However, Peter Dunne and Judy Turner both supported a companion Bill to give recognition to civil unions. In mid-2004 United Future announced that it would contest the 2005 general election in partnership with Outdoor Recreation New Zealand, a month before the September 2005 election, list MP Paul Adams quit the party to stand as an independent in the East Coast Bays electorate. His daughter Sharee Adams, also on the United Future List, in the 2005 election, United Future had the support of the WIN Party, which was set up to fight the ban on smoking in bars and restaurants. WINs leader, John van Buren, was United Futures candidate for Christchurch Central and this further spoke of alliances still to come. In this election, support plummeted to 2. 8% and the party won three seats. Peter Dunne retained Ohariu-Belmont, and Gordon Copeland and Judy Turner were returned on its party list, United Future had tried to distance itself from its more assertive fundamentalist list MPs, such as Adams, Larry Baldock and Murray Smith. As Election New Zealand data revealed that the Outdoor Recreation Party still provided about 1% of the vote,4. 8% of the vote had gone elsewhere
United Future
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For other uses, see United Future (disambiguation).
7.
New Zealand Labour Party
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The New Zealand Labour Party, or simply Labour, is a centre-left political party in New Zealand. With its historic rival, the New Zealand National Party, Labour has dominated New Zealand governments since the 1930s, Labour currently promotes a social-democratic platform. It is a participant of the international Progressive Alliance, the New Zealand Labour Party was formed in 1916 by various socialist parties and trade unions. It is thus the countrys oldest political party still in existence, there have been five Labour governments. The party was first in power from 1935 and 1949, when it established New Zealands welfare state and it governed most recently from 1999 to 2008 with Helen Clark as party leader and Prime Minister. Since the partys defeat in the 2008 general election, Labour has comprised the second-largest caucus represented in the New Zealand Parliament, on 18 November 2014 Andrew Little was confirmed outside of Parliament and in a press conference as the new Labour leader. Labours 1916 policy objectives called for the socialisation of the means of production, distribution and exchange, up to the 1980s Labour remained a party that believed in a strong role for governments in economic and social matters. However, it had transformed from a trade union-dominated, socialist-oriented movement to a moderate social-democratic party. The Labour Government of the 1980s deviated sharply from a social-democratic path, in a series of economic reforms dubbed Rogernomics, the Government removed a swathe of regulations and subsidies, privatised state assets and introduced corporate practices to state services. Equal access to all social, economic, cultural, political and legal spheres, co-operation as the main governing factor in economic relations, to ensure a just distribution of wealth. Universal rights to dignity, self-respect and the opportunity to work, the right to wealth and property, subject to the provisos of regarding people as always more important than property and the obligations of the state to ensure a just distribution of wealth. The Treaty of Waitangi as the document of New Zealand, and its honouring in the Party, government, society. The promotion of peace and social justice throughout the world by international co-operation, Equality in human rights regardless of race, sex, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity, age, religious faith, political belief or disability. Its origins lie in the British working class movement, heavily influenced by Australian radicalism and it is the oldest surviving New Zealand political party. The New Zealand Labour Party was an amalgamation of a number of early groups, the process of unifying these diverse groups into a single party was difficult, with tensions between different factions running strong. At the turn of the century, the side of New Zealand working class politics was represented by the Socialist Party. The more moderate leftists were generally supporters of the Liberal Party and this established the basic dividing line in New Zealands left-wing politics – the Socialists tended to be revolutionary and militant, while the moderates focused instead on progressive reform. In 1910, the Independent Political Labour League was relaunched as a called the Labour Party
New Zealand Labour Party
New Zealand Labour Party
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New Zealand Labour Party Rōpū Reipa o Aotearoa
New Zealand Labour Party
New Zealand Labour Party
8.
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
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The Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand is a left-wing political party in New Zealand. Like many Green parties around the world it has four pillars, ecology, social responsibility, grassroots democracy and it is a member of the Global Greens. The party has both a male and female co-leader, currently Metiria Turei and James Shaw, the male co-leader position was vacant following the November 2005 death of Rod Donald until the 2006 annual general meeting when Russel Norman was elected using the alternative vote system. Following former female co-leader Jeanette Fitzsimonss decision to step down in February 2009, Shaw was elected at the Partys 2015 AGM over fellow MPs Gareth Hughes and Kevin Hague, and Party member Vernon Tava. In the 2014 general election, the Green Partys share of the party vote fell slightly to 10. 70% from 11. 06% in 2011 and it is the third largest political party in the House of Representatives with 14 seats. In addition, the Green Party contests Auckland Council elections under the City Vision banner, in concert with the Labour Party, the Greens place particular emphasis on environmental issues. In recent times, they have expressed concerns about mining of national parks, fresh water, climate change, peak oil and they have also spoken out in support of human rights, and against the military operations conducted by the United States and other countries in Afghanistan and Iraq. In its economic policies, the Green Party stresses factors such as sustainability, taxing the indirect costs of pollution and it also states that measuring economic success should concentrate on measuring well-being rather than analysing economic indicators. The party has said if it forms a government in the 2017 election it will legalise cannabis. Under its proposal, people would be able to legally grow, the party would also urgently amend the law so sick people using medicinal marijuana were not penalised. This world is finite, therefore unlimited material growth is impossible, social responsibility, Unlimited material growth is impossible. Therefore the key to social responsibility is the just distribution of social and natural resources, appropriate decision-making, For the implementation of ecological wisdom and social responsibility, decisions will be made directly at the appropriate level by those affected. Non-violence, Non-violent conflict resolution is the process by which ecological wisdom, social responsibility and this principle applies at all levels. The Executive is the administrative body, responsible for the day to day overall administration of the party, instructed by and answerable to the membership, provinces. A province is a collection of branches which has sufficient sense of common identity defined by geographical boundaries. Branches are a collection of members with a geographical area of responsibility. There are a number of identity or interest-based networks across the party, the Values Party originated in 1972 at Victoria University of Wellington. While it gained a measure of support in several elections
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
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Former Green Party co-leader Jeanette Fitzsimons
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
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Former Green Party co-leader Rod Donald.
Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand
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Current co-leader James Shaw.
9.
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
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The New Zealand Parliament Buildings house the New Zealand Parliament and are on a 45,000 square metre site at the northern end of Lambton Quay, Wellington. They consist of Parliament House, the wing, the Parliamentary Library. Whilst most of the buildings are outstanding for different reasons. The main building of the complex is Parliament House, containing the debating chamber, Speakers office, visitors centre, an earlier wooden Parliament House was destroyed by fire in 1907 along with all other parliament buildings except the library, which was constructed of masonry. In addition, the library had an iron fire-door that saved its collections, a competition to find a replacement design was announced by Prime Minister Joseph Ward in February 1911 and 33 designs were entered. The winning design, by Government Architect John Campbell, was selected by Colonel Vernon, as another of Campbells entries won fourth place, the actual design is a combination of both entries. The design was divided into two stages, the first half, a Neoclassical building, contained both chambers and the second half Bellamys and a new Gothic Revival library to replace the existing one. Despite cost concerns, Prime Minister William Massey let construction of the first stage begin in 1914, the outbreak of World War I created labour and material shortages that made construction difficult. Although the building was unfinished, MPs moved into it in 1918 to avoid having to use the old, in 1922, the first stage was completed. The building was officially opened in 1995 by Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of New Zealand, after its comprehensive strengthening. The intention of the Liberal Government was for the design to be implemented in stages, the land intended for the second stage of Parliament House is occupied by the Executive Wing. This building conceived by British architect Sir Basil Spence in 1964, largely designed by the Ministry of Works, was opened by Elizabeth II. The government moved into the building in 1979, due to its distinctive shape, it is referred to colloquially as The Beehive. The building is ten stories and 72 metres high, the top floor is occupied by the Cabinet room, with the Prime Ministers offices on the floor immediately below. Other floors contain the office of ministers and various function rooms occupy the first three floors. In the late 1990s there was consideration of moving the Beehive behind Parliament House, the plan was quickly scuttled due to a lack of public support and subsequent withdrawal of party support. Completed in 1899, the Parliamentary Library is the oldest of the buildings and it stands to the north of Parliament House. The library was designed in Gothic revival style and was fire resistant, the third story of the design was not built to save money
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
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Bowen House (left), The Beehive, and Parliament House (with the Parliamentary Library not shown, but further right)
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
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Parliament House
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
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The Beehive
New Zealand Parliament Buildings
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Wellington Parliamentary Library building from 1899
10.
Upper chamber
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An upper house, sometimes called a Senate, is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. The house formally designated as the house is usually smaller. Examples of upper houses in countries include the UKs House of Lords, Canadas Senate, Indias Rajya Sabha, Russias Federation Council, Irelands Seanad, Germanys Bundesrat, a legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral. An upper house is different from the lower house in at least one of the following respects, Powers, In a parliamentary system. Therefore, in countries the Upper House votes on only limited legislative matters. Cannot vote a motion of no confidence against the government, while the house always can. In a presidential system, It may have equal or nearly equal power with the lower house and it may have specific powers not granted to the lower house. For example, It may give advice and consent to some executive decisions and it may have the sole power to try impeachments against officials of the executive, following enabling resolutions passed by the lower house. Status, In some countries, its members are not popularly elected, membership may be indirect and its members may be elected with a different voting system than that used to elect the lower house. Less populated states, provinces, or administrative divisions may be represented in the upper house than in the lower house. Members terms may be longer than in the house. Members may be elected in portions, for staggered terms, rather than all at one time, in some countries, the upper house cannot be dissolved at all, or can be dissolved only in more limited circumstances than the lower house. It typically has fewer members or seats than the lower house and it has usually a higher age of candidacy than the lower house. In parliamentary systems the upper house is seen as an advisory or revising chamber. Some or all of the restrictions are often placed on upper houses. No absolute veto of proposed legislation, though suspensive vetoes are permitted in some states, in countries where it can veto legislation, it may not be able to amend the proposals. A reduced or even absent role in initiating legislation, additionally, a Government must have the consent of both to remain in office, a position which is known as perfect bicameralism or equal bicameralism. An example is the British House of Lords, bills can only be delayed for up to one year before the Commons can use the Parliament Act, although economic bills can only be delayed for one month
Upper chamber
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The Canadian Senate chamber at Parliament Hill in Ottawa, Ontario.
Upper chamber
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Inside the Australian Senate
11.
New Zealand Legislative Council
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The Legislative Council of New Zealand was the first legislature of New Zealand from 1841 and upper house of the General Assembly of New Zealand from 1853 until 1950. Unlike the lower house, the New Zealand House of Representatives, originally, the Legislative Council consisted of the Governor, Colonial Secretary and Colonial Treasurer. The Legislative Council had the power to issue Ordinances, statutory instruments, with the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Legislative Council became the upper house of the General Assembly in 1853. The Legislative Council was intended to act as a revising chamber and it could not initiate bills, and was prohibited from amending money bills. The model for the Legislative Councils role was the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 provided for councillors to be appointed for life terms by the Governor. In 1891, life membership was replaced by a term by the new Liberal Party government of John Ballance. Ballance had considerable difficulty in achieving his reform of the Council, ballances victory is seen as establishing an important precedent in the relationship between Governor and Prime Minister. The structure of the Legislative Council prior to 1891 was therefore similar to that of the Canadian Senate, the title The Honourable could be retained from 1894 by a councillor with not less than ten years service if recommended by the Governor. This privilege was extended to one member, William Montgomery, in 1906, and it was specified in the Constitution Act 1852 that the Council would consist of at least ten members. Although not actually a part of the Act, instructions were issued that the number of members should not exceed fifteen, one member was to be selected as Speaker of the Legislative Council, corresponding roughly to the position of Speaker of the House of Representatives. A quorum of five members was established, the first appointments to the Legislative Council were made in 1853, when twelve members were called to the upper house. Gradually, the number of members was raised, and the limit was eventually abolished. The Council reached a peak of 53 members in 1885 and 1950, the Legislative Council was generally less representative of the New Zealand public than was the House of Representatives. Women were not eligible to serve as councillors until 1941, two, Mary Anderson and Mary Dreaver, were appointed in 1946 by the First Labour Government. In 1950 when the First National Government appointed the suicide squad to vote the council out of three women were included, Cora Louisa Burrell, Ethel Marion Gould and Agnes Louisa Weston. The first two Māori councillors were appointed in 1872, not long after the creation of the Māori electorates in the House, Mokena Kohere, a convention was established that there should always be Māori representation on the Council. A number of proposals were made that the Legislative Council should be elected, in 1914, a reform proposal to establish a 42 or 43 member council elected by proportional representation for six years was introduced by the Liberals, but postponed due to World War I. In 1920 it was no longer favoured by the Reform government then in power, but the 1914 Act remained like a sword of Damocles suspended above the nominated upper house, available at will or whim to any succeeding government
New Zealand Legislative Council
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Legislative Council of New Zealand
New Zealand Legislative Council
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Arms of New Zealand, 1911–1956
12.
Political parties in New Zealand
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New Zealand national politics feature a pervasive party system. Usually, all members of Parliaments unicameral House of Representatives belong to a political party, as of March 2017, seven parties have representatives in Parliament. Political parties in New Zealand evolved towards the end of the nineteenth out of interest groups. Most historians regard the Liberal Party, which began its rule in 1891, during the long period of Liberal Party control the partys more conservative opponents founded the Reform Party, forming the original duopoly in the New Zealand parliament. Gradually, Liberal and Reform found themselves working together more often, after Labour eventually won office in 1935, the Liberals and Reform came together in 1936 to form the National Party. Labour and National currently exist as the two parties of New Zealand politics. Over the years, a number of parties or so-called minor parties developed, notably the Social Credit Party, the New Zealand Party, the Values Party. However, the first past the post electoral system meant that regardless of how many votes a party gained nationwide, under such conditions, these parties mostly performed poorly in terms of making an impact in Parliament. Since the change to MMP, about one third of the seats in Parliament have been held by MPs representing parties other than Labour, in the years before MMP, by contrast, there were sometimes no such MPs at all. Political parties in New Zealand can be registered or unregistered. Registered parties must have five-hundred paying members, each eligible to vote in general elections, if a party registers, it may submit a party list, enabling it to receive party votes in New Zealands MMP electoral system. Unregistered parties can only nominate candidates for individual electorates, registered political parties are also able to spend up to $1 million during the campaign for the party vote. All political parties are able to spend $20,000 per electorate seat, the order in which political parties appear in this list corresponds to the number of MPs they currently have. Note that political parties must be registered under the Electoral Act 1993, but the Speaker, may recognise that party for parliamentary purposes on a temporary basis, for a reasonable period
Political parties in New Zealand
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New Zealand
13.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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The Prime Minister of New Zealand is the head of government of New Zealand. The current prime minister is Bill English of the National Party, the prime minister is the most senior government minister, and chairs cabinet meetings. The office exists by a convention, which originated in New Zealands former colonial power. The convention stipulates that the Governor-General of New Zealand must select as prime minister the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Representatives and this individual is typically the leader of the political party that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The title prime minister had made its first formal appearance in the 1873 Schedule of the Civil List Act and this was changed in 1869 to premier. That title remained in use for more than 30 years, being changed by Richard Seddon to prime minister in 1901 during his tenure in office. Following the declaration of New Zealand as a dominion in 1907, the office of prime minister is not defined by codified laws, but by unwritten customs known as constitutional conventions which developed in Britain and were replicated in New Zealand. The Prime Minister is leader of the cabinet, and takes a coordinating role, the Cabinet Manual 2008 provides an outline of the prime ministers powers and responsibilities. The post of minister is, like other ministerial positions. However, the convention has long since established that the prime minister must have. Historically, this has meant that the prime minister is the parliamentary leader of the largest political party in the House of Representatives. By constitutional convention, the minister holds formal power to advise the sovereign. As head of government, the prime minister alone has the right to advise the governor-general to, Appoint, dismiss, call elections by advising the governor-general to dissolve parliament. The governor-general may reject the advice to dissolve parliament if the minister has recently lost a vote of confidence. The prime minister is regarded by convention as first among equals and they do hold the most senior post in government, but are also required to adhere to any decisions taken by cabinet, as per the convention of cabinet collective responsibility. The ability to appoint and dismiss ministers, furthermore, the MMP electoral system has complicated this, as the prime minister may have to consult with another party leader. The influence a prime minister is likely to have as leader of the dominant party and these powers may give more direct control over subordinates than is attached to the prime ministers role. The power gained simply from being central to most significant decision-making, in addition, like all other ministers and members of parliament, the prime minister receives annual allowances for travel and lodging, as do the prime ministers spouse and children
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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Incumbent John Key since 19 November 2008
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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Arms of Her Majesty's New Zealand Government
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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Henry Sewell, regarded as New Zealand's first premier.
Prime Minister of New Zealand
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William Hall-Jones, the first New Zealand premier to be titled "Prime Minister".
14.
Responsible government
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Responsible government is a conception of a system of government that embodies the principle of parliamentary accountability, the foundation of the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy. Responsible government of parliamentary accountability manifests itself in several ways, ministers account to Parliament for their decisions and for the performance of their departments. When the lower house has passed a motion of no confidence in the government, lastly, the head of state is in turn required to effectuate his executive power only through these responsible ministers. They must never attempt to set up a government of executives or advisors and attempt to use them as instruments of government. The British colonies that formed the Dominion of Canada in 1867 evolved gradually into responsible government rather than achieving it through a revolution as in the United States, early Canadian governors and administrators were answerable only to British authorities. Even after the formation of elected assemblies, governors and their executive councils did not require the consent of elected legislators in order to govern. Responsible government was an element of the gradual development of Canada towards independence. It did not regain responsible government until it became a province of Canada in 1948, in the aftermath of the American Revolution in 1776, the British government became more sensitive to unrest in its remaining colonies with large populations of British colonists. In his report, one of his recommendations was that colonies which were developed enough should be granted responsible government and this term specifically meant the policy that British-appointed governors should bow to the will of elected colonial assemblies. The plaque in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly erected by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada reads, the first Executive Council chosen exclusively from the party having a majority in the representative branch of a colonial legislature was formed in Nova Scotia on 2 February 1848. Following a vote of want of confidence in the preceding Council, James Boyle Uniacke, joseph Howe, the long-time campaigner for this Peaceable Revolution, became Provincial Secretary. Other members of the Council were Hugh Bell, Wm. F. Desbarres, doyle, Herbert Huntingdon, James McNab, Michael Tobin, and George R. Young. This was a law that provided compensation to French-Canadians who suffered losses during the Rebellions of 1837–1838 in Lower-Canada, the Governor General, Lord Elgin, had serious misgivings about the bill but nonetheless assented to it despite demands from the Tories that he refuse to do so. Elgin was physically assaulted by an English-speaking mob for this, nonetheless, the Rebellion Losses Bill helped entrench responsible government into Canadian politics. In time, the granting of responsible government became the first step on the road to complete independence, initially, this took the form of appointed or partially elected Legislative Councils. Then, during the 1850s, all Australian colonies except Western Australia, along with New Zealand, the Cape Colony, in Southern Africa, was under responsible self-government from 1872 until 1910 when it became the Cape Province of the new Union of South Africa. A popular political movement for responsible government soon emerged, under local leader John Molteno, not everyone favoured responsible government though, and pro-imperial press outlets even accused the movement of constituting crafts and assaults of the devil. The ensuing period saw a recovery, a massive growth in exports
Responsible government
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Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine, Father of Responsible Government
Responsible government
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Robert Baldwin, Father of Responsible Government
Responsible government
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John Molteno, Father of Responsible Government and first Prime Minister of the Cape.
Responsible government
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Cartoon critical of responsible government, showing power and positions divided between various factions by Cape leaders, depicted as owls, Molteno (to the right) and Saul Solomon.
15.
Royal Assent
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Royal assent is the method by which a countrys constitutional monarch formally approves an act of that nations parliament, thus making it a law or letting it be promulgated as law. Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies, however, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the Governor-General merely signs the bill, in Canada, the Governor-General may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill. Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, the last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was during the rule of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on the 12th of August 1854. The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967, Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. -the sovereign may delay the bills assent through the use of his or her powers in near-revolutionary situations. -the sovereign may refuse royal assent on the advice of his or her ministers, under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often maintain the support of parliament and are the ones who obtain the passage of bills, it is highly improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in practice, royal assent is always granted. The Monarch does not have the power to withhold a Bill from assenting, the last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Annes reign in 1708. The so-called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, in 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorization. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches, bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire, the King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process, the power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of, during the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliaments approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, the last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1707, on the advice of her ministers, her assent from a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a passed by the British parliament. During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament, the first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than did previous monarchs. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers, thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms
Royal Assent
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George VI grants royal assent to laws in the Canadian Senate, 19 May 1939. Seated beside him is his consort, Queen Elizabeth.
Royal Assent
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Start of the parchment roll of the Reform Act 1832, with the clerk's record of the royal assent of King William IV written above the bill, reading in full Le Roy Veult soit baillé aux Seigneurs. A cette Bille avecque des amendemens les Seigneurs sont assentuz. A ces Amendemens les Communes sont assentuz.
Royal Assent
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Henry VIII introduced a new method of granting royal assent.
16.
Bicameralism
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A bicameral legislature is one in which the legislators are divided into two separate assemblies, chambers or houses. As of 2015, somewhat less than half of the national legislatures are bicameral. Often, the members of the two chambers are elected or selected using different methods, which vary from country to country and this can often lead to the two chambers having very different compositions of members. However, in many Westminster system parliaments, the house to which the executive is responsible can overrule the other house, some legislatures lie in between these two positions, with one house only able to overrule the other under certain circumstances. For example, one house would represent the aristocracy, and the other would represent the commoners as was the case in the Kingdom of England. Others, such as France under the Ancien Régime had a legislature known as the Estates General, which consisted of separate chambers for the clergymen, the nobility. The Founding Fathers of the United States also favoured a bicameral legislature, the idea was to have the Senate be wealthier and wiser. Benjamin Rush saw this though, and noted that, this type of dominion is almost always connected with opulence, the Senate was created to be a stabilising force, elected not by mass electors, but selected by the State legislators. Senators would be more knowledgeable and more sort of republican nobility—and a counter to what Madison saw as the fickleness. He noted further that the use of the Senate is to consist in its proceeding with more coolness, with system and with more wisdom. Madisons argument led the Framers to grant the Senate prerogatives in foreign policy, an area where steadiness, discretion, the Senate was chosen by state legislators, and senators had to possess a significant amount of property in order to be deemed worthy and sensible enough for the position. In fact, it was not until the year 1913 that the 17th Amendment was passed, as part of the Great Compromise, they invented a new rationale for bicameralism in which the Senate would have states represented equally, and the House would have them represented by population. Many nations with parliaments have to some degree emulated the British three-tier model, nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. An example of controversy regarding a second chamber has been the debate over the powers of the Canadian Senate or the election of the Senate of France. The relationship between the two chambers varies, in cases, they have equal power, while in others. The first tends to be the case in federal systems and those with presidential governments, the latter tends to be the case in unitary states with parliamentary systems. In the United States both houses of the U. S and this is due to their original location in the two-story building that was to house them. In Canada, the country as a whole is divided into a number of Senate Divisions, each with a different number of Senators, Senators in Canada are not elected by the people but are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister
Bicameralism
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The bicameral legislature of the United States is housed in the Capitol, a building with two wings. The north wing (left) houses the Senate, while the south wing (right) houses the House of Representatives.
17.
Westminster model
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The Westminster system is a parliamentary system of government modelled after that which developed in the United Kingdom. This term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the seat of the British parliament, the system is a series of procedures for operating a legislature. However, some colonies have since adopted either the presidential system or a hybrid system as their form of government. Examples include Queen Elizabeth II, the governors-general in Commonwealth realms, or the presidents of many countries, exceptions to this are Ireland and Israel, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the latter possesses no reserve powers whatsoever. A head of government, known as the minister, premier. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected Members of Parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the political party. An exception to this was Israel, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in 1996,1999 and 2001, an independent, non-partisan civil service which advises on, and implements, decisions of those ministers. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes, a parliamentary opposition with an official Leader of the Opposition. A legislature, often bicameral, with at least one elected house – although unicameral systems also exist, a lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by withholding Supply, passing a motion of no confidence, or defeating a confidence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated or forced into a general election independently, a parliament which can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time. Another parallel system of principles also exists known as equity. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK amongst others which mix common law with legal systems. Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries use the Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part. The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster System is quite complex, in essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, in the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the President is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the Prime Minister of India and the Council of Ministers. In Israel, however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet, as an example, the Prime Minister and Cabinet generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions
Westminster model
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The British Houses of Parliament are situated within the Palace of Westminster, in London
Westminster model
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Parliament House, Canberra, Australia
Westminster model
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The Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House) building in New Delhi, India
Westminster model
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The Parliament building in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
18.
First-past-the-post voting
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First-past-the-post voting method is one of several plurality voting methods. It is a common, but not universal, feature of voting methods with single-member electoral divisions, the method is widely used in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, and most of their current and former colonies and protectorates, and a few other countries. There is some confusion between highest vote, majority vote and plurality voting methods, all three use a first-past-the-post voting method, but there are subtle differences in the method of execution. First-past-the-post voting is used in two-round systems and some exhaustive ballots. First-past-the-post voting methods can be used for single- and multiple-member electoral divisions, in a single-member election, the candidate with the highest number – not necessarily a majority – of votes is elected. The two-round voting method uses a first-past-the-post voting method in each of the two rounds, the first round determines which two candidates will progress to the second, final-round ballot. In a multiple-member, first-past-the-post ballot, the first number of candidates – in order of highest vote, if there are six vacancies, then the first six candidates with the highest vote are elected. The Electoral Reform Society is a pressure group based in the United Kingdom which advocates abolishing the first-past-the-post method for all national and local elections. It argues FPTP is bad for voters, bad for government and it is the oldest organisation concerned with electoral methods in the world. States other than Maine and Nebraska use a form of simple plurality, first-past-the-post voting. Under a first-past-the-post voting method the highest polling candidate is elected, in this real-life example, Tony Tan obtained a greater number than the other candidates, and so was declared the winner, even though majority of voters did not vote for him. It is more likely that a party will hold a majority of legislative seats. In the United Kingdom,18 out of 23 general elections since 1922 have produced a single-party majority government. For example, the 2005 United Kingdom general election results in Great Britain are as follows, It can be seen that Labour took a majority of seats, 57%, the largest two parties took 69% of votes and 88% of seats. Meanwhile, the smaller Liberal Democrat party took more than a fifth of votes, another example would be the UK General Election held on 7 May 2015, Here, the Conservatives took 51% of the seats with only 37% of the vote. It should be noted that the Liberal Democrats also suffered under first-past-the-post, the benefits of FPTP are that its concept is very easy to understand, and ballots can be easily counted and processed. Alternative methods such as rank-based voting require far more work or processing power to tabulate results than a single choice, supporters of FPTP argue that it is the electoral method providing the best governance. It trades fairness in representation for more responsible government and its tendency to produce majority rule allows the government to pursue a consistent strategy for its term in office and to make decisions that may be both correct and unpopular
First-past-the-post voting
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A graph showing the difference between the popular vote (inner circle) and the number of seats won by major political parties (outer circle) at the United Kingdom general election, 2015
19.
Unicameralism
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In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015
Unicameralism
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Nations with bicameral legislatures.
20.
Federation
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A federation is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing states or regions under a central government. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is known as federalism and it can be considered the opposite of another system, the unitary state. Federations are often multiethnic and cover an area of territory. The initial agreements create a stability that encourages other common interests, at some time, that is recognized and a movement is organized to merge more closely. At other times, especially when common cultural factors are at such as ethnicity and language. The Old Swiss Confederacy was an example of formal non-unitary statehood. Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, the oldest continuous federation, and a role model for many subsequent federations, is the United States. Some of the New World federations failed, the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states ten years after its founding, others, such as Argentina and Mexico, have shifted between federal, confederal, and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy, australia and Canada are also federations. Germany is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815, the North German Confederation, the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system, Nigeria, Pakistan, India and Malaysia became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire. In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Iraq since 2005. The component states are in some sense sovereign, insofar as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government, however, a federation is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy, however, German Länder have that power, which is beginning to be exercised on a European level. Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others, an example of such a federation is Malaysia, in which Sarawak and Sabah agreed to form the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia. A federation often emerges from an agreement between a number of separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve problems and to provide for mutual defense or to create a nation state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former was the case with the United States and Switzerland, however, as the histories of countries and nations vary, the federalist system of a state can be quite different from these models
Federation
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The United Provinces of Central America was a short-lived federal republic
Federation
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Unitary states
21.
4th New Zealand Parliament
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The 4th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. Elections for this term were held in 61 electorates between 12 February and 6 April 1866 to elect 70 MPs, Parliament was prorogued in late 1870. During the term of this Parliament, two Ministries were in power, during this term, four Māori electorates were first established in 1867, and the first elections held in 1868. The 4th Parliament opened on 30 June 1866, following the 1866 general election and it sat for five sessions, and was prorogued on 6 December 1875. Political parties had not been established yet, this happened after the 1890 election. Anyone attempting to form an administration thus had to win support directly from individual MPs and this made first forming, and then retaining a government difficult and challenging. The 4th Parliament sat during the time of the New Zealand land wars, the Central Otago Gold Rush was coming to an end, but the West Coast Gold Rush had only just begun. The capital had moved from Auckland to Wellington in 1865, Parliament was meeting in the Provincial Council buildings. With the increase in the number of Members of Parliament to 70, the original building grew like topsy until the end of the 19th century, and was consumed by fire on 11 December 1907. In 1868, the first elections were held in the four Māori electorates that were created in the previous year, a few months before the 1866 general elections, Edward Stafford became Premier for the second time. On 16 October 1865, the second Stafford Ministry was formed and this lasted well into the term of the 4th Parliament on 28 June 1869. The premiership changed back to William Fox, the third Fox Ministry was in place from 28 June 1869 to 10 September 1872, well into the term of the 5th Parliament. 61 electorates were used for the 1866 elections and this was a significant increase from the 43 electorates used in the previous election, and resulted from the Representation Act 1865. The bill had its third reading and was assented in October 1865,70 seats were created across the 61 electorates. The City of Wellington electorate was the only three-member electorate, the remaining 53 electorates were represented by a single member. A Moorhouse was elected in both the Mount Herbert and Westland electorates, there were numerous changes during the term of the 4th Parliament. Henry Tancred won the subsequent 1867 by-election, Auckland West James Williamson resigned in 1867. He was succeeded by Patrick Dignan and he was succeeded by William Reeves, who himself resigned in 1868
4th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
22.
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947
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The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 was a constitutional Act of the Parliament of New Zealand that formally accepted the full external autonomy offered by the British Parliament. The Acts main purpose was to adopt sections two, three, four, five and six of the Statute of Westminster 1931, sections five and six relate to jurisdiction over merchant shipping and Courts of Admiralty. Section two of the Act ensured that, under four of the Statute, the request. It also stated existing statutes of the United Kingdom that applied to New Zealand shall be deemed so to apply and extend as if they have always so applied and extended according to its tenor. This section allowed the Parliament of New Zealand the ability to amend all of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the United Kingdom Parliament then passed the New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1947. New Zealand did not adopt the Statute of Westminster 1931 until 1947 on account of a not to foster separatism in the British Empire. We have felt that at all times within recent years we have had ample scope for our national aspirations, the First Labour Government of Peter Fraser had proposed to adopt the statute in its Speech from the Throne in 1944. During the Address-In-Reply debate, the opposition passionately opposed the proposed adoption, national MP for Tauranga, Frederick Doidge, argued With us, loyalty is an instinct as deep as religion. Because New Zealand required the consent of the Parliament of the United Kingdom to amend the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Bill to adopt the Statute was introduced at the start of 1947, and came up for its third and final reading on 17 October 1947. Concerns were raised about the place of the Treaty of Waitangi, ronald Algie raised concerns for the continued access to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which were again rejected. Appeals to the Privy Council remained in place until 2003, with the creation of the Supreme Court of New Zealand, Algie also complained the adoption of the Act was due to changes to the status of British subjects. Other concerns raised included the status of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, the Act was repealed by section 28 of the Constitution Act 1986. Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 - Australian equivalent of the Act Constitution of New Zealand Independence of New Zealand Status of the Union Act,1934
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947
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Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947
23.
Waipawa
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Waipawa is the second-largest town in Central Hawkes Bay in the east of the North Island of New Zealand. It has a population of 2,060, at the 2013 census, it had a population of 1,965, a change of 2.2 percent from the 2006 census. The town is located 7 kilometres northeast of Waipukurau and 46 km southwest of Hastings, on the bank of the Waipawa River. Waipawa was settled in the early 1860s, and the Settlers Museum exhibits many of historical collections. It holds the office of the Central Hawkes Bay District Council. There was also a home in Waipawa named Abbotsford
Waipawa
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Waipawa
24.
Constitution of New Zealand
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The Constitution of New Zealand is the sum of laws and principles that make up the body politic of the realm. It concerns the relationship between the individual and the state, and the functioning of government, unlike many other nations, New Zealand has no single constitutional document. New Zealand is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. This system is based on the Westminster system, although that term is increasingly inapt given constitutional developments particular to New Zealand. The head of state, the monarch of New Zealand is represented in the Realm of New Zealand by the Governor-General and is the source of executive, judicial and legislative power. The New Zealand constitution is uncodified and is to be found in legal documents, in decisions of the courts. It reflects and establishes that New Zealand is a monarchy, that it has a system of government. It increasingly reflects the fact that the Treaty of Waitangi is regarded as a document of government in New Zealand. The constitution must also be seen in its context, because New Zealand governmental institutions must increasingly have regard to international obligations. The Constitution Act 1986 describe the three branches of Government in New Zealand, The Executive, the legislature and the judiciary, New Zealand is a constitutional or limited monarchy. The British Crown and New Zealand Crown are thus legally distinct, part one of the Constitution Act 1986 describes The Sovereign, the reigning monarch, as New Zealands head of state. This means that the head of state of the United Kingdom under the Act of Settlement 1701 is also the head of state of New Zealand. Under the Imperial Laws Application Act 1988, however, the Act of Settlement is deemed a New Zealand Act, there have occasionally been proposals to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. Unlike its neighbour Australia, New Zealand has not yet held a referendum on the matter, opinion polls, however, have shown that a majority of New Zealanders favour keeping the monarchy. The Sovereigns representative in and over the Realm of New Zealand is the Governor-General, the Office is largely ceremonial, although the Governor-General holds a number of so-called reserve powers. The Office is nominally non-partisan, the Prime Minister advises the Sovereign who to appoint as the Governor-General, increasingly, the Governor-General represents New Zealand abroad and is accorded the same respect and privileges of a head of state. It can be argued that the de facto head of state is the Governor-General while the de jure head of state remains the Sovereign, the current Governor-General is Her Excellency the Right Honourable Dame Patsy Reddy, GNZM, QSO, DStJ. New Zealands legislative, executive and judicial function in accordance with the Constitution Act 1986 and various unwritten conventions
Constitution of New Zealand
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The Treaty of Waitangi is an increasingly important source of constitutional law in New Zealand.
Constitution of New Zealand
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New Zealand
25.
The Crown
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The Crown is the state in all its aspects within the jurisprudence of the Commonwealth realms and their sub-divisions, although the term is not only a metonym for the State. The Crown is a sole that represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative. These monarchies are united by the union of their monarch. The concept of the Crown developed first in the Kingdom of England as a separation of the crown and property of the nation state from the person. The concept spread through English and later British colonisation and is now rooted in the lexicon of the other 15 independent realms. In this context it should not be confused with any physical crown, the concept of the Crown took form under the feudal system. Though not used this way in all countries that had this system, in England, all rights, land, for instance, was granted by the Crown to lords in exchange for feudal services and they, in turn, granted the land to lesser lords. One exception to this was common socage—owners of land held as socage held it only to the Crown. The Crown as ultimate owner of all property also owns any property which has become bona vacantia, the monarch is the living embodiment of the Crown and, as such, is regarded as the personification of the state. He office cannot exist without the office-holder, the Crown also represents the legal embodiment of executive, legislative, and judicial governance. While the Crowns legal personality is usually regarded as a sole, it can, at least for some purposes. Historically, the Crown was considered to be indivisible, two judgments—Ex parte Indian Association of Alberta and Ex parte Quark —challenged that view. The Crown in each of the Commonwealth realms is a similar, because both Canada and Australia are federations, there are also crowns in right of each Canadian province and each Australian state. The Succession to the Crown Law 2013 defined the Crown, for the purposes of implementing the Perth Agreement in Jersey law, as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Jersey. Legislation in the Isle of Man also defines the Crown in right of the Isle of Man as being separate from the Crown in right of the United Kingdom and this constitutional concept is also worded as the Crown in right of the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The reserve powers of the Crown for each territory are no longer considered to be exercisable on the advice of the UK government, often cases are brought by the Crown according to the complaint of a claimant. The title of the case follows the pattern of R v Y. Thus R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union is R v Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union, where Miller is Gina Miller, in Scotland, criminal prosecutions are undertaken by the Lord Advocate in the name of the Crown
The Crown
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Australia
26.
Realm of New Zealand
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The Realm of New Zealand is the entire area in which the Queen of New Zealand is head of state. New Zealand is an independent, sovereign state and it has one Antarctic territorial claim, the Ross Dependency, one dependent territory, Tokelau, and two associated states, the Cook Islands and Niue. The King/Queen of New Zealand, represented by the Governor-General of New Zealand, is head of state throughout the Realm of New Zealand, the exact scope of the realm is defined by the 1983 Letters Patent constituting the office of Governor-General. It constitutes one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth, the Cook Islands and Niue became New Zealands first Pacific colonies in 1901 and then protectorates. From 1965 the Cooks were self-governing, so was Niue from 1974, Tokelau came under New Zealand control in 1925 and remains a non-self-governing territory. The British government took possession of territory in 1923 and entrusted it to the administration of New Zealand. Neither Russia nor the United States recognises this claim, and the matter is left unresolved by the Antarctic Treaty and it is largely uninhabited, apart from scientific bases. New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards. A governor-general represents the head of state in the area of the realm, essentially, Governors-General take on all the dignities and reserve powers of the head of state. From 31 August 2011 until 31 August 2016 the Governor-General was Rt Hon Sir Jerry Mateparae, dame Patsy Reddy was appointed to assume the position on 14 September 2016. The Realm of New Zealand is not a federation or a sovereign state. Both the Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in association with New Zealand. As such, the Parliament of New Zealand is not empowered to pass legislation in respect of these states. In foreign affairs and defence issues New Zealand acts on behalf of these countries, as the Governor-General is resident in New Zealand, the Cook Islands Constitution provides for the distinct position of Queens Representative. This individual is not subordinate to the Governor-General and acts as the representative of the Queen in right of New Zealand. Since 2013, Tom Marsters is the Queens Representative to the Cook Islands and this arrangement effectively allows for the de facto independent actions of internal and most external areas of governance. According to Niues Constitution of 1974, the Governor-General of New Zealand acts as the Queens representative, in the Cook Islands and Niue the New Zealand High Commissioner is the diplomatic representative from New Zealand. John Carter is the New Zealand High Commissioner to the Cook Islands, mark Blumsky was the New Zealand High Commissioner to Niue from 2010 until he was replaced by Ross Ardern in early 2014
Realm of New Zealand
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New Zealand
27.
Bill English
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Simon William Bill English is the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand and leader of the National Party, having taken office on 12 December 2016. He was previously Deputy Prime Minister from 2008 to 2016, a farmer and public servant before entering politics, English was elected to parliament in 1990 as the National Partys candidate in the Wallace electorate. He was elevated to cabinet in 1996 and in 1999 was made Minister of Finance, in October 2001, English replaced Jenny Shipley as the leader of the National Party. The party lost the 2002 general election, and in October 2003 he was replaced as leader by Don Brash, in November 2006, after Don Brashs resignation, English became deputy leader under John Key. After Nationals victory at the 2008 general election, English became Deputy Prime Minister and was also made Minister for Finance for a second time and he became a list-only MP after retiring as an electorate MP at the 2014 general election. In December 2016, John Key announced his intention to resign as prime minister and he endorsed English as his replacement, and English won the resulting leadership election unopposed. English is the second-youngest of 12 children of Mervyn English and Norah English and his parents purchased Rosedale, a mixed sheep and cropping farm in Dipton, Southland from Mervyns uncle, Vincent English, a bachelor, in 1944. English was born in the town of Lumsden. He attended St Thomass School in Winton, then boarded at St. Patricks College in Upper Hutt and he played in the first XV of the schools rugby team. After finishing his studies, English returned to Dipton and farmed for a few years, English joined the National Party in 1980, while at Victoria University. He served for a period as chairman of the Southland branch of the Young Nationals, after moving to Wellington, he served for periods on the Island Bay and Miramar electorate committees, respectively. At the 1990 general election, English stood as the National candidate in Wallace, replacing the retiring Derek Angus, and was elected with a large majority. He and three newly elected National MPs were soon identified as rising stars in New Zealand politics, and at various points were dubbed the brat pack, the gang of four. In his first term in parliament, English chaired a committee into social services. He was made a parliamentary under-secretary in 1993, serving under the Minister of Health, in early 1996, English was elevated to cabinet by Prime Minister Jim Bolger, becoming the Minister for Crown Health Enterprises and Associate Minister of Education. He was 34 at the time, becoming the cabinets youngest member, after the 1996 general election, the National Party was forced into a coalition with New Zealand First to retain government. In the resulting cabinet reshuffle, English emerged as Minister of Health, however, as a condition of the coalition agreement, NZ Firsts Neil Kirton was made Associate Minister of Health, effectively becoming Englishs deputy. This arrangement was described in the press as a shotgun marriage, after their relationship became unworkable, Kirton was sacked from the role in August 1997, with the agreement of NZ First leader Winston Peters
Bill English
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The Honourable Bill English MP
Bill English
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English speaking with Bryce Edwards at Otago University's Vote Chat in 2011
28.
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
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The Leader of the Opposition in New Zealand is the politician who, at least in theory, commands the support of the non-government bloc of members in the Parliament of New Zealand. In the debating chamber the Leader of the Opposition sits directly opposite the Prime Minister, the current Leader of the Opposition is Andrew Little, the Leader of the Labour Party. By convention, the Leader of the Opposition is the leader of the largest party of the Opposition, the Leader of the Opposition does not have a large official role, as most of the posts functions are ceremonial. Nevertheless, there are ways in which the Leader of the Opposition participates directly in affairs of state. The Leader of the Opposition also receives a higher salary than other members of the Opposition, for much of the countrys early history, the role was not a formal one. It was only when the Liberal Party was formed that any unified leadership appeared in Parliament, john Ballance, leader of the Liberals is usually considered the first Leader of the Opposition in the modern sense. When Ballance led the Liberals into government in 1891, they faced no opposition in a party sense. However, their opponents gradually coalesced around a leader, William Massey, who became Opposition leader in 1903, and in 1909 became the first leader of the new Reform Party. After this, the Leader of the Opposition would always be the leader of the largest party in the House of Representatives that had not undertaken to support the Government of the day. One notable exception to this was during World War I, when the opposition Liberal Party accepted the governing Reform Partys offer to form a wartime coalition, Prime Minister Massey also extended the offer to the new Labour Party who rejected it. This made Labour the largest party not in government, however their leader Alfred Hindmarsh was not recognized as the Leader of the Opposition, joseph Ward, who became Deputy Prime Minister in the wartime cabinet still retained the title, albeit in name only. During the 1910s and 1920s, the role of Opposition alternated between the Liberal and Reform parties, after the 1925 Election there was no official Leader of the Opposition until Rex Mason of Labour won the seat of Eden in the by-election held on 15 April 1926. Labour became superseded the Liberals as the opposition and their leader Harry Holland became Leader of the Opposition. The 1928 General Election put United in government for the last time, Reform then became the Opposition, however in 1931 Reform entered into coalition with the Liberals, and Labour then became the Opposition, despite being the third party. With the introduction of the MMP voting system, first used in the 1996 general elections, now, though the leader of the largest non-Government party still becomes the Leader of the Opposition, there will usually be several parties who are in opposition. An example of this arose after the 2002 general elections, when the National Party gained only 27 seats and this prompted calls from a number of parties, notably New Zealand First and the Greens, for the abolition or reform of the post. It was argued by these parties that the position had become an anachronism in the modern multi-party environment, however, with the resurrection of the National Party in the 2005 general election, a more traditional relationship between Government and Opposition has been restored. A table of Leaders of the Opposition is below, the table begins in 1891, when the first real political party was founded
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
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New Zealand
29.
Electoral reform in New Zealand
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Electoral reform in New Zealand has, in recent years, become a political issue as major changes have been made to both Parliamentary and local government electoral systems. All New Zealand elections from 1914 to 1996 consistently used the British system of first-past-the-post for parliamentary elections and this system had consistently favoured the two largest parties. From 1936 on, these were the National and Labour parties, governments had been previously formed despite the opposition winning the popular vote in both 1911 and 1931 as well. In its 1984 campaign platform, Labour committed itself to appoint a commission on electoral reform if elected. Labour won that election and in 1985 Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Justice Geoffrey Palmer established the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, Palmer had promoted proportional representation as a law professor in his book Unbridled Power. The Royal Commissions 1986 report, entitled Towards a Better Democracy recommended the adoption of the mixed-member proportional representation, recognizing that a parliament dominated by the major parties might fail to implement a sweeping reform of this sort, the commission also proposed a referendum on the issue. During the 1987 election campaign, Labour promised to hold a referendum on MMP at, or before, although Labour was returned to power in that election, it failed to proceed further on the matter due to its own internal divisions. In May 1990, Labour MP John Terris submitted a private bill to force a binding referendum on the electoral system. In 1992, a referendum was held on whether or not FPP should be replaced by a new. Voters were asked two questions, whether or not to replace FPP with a new voting system, and which of four different alternative systems should be adopted instead, the government appointed a panel chaired by the Ombudsman to oversee the campaign. Meanwhile, the Electoral Reform Coalition campaigned actively in favour of the MMP alternative originally recommended by the royal commission and these measures made it possible for voters to make an informed choice on what was otherwise a complicated issue. This led New Zealanders to vote overwhelmingly for change and to indicate a clear, the first question asked voters if they wished to retain FPP or change electoral systems. The result was 84.7 per cent favour of replacing FPP, the second question asked voters which new system should replace FPP. Alternative Vote, used in Australia and Fiji elections, similar to FPP, as noted earlier, an overwhelming majority of those favouring a new electoral system voted for MMP. The percentages of the vote cast for the four possible electoral system options offered in the question were, Source. The second, binding, referendum was held in conjunction with the election on 6 November 1993. Peter Shirtcliffe, chairman of Telecom New Zealand at the time and leader of the CBG, the Electoral Reform Coalition was the main advocate for the adoption of MMP, and had support from several people, including the late Green Party co-leader Rod Donald. MMP faced a battle, as acknowledged in the pro-MMP poster to the side
Electoral reform in New Zealand
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A pro-MMP poster from the 1993 referendum campaign.
Electoral reform in New Zealand
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New Zealand
30.
Electoral Commission (New Zealand)
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The Commission also assists electoral agencies of other countries on a reciprocal basis with their electoral events. The Electoral Commission is an independent Crown entity, the responsible Minister may not direct the Commission to give effect to, or have regard to, government policy. The Electoral Amendment Bill, passed unanimously by Parliament 19 May 2010, the Electoral Commission, which took over the responsibilities of the Chief Electoral Office and the previous Electoral Commission, was formed on Friday 1 October 2010. On 1 July 2012 the statutory responsibilities of the Electoral Enrolment Centre of New Zealand Post were transferred to the Commission in accordance with the Electoral Amendment Act 2011, the previous Electoral Commission of New Zealand was a governmental body responsible for administering certain aspects of the countrys electoral system. It was an independent Crown entity, not part of any department or Ministry. It worked alongside two other bodies, the Chief Electoral Office and the Electoral Enrolment Centre, the four primary functions of the previous Electoral Commission were, Registration of political parties. The Commission was responsible for scrutinising and approving all changes to the electoral register, a place on the register allows parties to contest the party vote in general elections. Unregistered parties can put forward candidates, but cannot receive votes for proportional representation under the MMP system. The Commission must have satisfied that such a party meets the requirements for registration. Political parties are given funding for any broadcasting they conduct in an election campaign. The Commission was responsible for dividing money between the parties, taking into account a partys membership, current number of MPs, previous election performance. The Commission also supervises the actual payment of this funding, supervision of financial declarations. to ensure transparency, parties are required to submit records showing how much money they received as donations and how much money they spent campaigning. The Commission was the body charged with ensuring strong public awareness of how elections in New Zealand work. For most business, the previous Electoral Commission consisted of four members — a President, a Chief Executive, the head of the Ministry of Justice, and the Chief Judge of the Maori Land Court. Formerly, two members, one appointed by the Government and one by the Opposition, participated in the allocation of broadcasting funds. This participation is generally condemned by smaller parties, which claimed that Labour and these additional members were removed in 2007 by the Electoral Finance Act. New Zealand Electoral Commissions website New Zealand Electoral Commissions website for the review of the MMP Voting System New Zealand Electoral Commissions website for election results
Electoral Commission (New Zealand)
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New Zealand Electoral Commission
Electoral Commission (New Zealand)
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Orange Guy, mascot of the Electoral Commission
31.
Next New Zealand general election
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The 2017 New Zealand general election is scheduled to be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 to determine the membership of the 52nd New Zealand Parliament. The current Parliament was elected on Saturday,20 September 2014, unless an early election is called or the election date is set to circumvent holding a by-election, a general election is held every three years. The last election was held on Saturday,20 September 2014, the Governor-General must issue writs for an election within seven days of the expiration or dissolution of the current Parliament. The writs for the 2014 election were returned on 10 October 2014, as a result, the 51st Parliament will expire, if not dissolved earlier, on Tuesday,10 October 2017. Consequently, the last day for issuance of writs of election is 17 October 2017, the writs must be returned within 50 days of their issuance, which will be Wednesday,6 December 2017. Because polling day must be a Saturday and two weeks is generally required for the counting of votes, the last possible date for the next general election is Saturday,18 November 2017. On 1 February 2017, Prime Minister Bill English announced that the election would be held on Saturday 23 September 2017 and this will be the first election that both major parties, Labour and National are contesting under new leadership since 1975. Key dates relating to the election will typically be as follows. New boundaries are not due until early 2019, after the 2018 census, polling booths may now use electronic electoral rolls to mark off voters. Counting of advance votes may now start earlier at 9, 00am, contact information of sitting MPs, such as business cards and signage on out-of-Parliament offices, has been clarified as not constituting election advertising. Election advertising is now prohibited in or near advance polling booths. Election hoardings may now be erected nine weeks before the election, parties are no longer allocated free airtime on Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand to broadcast opening and closing addresses. At the 2014 general election, the seats were won with a plurality of less than 1000 votes. Seventeen existing Members of Parliament have announced that they will not stand for re-election, trevor Mallard announced in July 2016 that he will not contest Hutt South, but will run as a list-only candidate, with the intention of becoming Speaker of the House. Political parties registered with the Electoral Commission on Writ Day can contest the election as a party. Each such party can submit a party list to contest the party vote, as of 6 March 2017, fourteen political parties are registered and can contend the general election. During the three month regulated period prior to election day, parties and candidates have limits on how much they may spend on election campaigning and it is illegal in New Zealand to campaign on election day itself. A party contesting all 71 electorates is therefore permitted to spend $2,975,200 on election campaigning, all electorate candidates are permitted to spend $26,200 each on campaigning over and above their partys allocation
Next New Zealand general election
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All 120 seats (plus any overhang) in the House of Representatives 61 seats needed for a majority
Next New Zealand general election
Next New Zealand general election
Next New Zealand general election
32.
Referendums in New Zealand
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Referendums are held only occasionally by the Government of New Zealand. Ten referendums have been held so far, seven were government-led, and three were indicative citizen initiatives. This provision allows some parliamentary scrutiny of the issue and wording of the question, there is no constraint on whether an issue is to be decided by the New Zealand Parliament or by the public. This has led to the use of referendums, partly because there is no constitutional requirement. There is no requirement for a referendum to enact change in New Zealand. Referendums were held in 1992 and 1993 to decide the nature of reform in New Zealand. Many groups advocate approval of constitutional reforms by referendums, for example the Republican Movement supports a referendum on whether New Zealand should become a republic, the term of Parliament may be changed only either through a referendum or by a 75% majority of MPs. There are frequent calls for the use of referendums to decide other constitutional matters, in New Zealand, alcohol licensing has historically been decided by referendum. The first of these were compulsory local licensing referendums, held in 1894, local licensing referendums were eliminated after 1914, apart from local restoration polls to legalise liquor sales in dry districts. In 1910 a referendum on prohibition of alcohol was introduced. An extra referendum on prohibition was held on 10 April 1919, from 17 December 1919 the additional option of state purchase and control of liquor was added to the ballot. The Sale of Liquor Act 1989 abolished the national liquor referendum, local restoration polls were still held in areas that were still dry, but the last three, Mount Eden, Mount Roskill and Tawa, all became wet in 1999. There have been two referendums on pub closing times, the government may call referendums on any issues on which it wishes. These will usually be on issues on which the government is split, for the 1997 referendum on retirement savings, the decision to hold it was part of the coalition agreement between National and New Zealand First. The Citizens Initiated Referenda Act 1993 allows for citizens to propose a referendum and these are non-binding referendums on any issue in which proponents have submitted a petition to Parliament signed by ten percent of all registered electors within 12 months. It costs NZ$500 to file a petition asking for a referendum with the Clerk of the House of Representatives, the Clerk formally determines the wording of the question, which may be quite different from the original. Within one month of the presentation to the House, a date for the poll must be determined. The poll must be held within 12 months of the petitions presentation, there is also a $50,000 spending limit on promoting the petition
Referendums in New Zealand
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New Zealand
33.
Judiciary of New Zealand
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The judiciary of New Zealand is a system of courts that interprets and applies the laws of New Zealand, to ensure equal justice under law, and to provide a mechanism for dispute resolution. There is also a separate Māori Land Court and Māori Appellate Court which have jurisdiction over Māori land cases under the Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993, the Supreme Court sits at the apex of the New Zealand court hierarchy as the final appellate court. Cases may only go to the Supreme Court if it grants leave to appeal and it generally hears appeals of considerable public interest, commercial significance, substantial miscarriages of justice or significant issues relating to the Treaty of Waitangi. The Chief Justice presides over the Supreme Court and is described in the Judicature Act as the head of the judiciary, before the Supreme Court first met in 2004, the Privy Council in London served as the highest court. The High Court and Court of Appeal are subordinate appellate courts, the sixty-three District Courts hear more than 95% of all criminal trials. The Family Court and Youth Court are specialist divisions of District Court, dealing with families and young people, respectively. Other specialist courts include, the Employment Court, the Environment Court, the Māori Land Court, the Māori Appellate Court, and disputes tribunals, the Waitangi Tribunal is a permanent commission of inquiry established under the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975. The laws of New Zealand are based on English law, some older statutes of the British Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, the laws are based on three related principles, parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. The Chief Justice is appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister, all other superior court judges are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Attorney-General, the Chief Justice, and the Solicitor-General. Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain independence from the executive government, judges are appointed according to their qualifications, personal qualities, and relevant experience. A judge may not be removed from office except by the Attorney-General upon an address of the House of Representatives for proved misbehavior. A Supreme Court was first established in 1841, followed by lower courts including District Courts and Magistrates Courts. The Court of Appeal was set up in 1862 as the highest court in New Zealand, appeals could be taken from the Court of Appeal to the Privy Council. The District Courts were abolished in 1925 but later re-established, in 1957 the Court of Appeal was fully separated from the Supreme Court, by having its own judges. In 1980, the Supreme Court was renamed the High Court, Land law did not recognise that land was owned communally by Hapū, and land ownership was put in the hands of a few people. In 1954 it was renamed the Māori Land Court, in the 1980s the judiciary played a major role in redefining and elevating the constitutional position of the Treaty of Waitangi. Constitution of New Zealand Government of New Zealand Politics of New Zealand Mulholland, Raymond Douglas, introduction to the New Zealand legal system. Te Kooti Tango Whenua, The Native Land Court 1864-1909, Courts of New Zealand Ministry of Justice
Judiciary of New Zealand
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New Zealand
34.
Supreme Court of New Zealand
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The Supreme Court of New Zealand is the highest court and the court of last resort in New Zealand, having formally come into existence on 1 January 2004. The court sat for the first time on 1 July 2004 and it replaced the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, based in London. It was created with the passing of the Supreme Court Act 2003, at the time, the creation of the Supreme Court and the abolition of appeals to the Privy Council were controversial constitutional changes in New Zealand. It should not be confused with New Zealands old Supreme Court, the name was changed in anticipation of the eventual creation of a final court of appeal for New Zealand that would be called the Supreme Court. The inaugural bench were the most senior judges of the New Zealand Court of Appeal at the time and their appointment to the new Court was said to have been based on seniority and merit. The maximum bench under statute is six judges, several acting Judges have also been appointed to sit whenever a permanent judge was unable to do so due to illness or a conflict of interest. Acting judges only sit on substantive appeals, and not applications for leave, on 4 May 2005, Attorney General Michael Cullen announced the appointment of Justice Sir John McGrath of the Court of Appeal to the Supreme Court bench as its sixth permanent judge. On 21 February 2006, the Honourable Sir Noel Anderson was appointed to the Supreme Court, thus the promotion of the most senior Court of Appeal member has continued. This practice was broken with the appointment of Justice Bill Wilson in December 2007 after having served less than a year as a judge of the Court of Appeal, in the early 1980s, Minister of Justice Jim McLay suggested their abolition. Proposals for an indigenous final appellate court can be traced back to 1985, in 1996, Paul East, Attorney-General of the Bolger government, proposed to end the status of the Privy Council as the countrys highest court of appeal. The proposal got as far as a Bill being introduced into Parliament, however, this Bill met with little support from within the National Party, and the Bill was not carried over by the next Parliament following the 1996 general election. The policy was resurrected in 1999 by the Fifth Labour Government of 1999 –2008, a discussion paper, Reshaping New Zealands Appeal Structure attracted 70 submissions. A year later a Ministerial Action Group was formed to assist Ministers in designing the purpose, structure, the Groups report, Replacing the Privy Council, A New Supreme Court was published in April 2002, before the general election a few months later. A Campaign for the Privy Council was established to lobby against the abolition of appeals, many business and community groups joined the opposition to the ending of appeals. Notable supporters of the Supreme Court were former Privy Councillor Lord Cooke of Thorndon and former Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer, the Monarchist League complained the majority of members of the select committee were motivated by a republican agenda. It received Royal Assent on 17 October 2003, with commencement on 1 January 2004, in 2008, National leader John Key ruled out any abolition of the Supreme Court and return to the Privy Council. The petition failed to gain the 310,000 signatures of registered electors needed and lapsed on 2 July 2004 and these concerns were because the entire bench was to be appointed simultaneously, and no clear statement had been made about how they would be selected. However, the level of concern was considerably lessened when Wilson announced that the appointments would be based on merit, appointments to the Court were expected and unsurprising
Supreme Court of New Zealand
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Entrance to Supreme Court building
Supreme Court of New Zealand
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Supreme Court of New Zealand
Supreme Court of New Zealand
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Old High Court and Supreme Court of New Zealand in Wellington in 2015.
Supreme Court of New Zealand
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The Supreme Court building in Wellington
35.
Chief Justice of New Zealand
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The Chief Justice of New Zealand is the head of the New Zealand judiciary, and presides over the Supreme Court of New Zealand. Before the establishment of the court in 2004 the Chief Justice was the presiding judge in the High Court of New Zealand and was also ex officio a member of the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. The office is established by the Judicature Act 1908, the Governor-General of New Zealand appoints the Chief Justice on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Chief Justice acts in place of the Governor-General if one has not been appointed or if the appointee is unable to perform his or her duties, when acting in place of the Governor-General, the Chief Justice is known as the Administrator of the Government. Sir James Prendergast GCMG Rt Hon, sir Charles Skerrett KCMG KC Rt Hon. Sir Michael Myers GCMG KC Rt Hon, sir Humphrey OLeary KCMG KC Rt Hon. Sir Harold Barrowclough KCMG CB DSO MC ED Rt Hon, sir Richard Wild GBE KCMG QC Rt Hon. Sir Ronald Davison GBE CMG QC Rt Hon, sir Thomas Eichelbaum GBE QC Rt Hon. Dame Sian Elias GNZM PC QC Ministry of Justice - The Chief Justice Administrators of the Government
Chief Justice of New Zealand
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New Zealand
36.
Court of Appeal of New Zealand
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The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand’s principal intermediate appellate court. It is also the appellate court for a number of matters. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, the Court of Appeal has existed as a separate court since 1862 but, until 1957, it was composed of Judges of the High Court sitting periodically in panels. In 1957 the Court of Appeal was reconstituted as a permanent court separate from the High Court, the President and nine other permanent appellate Judges constitute the full-time working membership of the Court. The Court sits in panels of five Judges and three Judges depending on the nature and wider significance of the particular case, a considerable number of three-Judge cases are heard by Divisional Courts consisting of one permanent Court of Appeal Judge and two High Court Judges seconded for that purpose. In the main, criminal appeals will be allocated to a Divisional Court unless the President otherwise directs and this recognises the insights which Judges with current trial experience bring to criminal appeals. Counsel for the appellant or respondent may request a direction that a particular appeal be allocated to a Permanent Court or a Full Court. Longer civil appeals or areas that raise issues of public significance will usually be allocated to a Permanent Court. Again counsel for the appellant or respondent may request a direction that a particular appeal be allocated to a Divisional Court, the Prime Minister will also determine whether an appeal is of sufficient significance to warrant the consideration of a Full Court of five members. The President will, where appropriate, consult with other permanent Judges, such a decision typically is made only once or twice a year. How cases come to the court The Court of Appeal deals with civil and criminal appeals from matters heard in the High Court, and serious criminal charges from the District Court. Matters appealed to the High Court from the District Court and certain tribunals can be taken to the Court of Appeal with leave, the Court may also grant leave to hear appeals against pre-trial rulings in criminal cases, and appeals on questions of law from the Employment Court. Civil Proceedings The Court of Appeal Rules 2005 set out the requirements for pursuing civil appeals. The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear and determine appeals from any judgment, appeals on questions of law from the Employment Court can, with the leave of the Court of Appeal, be brought to the Court of Appeal. The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear appeals against pre-trial rulings in criminal cases, there is a right of appeal with respect to High Court decisions granting or refusing bail or in respect of conditions of bail. The Court of Appeal Rules 2001 set out the requirements for pursuing criminal appeals in the Court of Appeal. The Crimes Act 1961 and Criminal Procedure Act 2011 also contain both substantive and procedural provisions relevant to criminal appeals to the Court of Appeal. If the appellant is in custody he or she is not entitled to be present at a hearing involving oral submissions unless there is a right to be present
Court of Appeal of New Zealand
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The Court of Appeal in central Wellington. The Court is located directly across the road from the Parliamentary complex.
Court of Appeal of New Zealand
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Court of Appeal of New Zealand
Court of Appeal of New Zealand
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New Zealand Court of Appeal in Wellington
37.
District Court of New Zealand
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The District Courts of New Zealand are New Zealands main trial courts. The District Courts can hear civil claims up to $200,000, there are sixty-three District Courts throughout New Zealand and the vast majority of both civil and criminal actions in New Zealand are commenced in a District Court. The District Courts are governed by the District Courts Act 1947 as well as the District Court Rules which are revised by the Rules Committee. The District Courts were established in 1980 to replace Magistrates Courts, the establishment of the District Courts was the result of the recommendations made in the 1978 Royal Commission on the Courts. District Courts were given an expanded jurisdiction and the Family Court was created as a division of the District Court in 1981, the Youth Court is another specialist division of the District Court, dealing with people under the age of 17 who have been charged with criminal offending. In 2011, the New Zealand Attorney-General stated that the District Court was the largest court in Australasia, the larger District Courts operate on a daily basis, while others may only operate on a weekly or monthly basis, usually being serviced by Judges from larger centres. The jurisdiction of the District Court derives from the District Courts Act 1947, the District Courts criminal jurisdiction is busier and arguably broader than any other Court. Over 95% of all criminal trials, including jury trials on all, within its jurisdiction are offences ranging from very serious offending such as rape, aggravated robbery, and sexual violation down to minor offences such as disorderly behaviour. The only charges that cannot be heard by the District Court are category 4 offences, such as murder, manslaughter, the District Court cannot sentence a person to life imprisonment or to preventative detention, such cases require a transfer to the High Court for sentencing. The District Courts civil jurisdiction allows the Court to hear any matter where the amount in dispute is $200,000 or less, civil claims involve arguments over money and property and can include complex commercial transactions. There are 133 District Court Judges, including the Chief District Court Judge, Judges are permanently based in the main centres, but travel to other courts on circuit. While each District Court Judge can preside over criminal matters, they each specialise in particular aspects of the District Courts jurisdiction, either jury trials. District courts with resident judges District courts served by circuit judges Hearings only courts These courts are open for hearings. Their registry courts are noted in brackets, closed courts Balclutha Feilding Rangiora Warkworth Whataroa M McDowell, D Webb. The New Zealand Legal System, Structures and Processes
District Court of New Zealand
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District Courts of New Zealand
38.
Waitangi Tribunal
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The Waitangi Tribunal is a New Zealand permanent commission of inquiry established under the Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975. The Tribunal is not a court of law, therefore, the Tribunals recommendations and they are sometimes ignored, for instance in the foreshore and seabed dispute. Abuse included murder, rape, physical and psychological torture and long-term enslavement, the inquiry process contributes to the resolution of Treaty claims and to the reconciliation of outstanding issues between Māori and Pākehā. In 2014 the Tribunal found that the Maori had never intended to give up their sovereignty when they signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the Honourable Matiu Rata was Minister of Māori Affairs in the early 1970s and the politician most responsible for the Tribunals creation. Originally the Tribunal could investigate grievances only since 1975, but in 1985 a law meant the Tribunals jurisdiction was extended back to 1840. The subsequent findings of many Treaty breaches by the Crown in various inquiries led to a backlash against the Tribunal. The Tribunal has often been an issue in the 1990s and 2000s. Originally a Tribunal investigation and report was a prerequisite for a Treaty settlement with the New Zealand Government and this was an increasingly popular short-cut to settlement in the face of the slow Tribunal process. The deadline for submitting claims was 1 September 2008. As a consequence, the Māori people would be denied their claims for radio frequencies, in June 1990 claim Wai 150 was lodged by Sir Graham Latimer on behalf of the New Zealand Māori Council. The Waitangi Tribunal amalgamated the Wai 26 with the Wai 150 claim, the final report of the Tribunal recommended that the Crown suspend the radio frequency tender process and proceed to negotiate with the Iwi. The Ngāi Tahu Maori Trust Board filed the claim with the Waitangi Tribunal in 1986, the claim covered nine different areas and was heard over two years from 1987. The Tribunal released its report in 1991 – at that time it was the tribunals most comprehensive inquiry. It found that the Crown acted unconscionably and in repeated breach of the Treaty of Waitangi in its dealings with the tribe. Ngāi Tahu also filed a claim in regards to commercial fisheries, Ngāi Tahu settled with the Crown in 1998, and received $170 million in compensation, an apology, and the return of its sacred mountain Aoraki/Mount Cook. On 2 July 2011 the Tribunal released its report into the Wai 262 claim. The Wai 262 claim concerns the ownership of, and rights to, mātauranga Māori in respect of indigenous flora and fauna. The Wai 262 claim, and the subsequent Ko Aotearoa Tēnei report, is unusual in Tribunal terms because of its wide scope and the contemporary nature of the issues being grappled with
Waitangi Tribunal
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Waitangi Tribunal
39.
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
–
Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities,12 city councils,53 district councils, Auckland Council, six territorial authorities also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. A unitary authority may also have local boards, currently only Auckland Council has them, territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupo District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions, Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations, the boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities from 200 to 75, the new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list,1991, Invercargill re-proclaimed a city,1992, Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region,2004, Tauranga became a city again on 1 March. 2006, Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch City as a result of 2005 referendum,2010, Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council. Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commissions site, the split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council. Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area, tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District. Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with areas of the current Papakura District. The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils, the National-led Government responded within about a week
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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New Zealand
40.
New Zealand nuclear-free zone
–
In 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, territorial sea, land and this has since remained a part of New Zealands foreign policy. The nuclear-free zone Act does not prohibit nuclear power plants, nuclear research facilities, after the Disarmament and Arms Control Act was passed by the Lange Labour government, the United States government suspended its ANZUS obligations to New Zealand. The legislation was a milestone in New Zealands development as a nation and seen as an important act of sovereignty, self-determination and cultural identity. New Zealands three decade anti-nuclear campaign is the successful movement of its type in the world which resulted in the nations nuclear-weapon-free zone status being enshrined in legislation. Initial seeds were sown for New Zealands 1987 nuclear free zone legislation in the late 1950s with the formation of the local Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament organisation between 1957 and 1959. In 1961, CND urged the New Zealand government to declare that it would not acquire or use nuclear weapons and it was the biggest petition in the nation since the one in 1893 which demanded that women must have the right to vote. The first nuclear test, codenamed Aldebaran, was conducted on 2 July 1966, in March 1976 over 20 anti nuclear and environmental groups, including Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth, met in Wellington and formed a loose coalition called the Campaign for Non-Nuclear Futures. The coalitions mandate was to oppose the introduction of power and to promote renewable energy alternatives such as wind, wave, solar. CNNF embarked on a national education exercise producing the largest petition against nuclear power in New Zealands history with 333,087 signatures by October 1976 and this represented over 10% of the countrys total population of 3 million. At this time, New Zealands only nuclear reactor was a small sub-critical reactor that had installed at the School of Engineering of the University of Canterbury in 1962. It had been given by the United States Atoms for Peace programme and was used for training engineers in nuclear techniques. Regional anti-nuclear sentiment was consolidated in 1985 when eight of the thirteen South Pacific Forum nations signed the South Pacific Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty or Treaty of Rarotonga, community inspired anti-nuclear sentiments largely contributed to the New Zealand Labour Party election victory under Norman Kirk in 1972. In June 1973, the International Court of Justice ordered that the French cease atmospheric nuclear testing at Mururoa atoll while the case was being heard by the Court, however, the French ignored this ruling. Mururoa was the site of protests by various vessels, including the Rainbow Warrior. In a symbolic act of protest the Kirk government sent two of its navy frigates, HMNZS Canterbury and Otago, into the test zone area in 1973, a Cabinet Minister was randomly selected to accompany this official New Zealand Government protest fleet. This voyage included a number of local kiwi peace organisations who had organised an international flotilla of protest yachts that accompanied the frigates into the Mururoa zone, Peace yachts attempting to disrupt the French tests sailed in coordinated protests through the Mururoa exclusion zones between 1972-1991. These included the voyage of the first joint Greenpeace-CND campaign in 1972 with David McTaggart and this was followed in 1973 by a flotilla of yachts organised by the Peace Media with protest yachts Fri, Spirit of Peace, the Boy Roel, Magic Isle and the Tanmure
New Zealand nuclear-free zone
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Mururoa
New Zealand nuclear-free zone
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An anti-nuclear activist hands out peace cranes in Wellington
41.
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
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The New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a statute of the Parliament of New Zealand setting out the rights and fundamental freedoms of anyone subject to New Zealand law as a Bill of rights. It is part of New Zealands uncodified constitution, in 1985 a White Paper entitled A Bill of Rights for New Zealand, was tabled in Parliament by the then Minister of Justice, Hon Geoffrey Palmer. The Bill then went to the Justice and Law Reform Select Committee, the Committee recommended that the Bill of Rights be introduced as an ordinary statute, which would not have the status of superior or entrenched law. In its current form, the Bill of Rights is similar to the Canadian Bill of Rights, the Act does create an atmosphere change in New Zealand law in that it provides judges the means to interpret around other acts to ensure enlarged liberty interests. The Act applies only to acts done by the three branches of government of New Zealand, or by any person or body in the performance of any function, power. Section 4 specifically denies the Act any supremacy over other legislation, section 6 ensures that where an interpretation of an Act has a meaning that is consistent with the Act, that meaning shall be preferred to any other meaning. Section 7 of the Act requires the Attorney-General to draw to the attention of Parliament the introduction of any Bill that is inconsistent with the Act, the Ministry of Justice, which prepares this advice for the Attorney-General, requires a minimum of two weeks to review the draft legislation. See the list of bills reported as inconsistent with the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990, part II of the Act covers a broad range of Civil and Political Rights. Section 19 of the Act guarantees freedom from discrimination, on the grounds of discrimination set out in the Human Rights Act 1993, section 20 provides protection for the culture, religion, and language of individuals who belong to ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities. Everyone who is arrested for an offence has the right to be charged promptly or to be released, everyone who is arrested or detained for any offence or suspected offence shall have the right to, Refrain from making any statement and to be informed of that right. Everyone deprived of liberty has the right to be treated with humanity, no one who has been finally acquitted or convicted of, or pardoned for, an offence shall be tried or punished for it again. A large number of cases have been heard under the Act since it was passed in 1990, mostly pertaining to rights around arrest and detention. Nonetheless, the Court held in case the Bill of Rights had not been breached. The plaintiffs sued on the grounds the police breached section 21 of the Bill of Rights Act, hopkinson was initially convicted under Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 of destroying a New Zealand flag with intent to dishonour it, but appealed against his conviction. On appeal, his conviction was overturned on the grounds that the law had to be read consistently with the right to freedom of expression under the Bill of Rights. This somewhat unusual result was due in part to the fact that the Bill of Rights does not overrule other laws
New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
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New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990
42.
Codified constitution
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A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i. e. constitute, some constitutions are uncodified, but written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from states to companies. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a states rulers cannot cross, the term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments. Later, the term was used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope. The Latin term ultra vires describes activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall outside the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials. Ultra vires gives a justification for the forced cessation of such action. A violation of rights by an official would be ultra vires because a right is a restriction on the powers of government, and therefore that official would be exercising powers they do not have. It was never law, even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, in such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered, for example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich. After that, many governments ruled by codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur, some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law. In 621 BC a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens, in 594 BC Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the class was to be based on wealth. Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a footing in 508 BC. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was the arrangement of the offices in a state
Codified constitution
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A painting depicting George Washington at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 signing of the U.S. Constitution
Codified constitution
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Detail from Hammurabi 's stele shows him receiving the laws of Babylon from the seated sun deity.
Codified constitution
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The Bendery Constitution by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk.
Codified constitution
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May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). Polish King Stanisław August (left, in regal ermine -trimmed cloak), enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm deputies will swear to uphold the new Constitution; in background, Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the Constitution has just been adopted.
43.
Lower house
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A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position below the house, in many legislatures worldwide. A legislature composed of one house is described as unicameral. In comparison with the house, lower houses frequently display certain characteristics, Powers In a parliamentary system, Much more power. Able to override the upper house in some ways, can vote a motion of no confidence against the government. In a presidential system, Somewhat less power, as the house alone gives advice. Given the sole power to impeach the executive Status Always elected directly, while the house may be elected directly, indirectly. Its members may be elected with a different voting system to the upper house, most populated administrative divisions are better represented than in the upper house, representation is usually proportional to population. Elected all at once, not by staggered terms, in a parliamentary system, can be dissolved by the executive. Has total or original control over budget and monetary laws, lower age of candidacy than the upper house. Many lower houses are named in the manner, House/Chamber of Representatives/the People/Commons/Deputies
Lower house
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Inside the Australian House of Representatives
Lower house
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Dáil Éireann, Republic of Ireland
44.
Sidney Holland
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Sir Sidney George Holland GCMG CH was the 25th Prime Minister of New Zealand from 13 December 1949 to 20 September 1957. He was instrumental in the creation and consolidation of the New Zealand National Party, Sidney Holland was born in Greendale in the Canterbury region of the South Island, the youngest child and fourth son of a family of eight children. His father, Henry Holland, was a farmer and merchant, during the First World War, Holland enlisted as a territorial in the New Zealand Army in 1915 and later rose to the rank of second lieutenant. He saw action during the Battle of Messines before being invalidated home after contracted a severe illness, due to his injuries, Holland was hospitalised for six months and lost a lung. Holland was a prominent sportsman and sports administrator, representing Canterbury at provincial, after retiring from playing, he managed the New Zealand representative hockey team on an unbeaten tour of Australia in the 1932 and was a prominent hockey referee. Holland later married Florence Drayton in 1920 and the couple raised a family of two boys and two girls, according to his biographer Barry Gustafson, Holland was raised as a Methodist but later became an Anglican. Following his father Henry Hollands election to the New Zealand Parliament in 1925, Sidney served as his fathers private secretary. Due to this experience, Holland gained a knowledge and interest in parliamentary politics. As a result of his experiences, Holland developed a distaste for Communism. Holland successfully retained the Christchurch North seat despite the Labour Partys landslide victory during that election, in 1940, Sidney Holland replaced Nationals first non-interim leader Adam Hamilton as the leader of the National Party. Prior to becoming the Partys leader, he had served as Hamiltons parliamentary secretary, as leader of the National Party, Holland sought to win the support of the partys farming constituency by establishing a farm in North Canterbury and breeding Romney sheep and Aberdeen Angus cattle. In addition, he also countered other rival conservative parties like the Liberal Party, the Soldiers Movement, and this merger helped strengthen Nationals support base by unifying opposition to the Labour Party. Holland served as Leader of the Opposition for nearly ten years until the National Party won the 1949 general election and he represented the Christchurch North electorate from 1935 to 1946, and then the Fendalton electorate from 1946 to 1957. The resignation of two former Reform Party MPs helped strengthen Hollands control over the party caucus and organization. During the 1943 and 1946 general elections, National slowly eroded Labours parliamentary majority, while the Labour Party still remained in power, it was forced to contend with a more vigorous opposition National Party. Under Hollands leadership, National repeatedly attacked the Labour Partys socialism, big government bureaucracy, collectivism, and this strategy secured Nationals electoral victory on 30 November 1949. The Sidney Holland National Government implemented economic reforms, dismantling many state controls including butter and his government also emphasized individualism, personal freedom, and private enterprise in accordance with its 1949 electoral platform. One of Hollands first acts as Prime Minister was to abolish the Legislative Council, as a result, the New Zealand Parliament became a unicameral body consisting solely of the House of Representatives
Sidney Holland
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Sidney George Holland in 1953
45.
Jim Bolger
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James Brendan Bolger ONZ PC, commonly known as Jim Bolger, was the 35th Prime Minister of New Zealand from 1990 to 1997. Bolger was elected on the promise of delivering a Decent Society following the previous Labour governments economic reforms, shortly after taking office, his government was forced to bail out the Bank of New Zealand and as a result reneged on a number of promises made during the election campaign. His term in office saw the introduction of the MMP electoral system in 1996, Bolger was born in 1935 in Opunake in Taranaki. He was one of five born to Daniel and Cecilia Bolger who emigrated together from Gorey, County Wexford. He left Opunake High School at age 15 to work on the family farm, in 1963 he married Joan Riddell, and they moved to their own sheep and beef farm in Te Kuiti two years later. During this time Bolger became involved in local farmer politics, in the late 1960s he was asked to accompany the then Minister of Finance Robert Muldoon to see for himself the difficulties faced by farmers in the area. As Bolger travelled around the district, he experienced with Muldoons adversarial style. Bolger entered politics in 1972 as the New Zealand National Party Member of Parliament for King Country and this electorate is traditional National territory, and Bolger won easily. He represented this electorate, renamed Taranaki-King Country in 1996, until his retirement in 1998, after the defeat of National at the 1984 general elections, Bolger and deputy leader Jim McLay challenged Muldoon for the leadership of the party. McLay succeeded and named Bolger as deputy leader, however, in 1986 Bolger successfully challenged McLays leadership. Following an unsuccessful election in 1987, National under Bolger capitalised on public anger at the Labour governments neoliberal reforms to win Nationals biggest ever majority in 1990, as a result, Bolger became Prime Minister at the age of 55. Three days after being sworn in as Prime Minister, Bolgers government needed to out the Bank of New Zealand. The cost of the out was $380 million, but after rewriting its budget. This had an impact on Bolgers direction in government, with the first budget of his premiership being dubbed the Mother of All Budgets. During the campaign, Bolger had criticised the Labour governments reform package, the first budget specifically reversed Nationals election promise to remove the tax surcharge on superannuation. Following the close 1993 general election Bolger demoted Richardson to the benches and appointed Bill Birch. During Birchs tenure, spending on areas such as health. His government passed the Fiscal Responsibility Act 1994 and his government also introduced the Building Act 1991, which is seen by some as the most crucial factor leading to the leaky homes crisis in the decade following its introduction
Jim Bolger
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Jim Bolger at a foundation of KiwiRail press conference, July 2008
Jim Bolger
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Bolger presides over a student's graduation at the University of Waikato.
46.
Senate
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A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature or parliament. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate, so-called as an assembly of the senior and therefore allegedly wiser, thus, the literal meaning of the word senate is, Assembly of Elders. Many countries have a named an senate, composed of senators who may be elected, appointed, have inherited the title, or gained membership by other methods. Modern senates typically serve to provide a chamber of second thought to consider legislation passed by a lower house, whose members are usually elected. The modern word Senate is derived from the word senātus, which comes from senex, the members or legislators of a senate are called senators. The Latin word senator was adopted into English with no change in spelling and its meaning is derived from a very ancient form of social organization, in which advisory or decision-making powers are reserved for the eldest men. This form adaptation was used to show the power of those in body and for the process to be thorough. The original senate was the Roman Senate, which lasted until 580, in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Senate continued until the Fourth Crusade, circa 1202–1204. This may include minimum age required for voters and candidates, proportional or majoritarian or plurality system, typically, the senate is referred to as the upper house and has a smaller membership than the lower house. In some federal states senates also exist at the subnational level, in the United States all states with the exception of Nebraska have a state senate. There is also the US Senate at the federal level, córdoba and Tucumán changed to unicameral systems in 2001 and 2003 respectively. In Australia and Canada, only the house of the federal parliament is known as the Senate. All Australian states other than Queensland have a house known as a Legislative council. Several Canadian provinces also once had a Legislative Council, but these have all been abolished, in Germany, the last Senate of a State parliament, the Senate of Bavaria, was abolished in 1999. Senate membership can be determined either through elections or appointments, for example, elections are held every three years for half the membership of the Australian Senate, the term of a senator being six years. The terms Senate and Senator, however, do not necessarily refer to a chamber of a legislature, The Senate of Finland was, until 1919, the executive branch. The Senate of Latvia fulfilled a similar function during the interbellum. In a number of cities which were members of the Hanse, such as Greifswald, Lübeck, Rostock, Stralsund, or Wismar
Senate
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The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum
Senate
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Meeting of the Association of European Senates in Gdańsk (2009)
47.
Single Transferable Vote
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The single transferable vote is a voting system designed to achieve proportional representation through ranked voting in multi-seat organizations or constituencies. The exact method of reapportioning votes can vary, Hare–Clark is the name given to STV in lower house elections in two Australian states and territories, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. The name is derived from Thomas Hare, who developed the system, and the Tasmanian Attorney General, Andrew Inglis Clark, Hare–Clark has been changed to use rotating ballot papers. Although the New South Wales Legislative Council and the Senate have reformed their electoral systems to abolish group tickets, STV is the system of choice of groups such as the Proportional Representation Society of Australia, the Electoral Reform Society in the United Kingdom and FairVote in the USA. STV has had its widest adoption in the English-speaking world, as of 2010, in government elections, STV is used for, In British Columbia, Canada, STV was recommended for provincial elections by the BC Citizens Assembly on Electoral Reform. In a 2005 provincial referendum, it received 57. 69% support and it was not adopted, however, because it fell short of the 60% threshold requirement the Liberal government had set for the referendum to be binding. For a more complete list, see History and use of the single transferable vote, when STV is used for single-winner elections, it is equivalent to the instant-runoff voting method. STV used for elections is sometimes called proportional representation through the single transferable vote. STV usually refers to the version, as it does in this article. In Australia STV is known as the Hare–Clark Proportional method, while in the United States it is called choice voting. In STV, each voter ranks the list of candidates in order of preference, in the most common ballot design, they place a 1 beside their most preferred candidate, a 2 beside their second most preferred, and so on. The completed ballot paper contains an ordinal list of candidates. The Droop quota is an extension of requiring a 50% +1 majority in single-winner elections, for example, at most 3 people can have 25% +1 in 3-winner elections,9 can have 10% +1 in 9-winner elections, and so on. If fractional votes can be submitted, then the Droop quota may be modified so that the fraction is not rounded down, thus the quota is a positive but not necessarily an integer value. An STV election starts with every voters first choice, according to the following steps, if any such elected candidate has more votes than the quota, the excess votes are transferred to other candidates. Votes that would have gone to the go to the next preference. This can be done in several ways, if no-one new meets the quota, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated and those votes are transferred to each voters next preferred candidate. This process repeats until either a winner is found for every seat or there are as many seats as remaining candidates, there are variations, such as how to transfer surplus votes from winning candidates and whether to transfer votes to already-elected candidates
Single Transferable Vote
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Carl Andræ
48.
Red herring (idiom)
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A red herring is something that misleads or distracts from a relevant or important issue. It may be either a logical fallacy or a device that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. A red herring might be used, such as in mystery fiction or as part of rhetorical strategies. The origin of the expression is unknown, the phrase was later borrowed to provide a formal name for the logical fallacy and literary device. As an informal fallacy, the red herring falls into a class of relevance fallacies. Unlike the straw man, which is premised on a distortion of the partys position. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a red herring may be intentional, or unintentional, the expression is mainly used to assert that an argument is not relevant to the issue being discussed. For example, I think we should make the academic requirements stricter for students, I recommend you support this because we are in a budget crisis, and we do not want our salaries affected. The second sentence, though used to support the first sentence, in fiction and non-fiction a red herring may be intentionally used by the writer to plant a false clue that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. The characters name is a loose Italian translation of red herring, in a literal sense, there is no such fish as a red herring, it refers to a particularly strong kipper, a fish that has been strongly cured in brine and/or heavily smoked. This process makes the fish particularly pungent smelling and, with strong enough brine, turns its flesh reddish. In its literal sense as a strongly cured kipper, the term can be dated to the century, in the poem The Treatise by Walter of Bibbesworth. Prior to 2008, the sense of red herring was thought to originate from a supposed technique of training young scent hounds. There are variations of the story, but according to one version, later, when the dog was being trained to follow the faint odour of a fox or a badger, the trainer would drag a red herring perpendicular to the animals trail to confuse the dog. The dog eventually learned to follow the original scent rather than the stronger scent, another variation of the dog story is given by Robert Hendrickson who says escaping convicts used the pungent fish to throw off hounds in pursuit. Ross researched the origin of the story and found the earliest reference to using herrings for training animals was in a tract on horsemanship published in 1697 by Gerland Langbaine. Langbaine recommended a method of training horses by dragging the carcass of a cat or fox so that the horse would be accustomed to following the chaos of a hunting party and he says if a dead animal is not available, a red herring would do as a substitute. This recommendation was misunderstood by Nicholas Cox, published in the notes of another book around the same time, either way, the herring was not used to distract the hounds or horses from a trail, rather to guide them along it
Red herring (idiom)
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Herrings kippered by smoking and salting until they turn reddish-brown, i.e. a "red herring". Prior to refrigeration kipper was known for being strongly pungent. In 1807, William Cobbett wrote how he used red herrings to lay a false trail, while training hunting dogs —an apocryphal story that was probably the origin of the idiom.
49.
Mixed-member proportional representation
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Mixed-member proportional representation is a hybrid two-tier voting system. MMP was originally used to elect representatives to the German Bundestag and it was used in Romania, in the 2008 and 2012 legislative elections. MMP is a method that uses party list proportional representation as its proportional component. It is considered a system, which is a distinct voting system. An electoral system is mixed if more than one formula is employed to distribute legislative seats, biproportional apportionment, first used in Zürich in 2006, is a hybrid method for adjusting an elections result to achieve overall proportionality. In Germany, where it is used on the level and on most state levels. In the United Kingdom such systems used in Scotland, Wales, in the Canadian province of Quebec, where an MMP model was studied in 2007, it is called the compensatory mixed-member voting system. In most models the voter two votes, one for a constituency representative and one for a party. In the original variant used in Germany, both votes were combined into one, so voting for a representative automatically meant also voting for the representatives party. Most of Germany changed to the variant to make local MPs more personally accountable. Voters can vote for the person they prefer for local MP without regard for party affiliation. In the 2005 New Zealand election, 20% of local MPs were elected from electorates which gave a different party a plurality of votes, in each constituency, the representative is chosen using a single winner method, typically first-past-the-post. Most systems used closed party lists to elect the non-constituency MPs, depending on the jurisdiction, candidates may stand for both a constituency and on a party list, or may be restricted to contend either for a constituency or for a party list, but not both. If a candidate is on the party list, but wins a constituency seat, in Bavaria the second vote is not simply for the party but for one of the candidates on the partys regional list, Bavaria uses seven regions for this purpose. A regional open-list method was recommended for the United Kingdom by the Jenkins Commission. This can be done by the largest remainder method or a highest averages method, subtracted from each partys allocation is the number of constituency seats that party won, so that the additional seats are compensatory. If a party wins more FPTP seats than the proportional quota received by the party-list vote, in most German states, but not federally until the federal election of 2013, balance seats are added to compensate for the overhang seats and achieve complete proportionality. In the last election in Scotland, the highest averages method resulted in a majority government for the Scottish National Party with only 44% of the party vote, however, Scotland uses the term Additional Member System which, like MMP can either be proportional or semi-proportional
Mixed-member proportional representation
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Ballot for electoral district 252, Würzburg, for the 2005 German federal election. Constituency vote on left, party list vote on right.
50.
Westminster system
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The Westminster system is a parliamentary system of government modelled after that which developed in the United Kingdom. This term comes from the Palace of Westminster, the seat of the British parliament, the system is a series of procedures for operating a legislature. However, some colonies have since adopted either the presidential system or a hybrid system as their form of government. Examples include Queen Elizabeth II, the governors-general in Commonwealth realms, or the presidents of many countries, exceptions to this are Ireland and Israel, whose presidents are de jure and de facto ceremonial, and the latter possesses no reserve powers whatsoever. A head of government, known as the minister, premier. While the head of state appoints the head of government, constitutional convention suggests that a majority of elected Members of Parliament must support the person appointed. If more than half of elected parliamentarians belong to the political party. An exception to this was Israel, in which direct prime-ministerial elections were made in 1996,1999 and 2001, an independent, non-partisan civil service which advises on, and implements, decisions of those ministers. Civil servants hold permanent appointments and can expect merit-based selection processes, a parliamentary opposition with an official Leader of the Opposition. A legislature, often bicameral, with at least one elected house – although unicameral systems also exist, a lower house of parliament with an ability to dismiss a government by withholding Supply, passing a motion of no confidence, or defeating a confidence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated or forced into a general election independently, a parliament which can be dissolved and snap elections called at any time. Another parallel system of principles also exists known as equity. Exceptions to this include India, Quebec in Canada, and Scotland in the UK amongst others which mix common law with legal systems. Unlike the uncodified British constitution, most countries use the Westminster system have codified the system, at least in part. The pattern of executive functions within a Westminster System is quite complex, in essence, the head of state, usually a monarch or president, is a ceremonial figurehead who is the theoretical, nominal or de jure source of executive power within the system. In practice, such a figure does not actively exercise executive powers, in the United Kingdom, the sovereign theoretically holds executive authority, even though the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Cabinet effectively implement executive powers. In a parliamentary republic like India, the President is the de jure executive, even though executive powers are essentially instituted by the Prime Minister of India and the Council of Ministers. In Israel, however, executive power is vested de jure and de facto in the cabinet, as an example, the Prime Minister and Cabinet generally must seek the permission of the head of state when carrying out executive functions
Westminster system
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The British Houses of Parliament are situated within the Palace of Westminster, in London
Westminster system
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Parliament House, Canberra, Australia
Westminster system
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The Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House) building in New Delhi, India
Westminster system
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The Parliament building in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
51.
Geoffrey Palmer (politician)
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Sir Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer KCMG AC QC is a New Zealand lawyer, legal academic, and past politician, who was a member of the New Zealand Parliament from 1979 to 1990. He served as the 33rd Prime Minister of New Zealand from August 1989 until September 1990, Palmer was born in Nelson and attended Nelson Central School, Nelson Intermediate School and Nelson College. At Victoria University of Wellington, he studied political science and law. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1964 and a Bachelor of Laws in 1965, after working for a time in Wellington, he attended the University of Chicagos law school, gaining a Juris Doctor in 1967. He taught for a time at the University of Iowa and the University of Virginia, eventually, in 1974, he was appointed to a professorship of law at Victoria University of Wellington, bringing him back to New Zealand. At the 1975 general election, Palmer took part in the Citizens for Rowling campaign, in a 1979 by-election, Palmer was elected to Parliament as the member for Christchurch Central, having stood as the Labour Party candidate. He eventually became deputy Leader of the Opposition in 1983, when, in 1984, the Labour Party won the general elections, Palmer became Deputy Prime Minister of the Fourth Labour Government. He also became Attorney-General and Minister of Justice, the new justice minister, who had promoted proportional representation as a law professor in his book Unbridled Power. Also published in 1984, set up a Royal Commission to investigate the electoral system and his Royal Commission reported in December 1986, recommending the Mixed Member Proportional system. After the 1987 elections, when Labour was re-elected, he also became Minister of the Environment, the most notable feature of New Zealand politics at the time was the economic change promoted by the Finance Minister, Roger Douglas. Douglas was advancing free market monetarist policies involving extensive privatization of state assets, Lange also reneged from his promise to hold a binding referendum on the MMP system. Palmer conceded defeat on MMP at an April 1989 Labour regional conference, eventually, Douglas was removed from Cabinet, but the dispute had weakened Lange enough that he resigned a month later. Palmer, being deputy leader, took over as Prime Minister, Palmer, however, was perceived by the public as being too closely involved with Douglass reforms and academically remote. Of particular concern to people was his work on the legal aspects of state sector rearrangement. The presence of David Caygill as Minister of Finance further compounded perception that Palmer was doing nothing to address public concerns, two months before the 1990 elections, it was clear that Labour would not win. The perceived damage done by Roger Douglass reforms, as well as Palmers lack of general charisma, in addition, Palmer was perceived as being too academic and aloof, reminding people of the paternalistic attitude that Douglas was accused of. Palmer was replaced by Mike Moore, who Labour believed would give it a chance of winning. Palmer chose to resign from parliament, and was replaced in his seat by Lianne Dalziel, the attempt failed, however, and the opposition National Party under Jim Bolger won a landslide victory
Geoffrey Palmer (politician)
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The Right Honourable Sir Geoffrey Palmer KCMG AC QC
52.
New Zealand general election, 1853
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The 1853 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliaments 1st term. It was the first national election held in New Zealand, although Parliament did not yet have full authority to govern the colony. The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, established a bicameral New Zealand Parliament, votes were to be cast under a simple FPP system, and the secret ballot had not yet been introduced. To qualify as a voter, one needed to be male, to be a British subject, to be at least 21 years old, to own a certain value of land, and to not be serving a criminal sentence. One of the candidates elected was a landowner, but at 20 years and 7 months was not yet 21, at the time of the 1853 elections, there were no political parties in New Zealand. As such, all candidates were independents, in the 1853 elections, election day was different in each seat. The first seat to be elected was Bay of Islands on 14 July, hugh Carleton was the first MP ever elected in New Zealand, so he liked to be called the Father of the House. There were 5,849 people registered to vote, the number of electoral districts was 24, and some districts elected multiple MPs. The total number of seats was 37, some parts of the colony were not part of any district, and did not have representation in Parliament
New Zealand general election, 1853
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Election poster in support of William Barnard Rhodes, standing for Wellington Country
53.
2nd New Zealand Parliament
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The 2nd New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. It opened on 15 April 1856, following New Zealands 1855 election and it was dissolved on 5 November 1860 in preparation for 1860–61 election. The 2nd Parliament was the first under which New Zealand had responsible government, meaning that unlike previously, at this time political parties had not been established, meaning that anyone attempting to form an administration had to win support directly from individual MPs. This made forming a government difficult, the Sewell Ministry, the first responsible government, led by Henry Sewell, lasted only two weeks. The first Fox Ministry, the responsible government, led by William Fox. The third responsible government, the first Stafford Ministry, led by Edward Stafford, was stable, governing for the remainder of the 2nd Parliament. Two regions of the colony were not part of any electorate, the turnover of MPs was very high in the 2nd Parliament, with 32 by-elections and a supplementary election being held. The northern portion of the Northern Division electorate was split off, the Wairarapa and Hawkes Bay electorate was split into two separate components, Wairarapa and County of Hawke. All the previously unincorporated areas in the lower North Island were divided between Wairarapa, County of Hawke, Wanganui and Rangitikei, and Wellington Country, in the South Island, the southern portion of Wairau electorate, plus part of Christchurch Country, became the new Cheviot electorate. The western portion of Dunedin Country was split off and became the new Wallace electorate, the northwest of the South Island remained the colonys only territory not part of an electorate. At the opening of the 6th session of the Parliament on 10 April 1858, akaroa Cuff resigned in 1858 and was succeeded by William Sefton Moorhouse. Auckland Suburbs Merriman resigned on 13 March 1860 and he was succeeded by Joseph Hargreaves, who was elected on 5 April 1860, and resigned on 24 July 1860. Hargreaves was replaced by Logan Campbell, who was returned unopposed on 4 August 1860, brodie resigned on 6 December 1859 and was succeeded by Theophilus Heale. Christchurch Country Brittin resigned in 1856, returned to England on urgent business and he was succeeded in 1856 by John Ollivier, who himself resigned in 1860. Ollivier was succeeded by Isaac Thomas Cookson, hall resigned in 1860 and was succeeded by Charles Hunter Brown. City of Auckland Campbell resigned in 1858 and he was succeeded by Thomas Forsaith. He was succeeded by Archibald Clark, city of Wellington In 1858, Featherston and Fitzherbert resigned their seats in Parliament. Featherston apparently wanted to return to England, instead, he successfully stood for re-election within months
2nd New Zealand Parliament
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Montage of portraits depicting members of the House of Representatives of New Zealand, the Sergeant-at-Arms, and the Clerk of the House, during the Second Parliament in 1860. Government House, Auckland, is at the top. This is the first photo taken of the New Zealand Parliament.
2nd New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
2nd New Zealand Parliament
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The key that goes with the montage of portraits.
54.
3rd New Zealand Parliament
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The third New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. Elections for this term were held between 12 December 1860 and 28 March 1861 in 43 electorates to elect 53 MPs, during the term of this Parliament, six Ministries were in power. The third Parliament opened on 30 May 1861, following New Zealands 1860–61 election and it was the second Parliament under which New Zealand had responsible government, meaning that unlike the first Parliament, the Cabinet was chosen by Parliament rather than by the Governor. Political parties had not been established yet, this happened after the 1890 election. Anyone attempting to form an administration thus had to win support directly from individual MPs and this made first forming, and then retaining a government difficult and challenging. The third Parliament sat during the time of the New Zealand land wars, even before the first session started, William Cutfield King was killed in the First Taranaki War. Marmaduke Nixon was killed in action in 1864 whilst leading an assault on a Māori village during the Invasion of Waikato, since 1856, the first Stafford Ministry, led by Edward Stafford, was in place. This was the administration under responsible government, and it was dissolved on 12 July 1861. Stafford was the third Premier of New Zealand, William Fox then formed the second Fox Ministry, which was in place from 12 July 1861 to 6 August 1862. Fox had previously been the Premier under the second administration, Alfred Domett, the fourth Premier, led the fifth administration, the Domett Ministry. This was in place from 6 August 1862 until 30 October 1863, the Whitaker–Fox Ministry was the next administration, led by Frederick Whitaker as the fifth Premier. This administration was in place from 30 October 1863 to 24 November 1864 and this was followed by the Weld Ministry under Frederick Weld as the sixth Premier. This was in place from 24 November 1864 to 16 October 1865, a few months before the 1866 general elections, Stafford once again became Premier on 16 October 1865, leading the second Stafford Ministry. This lasted well into the term of the fourth Parliament on 28 June 1869, Parliament sat for five sessions, The first session started on 30 May 1861. Ever since Parliament had first met in 1854 in Auckland, an argument was had for the members to meet in a central place. The second session of the 3rd Parliament was the first to meet outside of Auckland, a proposal to make this move to Wellington permanent was lost by a single vote. The fifth session started on 26 July 1865 and Parliament was prorogued on 30 October,43 electorates were used for the 1860–61 elections. This was a significant increase from the previous 28 electorates,53 seats were created across the 43 electorates
3rd New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
55.
5th New Zealand Parliament
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The fifth New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. Elections for this term were held in 68 European electorates between 14 January and 23 February 1871, elections in the four Māori electorates were held on 1 and 15 January 1871. A total of 78 MPs were elected, Parliament was prorogued in December 1875. During the term of this Parliament, six Ministries were in power, the fifth Parliament opened on 14 August 1871, following the 1871 general election. It sat for five sessions, and was prorogued on 6 December 1875, political parties had not been established yet, this only happened after the 1890 election. Anyone attempting to form an administration thus had to win support directly from individual MPs and this made first forming, and then retaining a government difficult and challenging. Since June 1869, the third Fox Ministry was in power, on 10 September 1872, the third Stafford Ministry was formed, which lasted 13 months. This was followed by the Waterhouse Ministry, from 11 October 1872 to 3 March 1873, the fourth Fox Ministry was short lived, from 3 March 1873 to 8 April 1873. The first Vogel Ministry was in power from 8 April 1873 to 6 July 1875 and it was succeeded by the Pollen Ministry, which lasted into the term of the sixth Parliament. 78 seats were created across the electorates,68 European electorates and 4 Māori electorates were defined by the Representation Act 1870. Six of the general electorates had two representatives, the rest were single member electorates and this compares to 61 electorates used in the previous general election in 1866, and 65 electorates after the Māori electorates were created in 1867. There were numerous changes during the term of the fifth Parliament, akaroa Robert Heaton Rhodes resigned on 18 February 1874. William Montgomery won the subsequent 24 April 1874 by-election, in July 1874, a select committee declared Montgomerys election to be null and void, as he had a contract for the supply of railway sleepers with the general government in breach of election rules. The select committee accepted that the breach was inadvertent, Montgomery stood for re-election in a 10 August 1874 by-election and was returned unopposed. Caversham Richard Cantrell resigned on 31 July 1872 and he was succeeded by William Tolmie in a 28 August 1872 by-election, and he served until his death on 8 August 1875. Robert Stout, a later Prime Minister, first entered Parliament through the resulting 20 August 1875 by-election, coleridge John Karslake Karslake resigned on 12 April 1872 to return to England. William Bluett succeeded him through the 22 July 1872 by-election, collingwood Arthur Collins resigned on 8 October 1873. The resulting 9 December 1873 by-election was won by William Gibbs, city of Dunedin Bathgate resigned in 1874 and was succeeded by Nathaniel Wales
5th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
56.
6th New Zealand Parliament
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The 6th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. Elections for this term were held in 69 European electorates between 20 December 1875 and 29 January 1876, elections in the four Māori electorates were held on 4 and 15 January 1876. A total of 88 MPs were elected, Parliament was prorogued in August 1879. During the term of this Parliament, five Ministries were in power, the 6th Parliament opened on 15 June 1876, following the 1875–76 general election. It sat for four sessions, and was prorogued on 15 August 1879, political parties had not been established yet, this only happened after the 1890 election. Anyone attempting to form an administration thus had to win support directly from individual MPs and this made first forming, and then retaining a government difficult and challenging. Since July 1875, the Pollen Ministry was in power, led by Premier Daniel Pollen, on 15 February 1876, the second Vogel Ministry was established, which lasted until 1 September 1876. This was followed by the Atkinson Ministry, what is known as the beginning of the Continuous Ministry and it was reconstituted as the second Atkinson Ministry, which ruled from 13 September 1876 to 13 October 1877. This was succeeded by the Grey Ministry, which was in power from 13 October 1877 to 8 October 1879 and this period extended slightly after the period of the 1879 general elections for the 7th Parliament. 88 seats were created across the electorates, there were numerous changes during the term of the 6th Parliament. The Cyclopedia of New Zealand, Auckland Provincial District, the Cyclopedia of New Zealand, Otago & Southland Provincial Districts. Present And Past Members Of Parliament, the Cyclopedia of New Zealand, Nelson, Marlborough & Westland Provincial Districts. Former Members Of The House Of Representatives, the Cyclopedia of New Zealand, Taranaki, Hawke’s Bay & Wellington Provincial Districts. The Penguin History of New Zealand
6th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
57.
New Zealand general election, 1881
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The New Zealand general election of 1881 was held on 8 and 9 December in the Māori and European electorates, respectively, to elect 95 MPs to the 8th session of the New Zealand Parliament. Beginning with the 1881 election, all elections in European electorates were to be held on the same day, the previous electoral redistribution was undertaken in 1875 for the 1875–76 election. In the six years since, New Zealands European population had increased by 65%, in the 1881 electoral redistribution, the House of Representatives increased the number of European representatives to 91. The number of Māori electorates was held at four, in addition, two electorates that had previously been abolished were recreated, Bay of Islands and Oamaru. These changes necessitated a major disruption to existing boundaries, only six electorates remained unchanged, Waikato, Waipa, Bruce, Lyttelton, Nelson, and Picton. The electoral distribution was the first that formally acknowledged the existence of a country quota, where country electorates contained 25% fewer voters than town electorates. The 1881 election was held on Thursday,8 December, in the Māori electorates and on Friday,9 December, a total number of 120,972 voters turned out to vote. In 11 seats there was one candidate. 36 and 55 seats were in the North Island and South Island, respectively, the incumbent government led by John Hall retained office having support from 45 members with 39 Greyites and 11 Independents not affiliated with either faction. The following table shows the successful candidate for each electorate, cooper, G. S. Votes Recorded for Each Candidate
New Zealand general election, 1881
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All 95 seats in the House of Representatives
58.
11th New Zealand Parliament
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The 11th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. Elections for this term were held in 4 Māori electorates and 62 European electorates on 27 November and 5 December 1890, a total of 74 MPs were elected - a reduction on the 95 MPs of the previous Parliament. The 11th Parliament opened on 23 January 1891, following the 1890 general election and it sat for four sessions, and was prorogued on 8 November 1893. In December 1887, the House of Representatives voted to reduce its membership from general electorates from 91 to 70, the 1890 electoral redistribution used the same 1886 census data used for the 1887 electoral redistribution. In addition, three-member electorates were introduced in the four main centres and this resulted in a major restructuring of electorates, with 12 new electorates created. Of those, four electorates were created for the first time, Te Aroha, Halswell, Dunedin Suburbs, the fourth Atkinson Ministry, known as the Scarecrow Ministry, had been the government. The election had returned several Independent or Labour members as well as the Liberals, on 21 January Atkinson told his colleagues that he was retiring on doctor’s orders, resigned his seat and was sworn into the Legislative Council, and appointed Speaker. When William Rolleston lost the nomination for Speaker, Edwin Mitchelson announced the resignation of the government. The Governor asked John Ballance to form a government, which he did on 24 January and it was found to have a majority in the house. After a week of debate, the house went into recess until June, Atkinson was appointed to the Council with six colleagues, on 20 or 22 January 1891. He was widely regarded as having stacked the council before leaving office, There was a 5000-signature petition against the appointments, but they were approved by the Governor, The Earl of Onslow. Ballance had considerable difficulty in achieving reform of the Legislative Council, with new appointments to be for seven years rather than life, ballances victory is seen as establishing an important precedent in the relationship between Governor and Prime Minister. The Ballance Ministry was the beginning of the Liberal Government, which lasted until 1912, John Ballance died suddenly on 27 April 1893 and whilst Ballance had favoured Robert Stout as his successor, the caucus selected Richard Seddon instead. The Seddon Ministry was in power from 1 May 1893 until 10 June 1906,74 seats were created across 66 electorates. While the Liberal party was the established party structure at the time. Due to the nature of this grouping it is difficult to determine the affiliation of some Independent MPs. Table footnotes, There were a number of changes during the term of the 11th Parliament, adventures in Democracy, A History of the Vote in New Zealand. Three Party Politics in New Zealand 1911–1931, the Rainmaker, A biography of John Ballance
11th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
59.
New Zealand general election, 1890
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The New Zealand general election of 1890 was one of New Zealands most significant. It was also the first election in which there was no legal plural voting, multi-member electorates were re-introduced in the four main centres and the country quota was increased to 28%. Following the election and the resignation of the government headed by Harry Atkinson, John Ballance formed the first Liberal Party ministry. In December 1887, the House of Representatives voted to reduce its membership from general electorates from 91 to 70, the 1890 electoral redistribution used the same 1886 census data used for the 1887 electoral redistribution. In addition, three-member electorates were introduced in the four main centres and this resulted in a major restructuring of electorates, with 12 new electorates created. Of those, four electorates were created for the first time, Te Aroha, Halswell, Dunedin Suburbs,74 MPs were elected to the 11th session of the New Zealand Parliament. The Māori electorates voted on 27 November and the European electorates on 5 December, there were 183,171 voters registered in the sixty-two European electorates, which returned a total of 70 members. This figure includes 13,668 voters in the six electorates where there was an unopposed return,136,337 valid votes were cast in European electorates, including additional votes cast in the four three-member electorates. Note that as the election was held before the establishment of political parties. Mackie and Rose suggest there was a 74. 4% turnout, the official turnout figure is 80. 4%, calculated on a different basis. The Māori vote, for the four seats, was held on 27 November. Maori electorates did not have electoral rolls so their voting figures and percentages are not included above, the following table shows the results of the 1890 general election. Six European members were returned unopposed, key Liberal Conservative Liberal-Labour Independent Liberal Independent Table footnotes, Elections in New Zealand Mackie, Thomas T. Rose, Richard. The International Almanac of Electoral History
New Zealand general election, 1890
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All 74 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 38 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1890
60.
12th New Zealand Parliament
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The 12th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1893 general election in November and December of that year, in the 1892 electoral redistribution, population shift to the North Island required the transfer of one seat from the South Island to the north. The resulting ripple effect saw every electorate established in 1890 have its boundaries altered, of those, eight electorates were established for the first time, Bay of Plenty, Otaki, Pareora, Patea, Riccarton, Waiapu, Waimea-Sounds, and Wellington Suburbs. The remaining six electorates had existed before, and they were re-established for the 12th Parliament, Caversham, Chalmers, Lyttelton, Rangitata, Waihemo, and Waipa. The 1893 general election was held on Tuesday,28 November in the general electorates and on Wednesday,20 December in the Māori electorates, respectively. A total of 74 MPs were elected,30 represented North Island electorates,40 represented South Island electorates,302,997 voters were enrolled and the official turnout at the election was 75. 3%. The 12th Parliament sat for three sessions, and was prorogued on 14 November 1896, the Liberal Government of New Zealand had taken office on 24 January 1891. John Ballance, who had been leading the Ballance Ministry, had died on 27 April 1893 and had succeeded by the Seddon Ministry under Richard Seddon. The Seddon Ministry remained in power for the term of this Parliament. 74 seats were created across 66 electorates,62 electorates returned a single member and four electoral districts had three representatives each. The Liberal party was the established party structure at the time. Key Liberal Conservative Liberal-Labour Independent Liberal Independent Table footnotes, roll of Members of the House of Representatives in 1894
12th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
61.
13th New Zealand Parliament
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The 13th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1896 general election in December of that year, the 1896 general election was held on Wednesday,4 December in the general electorates and on Thursday,19 December in the Māori electorates, respectively. In the 1896 electoral redistribution, rapid growth in the North Island required the transfer of three seats from the South Island to the north. Four electorates that previously existed were re-established, and three electorates were established for the first time, a total of 74 MPs were elected,34 represented North Island electorates,36 represented South Island electorates, and the remaining four represented Māori electorates. 337,024 voters were enrolled and the turnout at the election was 76. 1%. The 13th Parliament sat for four sessions, and was prorogued on 15 November 1899, the Liberal Government of New Zealand had taken office on 24 January 1891. The Seddon Ministry under Richard Seddon had taken office in 1893 during the term of the 11th Parliament, the Seddon Ministry remained in power for the whole term of this Parliament and held power until Seddons death on 10 June 1906
13th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
62.
New Zealand general election, 1896
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A total number of 337,024 voters turned out to vote. 1896 was the year the limit of £200 was placed on each candidates campaign spending, the Liberal government campaigned on a platform that the election was between the people and the selfish few. The economy stagnated, raising unemployment, which caused support for the Liberals to fall in the cities and they lost many seats, in rural areas, the swing in support was not as large due to the public works and land settlement programmes helping to support the regions. In June 1896 Seddon had replaced Joseph Ward as Finance Minister whilst the latter had resigned after being declared temporarily bankrupt, as such Seddon himself took on the workload of the treasury making him more susceptible to opposition attacks over the economy. He proved to be a cautious financier, budgeting for surpluses while maintaining the spirit of self reliance his predecessor John Ballance had advocated, the following table gives party strengths and vote distribution according to Wilson, who records Maori representatives as Independents prior to the 1905 election. Charles Wilson was elected MP for that following a by-election on 23 April 1897. A boundary redistribution resulted in the abolition of seven seats, Chalmers, the New Zealand Liberals, The Years of Power, 1891–1912
New Zealand general election, 1896
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All 74 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 38 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1896
63.
15th New Zealand Parliament
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The 15th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1902 general election in November and December of that year, the Representation Act 1900 had increased the membership of the House of Representatives from general electorates 70 to 76, and this was implemented through the 1902 electoral redistribution. In 1902, changes to the country affected the three-member electorates in the four main centres. The tolerance between electorates was increased to ±1,250 so that the Representation Commissions could take account of communities of interest. These changes proved very disruptive to existing boundaries, six electorates were established for the first time, Courtenay, Newtown, Grey Lynn, Hurunui, Oroua, and Kaipara. Two electorates that previously existed were re-established, Mount Ida and Hutt, a total of 80 MPs were elected,38 represented North Island electorates,38 represented South Island electorates, and the remaining four represented Māori electorates. 415,789 voters were enrolled and the turnout at the election was 76. 7%. The 15th Parliament sat for three sessions, and was prorogued on 15 November 1905, the Liberal Government of New Zealand had taken office on 24 January 1891. The Seddon Ministry under Richard Seddon had taken office in 1893 during the term of the 11th Parliament, the Seddon Ministry remained in power for the whole term of this Parliament and held power until Seddons death on 10 June 1906
15th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
64.
New Zealand general election, 1905
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A total number of 412,702 voters turned out, with 396,657 voting in the European electorates. It was also the year absentee voting was introduced for all electors unable to be in their own electorate on election day, the first Chief Electoral Officer was appointed. Wellington Central, Wellington North, and Dunedin North were established for the first time, in 1905 a progressive faction within the Liberal Party started to form in opposition to Liberal leader Richard Seddons policies. The freshly created Independent Political Labour League also contested the election as a faction from the Liberals. It was the first of many steps of a move by urban labourers shifting allegiance to an independent working-class political party. Previously, most workers had supported the Liberal Party, which since the 1890s had attempted to gain Trade Union support by appointing union representatives to the governing body. The IPLL did not perform well, gaining only 3,478 votes nationwide with no candidates elected, the Rev Frank Isitt was the Prohibition candidate for several South Island electorates, and came second in two. The following table gives party strengths and vote distribution, the following are the results of the 1905 general election, Key Liberal Conservative New Liberal Liberal-Labour Independent Liberal Independent McRobie, Alan. Wellington, NZ Working Printing & Publishing
New Zealand general election, 1905
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1905
New Zealand general election, 1905
65.
17th New Zealand Parliament
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The 17th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1908 general election in November and December of that year, the Second Ballot Act 1908 was used for the 1908 general election. The first ballot was held on Tuesday,17 November in the general electorates,22 second ballots were held one week later on 24 November, and in one large rural electorate, two weeks were allowed before the second ballot was held on 1 December. The Second Ballot Act did not apply to the four Māori electorates, a total of 80 MPs were elected,41 represented North Island electorates,35 represented South Island electorates, and the remaining four represented Māori electorates. 537,003 voters were enrolled and the turnout at the election was 79. 8%. The 17th Parliament sat for four sessions, and was prorogued on 20 November 1911, the Liberal Government of New Zealand had taken office on 24 January 1891. Joseph Ward formed the Ward Ministry on 6 August 1906, the Ward Ministry remained in power until Wards resignation as Prime Minister in 1912. The following are the results of the 1908 general election, Key Liberal Conservative Ind, labour League Independent Liberal Liberal-Labour Independent Table footnotes, There were a number of changes during the term of the 17th Parliament
17th New Zealand Parliament
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Members of the Liberal Party of the 17th Parliament
17th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
66.
New Zealand general election, 1908
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A total number of 537,003 voters turned out to vote. The Second Ballot Act 1908 provided for second or runoff ballots between the top two candidates where the top candidate did not get an absolute majority, the second ballot was held seven days after the first ballot except in ten large rural seats, where fourteen days were allowed. In 1908,22 second ballots were held on 24 November, at the 1911 election, all 30 second ballots were held seven days later. Two 1909 by-elections also required second ballots, the Second Ballot Act of 1908, which did not apply to the Maori electorates, was repealed in 1913. The following table gives party strengths and vote distribution, the following are the results of the 1908 general election, Key Liberal Conservative Ind
New Zealand general election, 1908
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1908
New Zealand general election, 1908
67.
New Zealand general election, 1911
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A total number of 590,042 voters turned out to vote. In two seats there was one candidate. The result was that the Liberal Party, which had won a majority of seats in Parliament, lost 17 seats and its majority, the Reform Party gained 9 to obtain a plurality of seats. Liberal Prime Minister Joseph Ward was able to retain office, but in 1912, Joseph Ward hoped to remain in power with the support of independents and Labour Party members. Several candidates before the election made commitments to support the Ward Government in the event of a motion in the House of Representatives. To speed up the process, Ward promised to resign as Prime Minister after the Reform Partys no-confidence motion was defeated. The end result was even at 39 all, with the Speaker casting the vote in favour of the Ward Government. Joseph Ward then resigned as Prime Minister on 28 March 1912 and he was succeeded by Thomas Mackenzie and his new Cabinet was sworn in. The Mackenzie Government lasted only two months and was defeated by a motion,41 votes to 33 on 5 July 1912. The Second Ballot Act 1908 provided for second or runoff ballots between the top two candidates where the top candidate did not get an absolute majority, the second ballot was held seven days after the first ballot except in ten large rural seats, where fourteen days was allowed. At the 1911 election, all 30 second ballots were held seven days later, two 1913 by-elections also required second ballots. The Second Ballot Act did not apply to the Maori electorates, in 1911 were the first triennial national referendum on prohibition of alcohol. Referendums were subsequently held in conjunction with general election until they were abolished in 1989. Three Party Politics in New Zealand 1911–1931
New Zealand general election, 1911
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1911
68.
New Zealand general election, 1914
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The New Zealand general election of 1914 was held on 10 December to elect a total of 80 MPs to the 19th session of the New Zealand Parliament. The Maori vote was held on 11 December, a total number of 616,043 voters were registered, of which 84. 7% voters turned out to vote. The election saw William Masseys Reform Government maintain power, the second-ballot voting system had been repealed in 1913, and first-past-the-post voting reinstated for the 1914 election. Soldiers serving overseas in the NZEF were given a vote by the Expeditionary Forces Voting Act,1914, otaki was won by Reform from the Social Democrats
New Zealand general election, 1914
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1914
New Zealand general election, 1914
69.
New Zealand general election, 1919
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A total number of 560,673 voters turned out to vote. In 1919 women won the right to be elected to the House of Representatives, the law was changed late in 1919, and with only three weeks notice, three women stood for Parliament in 1919. They were Ellen Melville in Grey Lynn, Rosetta Baume in Parnell, Ellen Melville stood for the Reform Party and came second. She stood for Parliament several more times, but while generally polling well she never won a seat, though Labour Party captured only eight seats it received a quarter of the votes – a shock to conservative minds due to Labour being founded only three years earlier in 1916. Labours path to independence, The Origins and Establishment of the New Zealand Labour Party. Auckland, New Zealand, Auckland University Press, the Politics of Equality, New Zealand’s Adventures in Democracy
New Zealand general election, 1919
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1919
New Zealand general election, 1919
New Zealand general election, 1919
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The results of the 1919 general election displayed outside The Press Building in Christchurch
70.
New Zealand general election, 1925
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The New Zealand general election of 1925 was held 4 November to elect a total of 80 MPs to the 22nd session of the New Zealand Parliament. A total number of 678,877 voters turned out to vote, in one seat there was only one candidate. In 1922, registration as an elector was made compulsory for all those eligible, Gordon Coates continued as Prime Minister, with his Reform Party winning an outright majority of 30. Leonard Isitt and George Witty were both appointed to the Legislative Council by Gordon Coates on 28 October 1925, shortly before the election on 4 November, both were Liberals but their retirement removed a source of some bitterness from the Partys ranks. Gordon Coates was Reform, and both of their seats went to Reform candidates. After the election both Labour and Liberals held 11 seats, a tie at 4,900 votes each in Lyttelton was eventually settled in Labours favour on 13 March 1926. After winning the 15 April 1926 by-election in Eden, Labour became the official opposition, the election results were as follows, Key Reform Labour Liberal Country Party Independent Table footnotes, Bassett, Michael. Three Party Politics in New Zealand 1911–1931, the Significance of the 1928 General Election, A Study in Certain Trends in New Zealand Politics During the Nineteen-Twenties
New Zealand general election, 1925
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All 80 seats in the House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1925
New Zealand general election, 1925
New Zealand general election, 1925
71.
23rd New Zealand Parliament
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The 23rd New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1928 general election in November of that year, the 1928 general election was held on Tuesday,13 November in the Māori electorates and on Wednesday,14 November in the general electorates, respectively. A total of 80 MPs were elected,47 represented North Island electorates,29 represented South Island electorates,844,633 voters were enrolled and the official turnout at the election was 88. 1%. The 23rd Parliament sat for five sessions, and was prorogued on 12 November 1931, the Coates Ministry led by Gordon Coates of the Reform Party had come to power in May 1925. The Reform Party lost the 1928 election, suffering a humiliating defeat, Parliament was called shortly after the election, Coates lost a no confidence vote and resigned as Prime Minister. Joseph Ward formed the second Ward Ministry on 10 December 1928 as leader of the United Party, Ward was an unwell man at this stage in life and suffered several heart attacks. In May 1930, he was pressured by his colleagues to resign as Prime Minister, Ward was succeeded by George Forbes, again of the United Party. The Forbes Ministry was in place until September 1931, during the difficult times of the Great Depression, Forbes wanted to form a grand coalition with the Labour Party and the Reform Party. Labour refused, but Reform went into a government with United from September 1931. Key United Reform Labour Country Party Liberal-Labour Ratana Independent There were a number of changes during the term of the 23rd Parliament
23rd New Zealand Parliament
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Members of the House of Representatives, Parliament of New Zealand, 1928-1931.
23rd New Zealand Parliament
–
Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
72.
New Zealand general election, 1928
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The New Zealand general election of 1928 was held on 13 and 14 November in the Māori and European electorates, respectively, to elect 80 MPs to the 23rd session of the New Zealand Parliament. 1928 was the postal voting was introduced for certain specified groups who could not get to a polling booth on election day. The 1928 election was held on Tuesday,13 November in the Māori electorates, a total of 844,633 electors were registered on the European roll, of which 743,691 turned out to vote. 47 and 29 electorates were in the North Island and South Island, respectively, in 1927, a faction of the decaying Liberal Party formed a new organisation, which was eventually named the United Party. In 1928, to the surprise of most observers and many members of the party itself, United won a considerable victory, taking Auckland East. The United Government came to power with Labour support, Labour, forming the official opposition since 1926, were thus replaced by Reform. Six Independents were elected (most with allegiances to the main parties, four of these backed United, one supported Reform and one favoured neither. The Bay of Islands electorate went to Harold Rushworth of the Country Party after a recount of the votes and this marked the Country Partys first entry into Parliament, where it would retain a presence until 1938. The table below shows the result of the 1928 election, the Auckland Star reported on 18 September 1928, that. the United Party were assembled yesterday in Wellington when Sir Joseph Ward accepted the leadership of the party. It had previously been decided, by resolution, that the party should go to the polls as The United Party. The Evening Post newspaper reported on the day that, The Rt. Sir Joseph Ward took his seat as Leader of the United Party in the House of Representatives this afternoon, forbes, who has led the Nationalist Party up to the present, relinquishing his former place in favour of Sir Joseph. From now until the end of the session the Nationalist Party ceases to exist under that name, key United Reform Labour Country Party Liberal-Labour Ratana Independent Bassett, Michael. Three Party Politics in New Zealand 1911–1931, the International Almanac of Electoral History, 3rd edition. Photos of Members of Parliament as elected in November 1928
New Zealand general election, 1928
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All 80 seats in the House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1928
New Zealand general election, 1928
New Zealand general election, 1928
73.
24th New Zealand Parliament
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The 24th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It opened on 23 February 1932, following the 1931 election and it was dissolved on 1 November 1935 in preparation for the 1935 election. The Prime Minister during the 24th Parliament was George Forbes, leader of the United Party, many commentators at the time, however, alleged that Gordon Coates, leader of the larger Reform Party, had the greater influence. The 24th Parliament consisted of eighty representatives, each elected from separate geographical electorates, the 24th Parliament was led by a coalition of the Reform Party and the United Party, Reform had twenty-eight seats, United had nineteen, and there were four pro-coalition independents. The primary opposition was from the Labour Party, which had twenty-four seats, the small Country Party had one seat, and there were four non-aligned independents. The distribution of seats between three parties was relatively unusual, as New Zealand tended towards a two-party system at the time. The coalition government had formed on 22 September 1931 during the term of the previous Parliament. During the difficult times of the Great Depression, Forbes had wanted to form a coalition with the Labour Party. Labour refused, but Reform went into a government with United from September 1931. There were a number of changes during the term of the 24th Parliament, tuiti Makitanara, the United MP for Southern Maori, died on 26 June 1932. The resulting 1932 by-election was won by Eruera Tirikatene, an independent candidate associated with the Rātana religious movement, George Black, the independent MP for Motueka, died on 7 October 1932. The resulting 1932 by-election was won by Keith Holyoake of the Reform Party, james McCombs, the Labour MP for Lyttelton, died on 2 August 1933. The resulting 1933 by-election Labour victory by his wife, Elizabeth McCombs, harry Holland, leader of the Labour Party and MP for Buller, died on 8 October 1933. The resulting 1933 by-election was won by Paddy Webb, also of the Labour Party, Elizabeth McCombs died on 7 June 1935, twenty-two months after her husbands death, and the resulting 1935 by-election returned her son, Terry McCombs
24th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
74.
25th New Zealand Parliament
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The 25th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It opened on 25 March 1936, following the 1935 election and it was dissolved on 16 September 1938 in preparation for the 1938 election. The 25th Parliament was notable in that it was the first time the Labour Party had a majority and formed a government. The new Prime Minister was Michael Joseph Savage, the opposition consisted of the United Party and the Reform Party, which merged to form the National Party in 1936. The 25th Parliament consisted of eighty representatives, each elected from separate geographical electorates, as the 1935 elections had been a landslide victory for the Labour Party, the 25th Parliament was dominated by Labour MPs —53 of the 80 were members of the Labour Party. The main opposition consisted of a coalition of the Reform Party, the United Party, part way through the 25th Parliament, Reform and United took their coalition to the next step, and merged into a single group. This was called the National Party, the smaller Country Party and Rātana movement had two MPs each, and there were four independents not aligned with the coalition. The Democrat Party, despite winning a significant portion of the vote, the 24th Parliament had been led by a coalition of the Reform Party and the United Party, formed in September 1931 during the term of the 23rd Parliament and led by George Forbes. The primary opposition had been the Labour Party, at the 1935 election, the Labour Party obtained a parliamentary majority and formed a government, the First Labour Government. The leader of the Labour Party, Michael Joseph Savage, became Prime Minister, the opposition consisted of the United Party and the Reform Party, which merged in 1936 during the term of the 25th Parliament to form the National Party. The Savage Ministry was in power until Savages death on 27 March 1940, key Labour Independent United Reform United/Reform Democrat Ratana Country Party Table footnotes, There was one by-election during the term of the 25th Parliament. William Jordan, the Labour MP for Manukau, resigned in 1936 to become the New Zealand High Commissioner to the United Kingdom and he was replaced by Arthur Osborne, also of the Labour Party. In 1936, the Reform Party and the United Party merged, the three independents who supported the Reform-United coalition also joined the new group. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party
25th New Zealand Parliament
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Members of the 25th New Zealand Parliament, the Sergeant-at-arms and the Clerk of the House.
25th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
75.
26th New Zealand Parliament
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The 26th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1938 general election in October of that year, the 1938 general election was held on Friday,14 October in the Māori electorates and on Saturday,15 October in the general electorates, respectively. A total of 80 MPs were elected,48 represented North Island electorates,28 represented South Island electorates,995,173 voters were enrolled and the official turnout at the election was 92. 9%. The 26th Parliament sat for an unprecedented 19 sessions, and was prorogued on 30 August 1943, the Labour Party had been in power since December 1935, and Michael Joseph Savage led the Savage Ministry. The opposition had consisted of the United Party and the Reform Party, the First Labour Government was confirmed at the 1938 general election with an increased majority, and the Savage Ministry remained until Savages death on 27 March 1940. Savage was succeeded as Prime Minister by Peter Fraser, who formed the Fraser Ministry on 1 April 1940, the first Fraser Ministry resigned on 30 April 1940 and was reappointed, with some portfolios adjusted. The second Fraser Ministry remained in power until its defeat by the National Party at the 1949 election, a War Cabinet was formed on 16 July 1940, which held the responsibility for all decisions relating to New Zealands involvement in World War II. The War Cabinet was dissolved on 21 August 1945, for some months in 1942, a War Administration was in place. Formed on 30 June and dissolved on 2 October, the War Administration had responsibility for all war matters, the First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party
26th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
76.
New Zealand general election, 1938
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The 1938 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliaments 26th term. It resulted in the governing Labour Party being re-elected, although the newly founded National Party gained an amount of ground. The Labour Party had won a victory in the 1935 elections. Shortly after the elections, the two Ratana-aligned MPs also merged into the Labour Party, giving Labour a total of fifty-five seats, the government, a coalition of the United Party and the Reform Party, had won only nineteen seats. Shortly after their defeat, United and Reform agreed to merge into the National Party, however, Labour remained popular with the public, and the Prime Minister, Michael Joseph Savage, was widely praised for his welfare reform. The leadership of the National Party, by contrast, was associated by the public with the Great Depression. The date for the main 1938 elections was 15 October, a Saturday, elections to the four Maori electorates were held the day before. 995,173 people were registered to vote, and there was a turnout of 92. 9% and this turnout was the highest ever recorded at that point, although it was later exceeded in the two elections after World War II and in the 1984 elections. The number of seats being contested was 80, a number which had been fixed since 1902, the 1938 election saw a decisive win for the governing Labour Party, which won fifty-three seats. This was a drop of two from what it held prior to the election, the National Party won twenty-five seats, an increase of six from that the United/Reform coalition had previously won. Both Labour and National increased their share of the vote, with Labour winning 55. 8%. This increase was at the expense of the Democrat Party and the agrarian monetary reformist Country Party, the Country Party lost the two seats it held as, unlike 1935, Labour stood candidates in the seats held by the two Country Party members. Hence Harold Rushworth did not stand in the Bay of Islands seat, independent candidates also lost ground, with only two being elected, Harry Atmore and Charles Wilkinson. But Robert Wright was defeated for the new electorate of Wellington West by Labour despite National not running a candidate against him. An analysis of men and women on the rolls against the votes recorded showed that in the 1938 election 92. 85% of those on the European rolls voted, men 93. 43% and women 92. 27%. In the 1935 election the figures were 90. 75% with men 92. 02%, as the Māori electorates did not have electoral rolls they could not be included. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party, the Politics of Equality, New Zealand’s Adventures in Democracy
New Zealand general election, 1938
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand Parliament 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1938
77.
27th New Zealand Parliament
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The 27th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1943 general election in September of that year, the 1943 general election was held on Friday,24 September in the Māori electorates and on Saturday,25 September in the general electorates, respectively. A total of 80 MPs were elected,48 represented North Island electorates,28 represented South Island electorates,1,021,034 civilian voters were enrolled and the official turnout at the election was 82. 8%. In addition,92,934 military votes were cast, the 27th Parliament sat for five sessions, and was prorogued on 4 November 1946. The twenty-seventh parliament absent-mindedly increased its own life in 1946 when it was forgotten that because of the 25 September elections in 1943 its three years of life ended on 11 October. The House sat to wind up the session without transacting any business on the following day, peter Fraser of the Labour Party had been Prime Minister since 27 March 1940. He had formed the first Fraser Ministry on 1 April 1940, the second Fraser Ministry remained in power until its defeat by the National Party at the 1949 election. A War Cabinet had been formed on 16 July 1940, which held the responsibility for all decisions relating to New Zealands involvement in World War II, the War Cabinet was dissolved on 21 August 1945. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party
27th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
78.
New Zealand general election, 1943
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The 1943 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliaments 27th term. With the onset of World War II, elections were initially postponed, the election saw the governing Labour Party re-elected by a comfortable margin, although the party nevertheless lost considerable ground to the expanding National Party. The Labour Party had formed its first government after its victory in the 1935 elections and had been re-elected by a substantial margin in the 1938 elections. Michael Joseph Savage, the first Labour Prime Minister, died in 1940, he was replaced by Peter Fraser, as World War II continued, the issues surrounding it naturally came to dominate political debate. Shortages appeared, prompting a certain amount of dissatisfaction with the government, the matter of conscription was also contentious — although both Labour and National supported it, many traditional followers of Labour were angry at their partys stance. A faction of Labour, dissatisfied with the partys economic and conscription policies. The date for the main 1943 elections was 25 September, a Saturday, elections to the four Maori electorates were held the day before. Among the civilian population, there was a turnout of 82. 8%, the number of seats in Parliament was 80, a number that had been fixed since 1902. There were three minor movements participating with 45 candidates, the Peoples Movement or Independent Peoples Group, the Real Democracy Movement and the Fighting Forces League. However these groups got only 12,867 votes (provisional count, PM or IPG7,389, RDM4,421, two of the three Fighting Forces League candidates were also supported by the Real Democracy Movement, which had been formed by the Social Credit Association. Two seats were uncontested, Awarua and Matarura, both seats were held for the National Party by serving officers, James Hargest was interned in Switzerland, and Tom Macdonald had just been invalided home. Labour did not contest those two electorates or Nelson where Harry Atmore stood, National did not contest three electorates, Kaipara and Palmerston North where Independent Nationalists stood, or Buller. 1943 was the last general election when some candidates were elected unopposed, the 1943 election saw the governing Labour Party retain office by a ten-seat margin, winning forty-five seats to the National Partys thirty-four, with one independent. The popular vote was considerably closer — Labour won 47. 6%, holland was stunned by the result, and called for a Commission of Inquiry to look at the servicemens’ vote, but was answered by a report from the Chief Electoral Officer. The Labour vote dropped, particularly in areas where the now more prosperous farmers returned to their normal political allegiance. There were strikes by the miners, and resentment at wartime restrictions, lee’s Democratic Soldier Labour party took votes in closely contested seats, and there was a vast and weird variety of miscellaneous candidates under strange labels. However the forces vote favoured both Labour and Democratic Soldier Labour, see table below, and 22 seats were won on a minority vote. By 10.30 pm only 35 of the 80 seats were certain for Labour, with Barclay defeated, but with 73,000 servicemens’ votes that came in during the day, Lowry, Hodgens and Roberts scraped in
New Zealand general election, 1943
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand Parliament 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1943
New Zealand general election, 1943
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The leaders of National and Labour, plus the 24 new MPs following the 1943 general election
79.
29th New Zealand Parliament
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The 29th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. It opened in 1950, following the 1949 general election and it was dissolved in 1951 in preparation for the 1951 general election. The governing Labour Party had been defeated in the election by the National Party and this marked the end of the First Labour government and the beginning of the First National government. The 1949 general election was held on Tuesday,29 November in the Māori electorates and on Wednesday,30 November in the general electorates,1,113,852 voters were enrolled and the official turnout at the election was 93. 5%. The 29th Parliament sat for two sessions, and was prorogued on 18 July 1951, the National Party under Sidney Holland won the 1949 election, defeating Labours second Fraser Ministry. Holland remained in power until 1957, when he stepped down due to ill health, the National Government appointed 25 new members to the New Zealand Legislative Council, so that the Legislative Council Abolition Bill could be passed. With that legislation, the Legislative Council voted itself out of existence, the table below shows the results of the 1949 general election, Key Labour National Table footnotes, There was one by-election during the term of the 29th Parliament. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946–1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
29th New Zealand Parliament
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Opening of 29th NZ Parliament in 1950, with Serjeant-at-Arms, Group Captain Alexander Manson carrying the mace, followed by Speaker Matthew Oram
29th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
80.
First National Government of New Zealand
–
The First National Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand from 1949 to 1957. It was a conservative government best remembered for its role in the 1951 waterfront dispute and it also began the repositioning of New Zealand in the cold war environment. Although New Zealand continued to assist Britain in situations such as the Malayan Emergency, it now connected to Australia and the United States through the ANZUS agreement. ”In 1957. As summed up by Sidney Holland in a foreword, ‘New Zealand is a happier, healthier, abolished the Legislative Council, thus making New Zealands parliament unicameral, see Suicide squad. Established the position of Deputy Prime Minister, took the side of employers in the 1951 waterfront dispute Post-war rationing and price controls on property abolished. Formed a partnership with Fletcher Construction to build a pulp and paper mill at Kawerau and this period marked a shift in New Zealands foreign policy. Before World War II New Zealand lacked an independent foreign policy, instead opting to simply follow, at the start of the war it had been assumed that the Royal Navy would protect New Zealand, but the Fall of Singapore showed this to be a false assumption. New Zealand turned to the United States for protection, the beginning of the Cold War, and communist successes in China made many New Zealanders feel in need of this protection. New Zealand therefore entered the ANZUS pact with Australia and the United States, fear of the communist threat from Asia also motivated the introduction of compulsory military training and New Zealands participation in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency. However, there was considerable support for Britain, which led to New Zealand giving Britain moral support during the Suez Crisis. The government maintained the state created by the previous, Labour. However some modifications were made, such as allowing state housing tenants to purchase their homes and enabling families to capitalise their family benefits in order to buy a house. ”That same year, the loan was introduced. A year later, universal superannuation was doubled, and a social assistance scheme for the underprivileged was introduced. In 1954, widows benefit was extended to deserted wives after divorce in some cases, the National Party was formed in 1936, after the Labour Party took office for the first time, displacing the Liberal-Reform coalition. The Liberal and Reform parties officially merged into the National Party, initially basing themselves on opposition to Labour, however the popularity of these policies soon became evident, and National began to moderate its opposition, promising that it would not abolish the welfare system Labour had enacted. By 1949, Labour had been in power for 14 years, Labours interventionist ethos combined with the economic restrictions caused by World War II meant that the economy was highly regulated and consumer choice limited. On a relatively small swing, National gained eight seats and became the government for the first time and this was a snap election called after the 1951 waterfront dispute. The dispute was a conflict between the dockworkers union and the Waterfront Industry Commission, representing employers
First National Government of New Zealand
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The Prime Minister and his cabinet in 1951
First National Government of New Zealand
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1954 Cabinet with the Governor-General
81.
30th New Zealand Parliament
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The 30th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. It was elected at the 1951 general election on 1 September of that year, the 1951 general election was held on Saturday,1 September. 1,205,762 voters were enrolled and the turnout at the election was 89. 1%. The 30th Parliament sat for five sessions, and was prorogued on 4 October 1954, the National Party under Sidney Holland had been in power since the 1949 election, and Holland remained in charge until 1957, when he stepped down due to ill health. The 1951 election saw the governing National Party re-elected with a twenty-seat margin, National won fifty seats compared with the Labour Partys thirty. The popular vote was closer, however, with National winning 54% to Labours 46%, No seats were won by minor party candidates or by independents. This was the last New Zealand general election in any party has ever captured a majority of the popular vote. Key Labour National There were a number of changes during the term of the 30th Parliament, the First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party. New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946–1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
30th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
82.
New Zealand general election, 1954
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The 1954 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the New Zealand Parliaments 31st term. It saw the governing National Party remain in office, but with a reduced majority. It also saw the debut of the new Social Credit Party, the National Party had formed its first administration after the 1949 elections. It had then been re-elected by a large margin amid the industrial disputes of the 1951 election, Labour was troubled by internal disputes, with Nash subjected to an unsuccessful leadership challenge only a few months before the election. For the election, the National government adopted a steady as she goes approach, saying that the country was in good hands, the date for the main 1954 elections was 13 November. 1,209,670 people were registered to vote, the number of seats being contested was 80, a number which had been fixed since 1902. The following new electorates were introduced in 1954, Heretaunga, Manukau, Rotorua, Stratford, Waipa, two candidates, both called J. W. Stewart, came second, in Auckland Central for National and in Eden for Labour. The 1954 election saw the governing National Party re-elected with a ten-seat margin, National won forty-five seats to the Labour Partys thirty-five. The popular vote was closer, however, with the two parties separated by only 0. 2%. No seats were won by minor party candidates or by independents, the table below shows the results of the 1954 general election, Key National Labour Independent Social Credit Table footnotes Gustafson, Barry. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946–1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
New Zealand general election, 1954
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All 80 seats in the House of Representatives 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1954
83.
New Zealand general election, 1963
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The 1963 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of New Zealand Parliaments 34th term. The results were almost identical to those of the election. The 1960 election had won by the National Party, beginning New Zealands second period of National government. Keith Holyoake, who had briefly been Prime Minister at the end of the first period, nash instead backed first Clarence Skinner and then, after Skinners death, Fred Hackett. In the end, however, Nordmeyer was victorious, Nordmeyer, however, was unpopular with the general public, being remembered with hostility for the tax hikes in his so-called Black Budget. Labour struggled to overcome this negative perception of its leader, and was partially successful. There had been a large number of by-elections during the term of the 33rd Parliament. None of these had resulted in any upsets, and there was little indication for the population wanting a change, Holyoake started his election campaign on 4 November, not even a month out from the election. Whilst television had just been introduced in New Zealand, the campaign was a dull affair. And from 23 November, the Assassination of John F. Kennedy was the dominant topic in the media, the date for the main 1963 elections was 30 November. 1,345,836 people were registered to vote, and this turnout was around average for the time. The number of seats being contested was 80, a number which had been fixed since 1902, the following new electorates were introduced in 1963, Manurewa, New Lynn, Pakuranga, Porirua, Rangiora, Taupo and Waimarino. The 1963 election saw the governing National Party retain office by a ten-seat margin and it had previously held office by a twelve-seat margin. National won a total of forty-five seats, while the Labour Party won thirty-five, in the popular vote, National won 47. 1% to Labours 43. 7%. The Social Credit Party won 7. 9% of the vote, four of their candidates also missed the nomination deadline. One political analyst, Professor Robert Chapman, called it the no change election, puti Tipene Watene was elected for Eastern Maori, he was a Mormon and was the first non-Ratana to win a Maori seat since 1938. The table below shows the results of the 1963 general election, Key National Labour Social Credit Gustafson, the First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party. Kiwi Keith, a biography of Keith Holyoake, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946–1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
New Zealand general election, 1963
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All 80 seats in the New Zealand Parliament 41 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1963
84.
New Zealand general election, 1969
–
The 1969 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of Parliaments 36th term. It saw the Second National Government headed by Prime Minister Keith Holyoake of the National Party win a consecutive term. Through an amendment in the Electoral Act in 1965, the number of electorates in the South Island was fixed at 25, in the North Island, five electorates were newly created and one electorate was reconstituted while three electorates were abolished. In the South Island, three electorates were created and one electorate was reconstituted while three electorates were abolished. The overall effect of the changes was highly disruptive to existing electorates, with all. These changes came into effect with the 1969 election, the increase to 84 electorates was the first since the 1902 electoral distribution. The election was held on 29 November, the total number of MPs had increased to 84, with at least 3 of the 4 new seats likely Labour seats. 55 and 25 electorates were in the North Island and South Island, respectively, National pulled off a cliff-hanger victory. National won 45 seats, and Labour won 39 seats, though Labours share of the vote was only 1% behind National, the Social Credit Party lost its only seat in Parliament, Hobson, formerly held by then party leader Vernon Cracknell. Despite the hopes of a reinvigorated Labour party under Norman Kirk, Labour was overconfident, started too late, relations with the Federation of Labour and the unions were not good, and an industrial dispute on the ship Wainui cost Labour three Auckland seats according to Kirk. In Eden, Labour was first on election night but lost when special votes were counted, the table below shows the results of the 1969 general election, Key National Labour Social Credit Independent Table footnotes, Chapman, George. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946–1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
New Zealand general election, 1969
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All 84 seats in the New Zealand Parliament 43 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1969
85.
New Zealand general election, 1972
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The New Zealand general election of 1972 was held on 25 November to elect MPs to the 37th session of the New Zealand Parliament. The Labour Party, led by Norman Kirk, defeated the governing National Party, the National Party had been in office since the 1960 elections, when it had defeated the ruling Labour Party, led by Walter Nash. Nationals policies were focused around stability and a steady as she goes approach, in February 1972, Holyoake stood aside and was replaced by his deputy, Jack Marshall, who took steps to reinvigorate the party. Meanwhile, Norman Kirk had been at the helm of Labour since 1965, in this time, he had been modernising and updating the Labour Party, but narrowly lost the 1969 election. Kirk slimmed and dressed to improve his image, and visited several overseas Labour parties to broaden his knowledge and he activated a spokesman or shadow cabinet system to spread the responsibility, but it was difficult to avoid one composed largely of Auckland and Christchurch members. Despite the improvements, commentators speculated whether National would pull off another cliffhanger victory, economic recession and voter fatigue had hurt National at the polls. Labours slogan was Its Time – Time for a change, time for Labour, including the four Māori electorates, there had been 80 electorates since the 1902 election. This increased to 84 electorates through the 1969 election, the 1972 electoral redistribution saw three additional general seats created for the North Island, bringing the total number of electorates to 87. Together with increased urbanisation in Christchurch and Nelson, the changes proved very disruptive to existing electorates, only two South Island electorates were not altered by the redistribution. Only eight of the North Island electorates were not altered, in the South Island, three electorates were abolished, and three electorates were newly created. In the North Island, five electorates were abolished, two electorates were recreated, and six electorates were newly created, the date for the 1972 elections was 25 November, a Saturday. 1,583,256 people were registered to vote, there was a turnout of 89. 1%, slightly higher than the previous election and considerably higher than the following one. The number of electorates being contested was 87, the 1972 election saw the Labour Party defeat the governing National Party, winning 55 seats to Nationals 32. Labour was therefore able to form its first government since 1960, the second National government thus gave way to the third Labour government. No minor parties managed to gain seats, and no independents were elected, there were 1,583,256 electors on the roll, with 1,401,152 voting. The table below shows the results of the 1972 general election, Key National Labour Social Credit Independent Table footnotes, Chapman, the First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party. New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946-1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
New Zealand general election, 1972
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All 87 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 44 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1972
86.
New Zealand general election, 1975
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The 1975 New Zealand general election was held on 29 November to elect MPs to the 38th session of the New Zealand Parliament. It was the first general election in New Zealand where 18- to 20-year-olds and all permanent residents of New Zealand were eligible to vote, Labours central campaign was the so-called Citizens for Rowling petition which attacked National leader Robert Muldoons forthright leadership style. This campaign was seen as having backfired on Labour. The National Party responded with the formation of Robs Mob, as former Minister of Finance in the previous National government, Muldoon focused on the economic impact of Labours policies. Muldoon argued that his New Zealand superannuation scheme could be funded from future taxes rather than a tax on current wages. The campaign achieved notoriety due to a television commercial featuring Dancing Cossacks. A consummate orator and a television performer, Muldoons powerful presence on screen increased his popularity with voters. The final results of election, National won 55 seats, thus Robert Muldoon replaced Bill Rowling as Prime Minister, ending the term of the Third Labour government, and beginning the term of the Third National government. The party seat numbers were an exact opposite of the 1972 election, there were 1,953,050 electors on the roll, with 1,603,733 voting. Notable electorate results included the election of two Māori MPs to general seats, the first time that any Māori had been elected to a seat since James Carroll in 1893. The MPs in question were Ben Couch in Wairarapa and Rex Austin in Awarua, in Palmerston North and Western Hutt, Labour was first on election night but lost when special votes were counted. The table below shows the results of the 1975 general election, Key National Labour Social Credit Table footnotes, Atkinson, adventures in Democracy, A History of the Vote in New Zealand. The First 50 Years, A History of the New Zealand National Party, the New Zealand General Election of 1975. Wellington, Price Milburn for New Zealand University Press, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946-1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science. Mr Nathan the National candidate for Island Bay below a defaced poster
New Zealand general election, 1975
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All 87 seats for New Zealand House of Representatives 44 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1975
87.
Third National Government of New Zealand
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The Third National Government of New Zealand was the government of New Zealand from 1975 to 1984. It was an economically and socially conservative government, which aimed to preserve the Keynesian economic system established by the First Labour government while also being socially conservative. Throughout its three terms it was led by Robert Muldoon, a populist but antagonistic politician who was described as his partys best asset. The government continued the generally interventionist economic policies of governments in New Zealand. Such steps towards liberalisation made during this term were generally the initiatives of other politicians. Energy In 1980, the government launched the Think Big programme of industrial projects, mainly based around energy projects. This was a response to the oil shocks of the 1970s, Cabinet Minister Derek Quigley publicly criticised the Think Big policy and was demoted from Cabinet. Controlling inflation The control of inflation was an important goal for Muldoon, there was a high level of inflation worldwide in the 1970s and 1980s, leading Muldoon to intervene more and more dramatically in the economy. Liberalisation The government pursued a number of liberalisation policies. In 1982 the land transport sector was deregulated, which allowed the restructuring of the New Zealand Railways Corporation later in the decade, the Closer Economic Relations free trade agreement with Australia was signed in 1983. 1976 saw the phasing out of commodity subsidies and entitlement to the Additional Benefit, in 1976, the administration of many benefits, such as unemployment, sickness and the Domestic Purposes Benefit, was tightened up. Income exemptions, which the Third Labour Government had abolished and replaced with tax rebates, were reintroduced, in 1977, the family assistance tax rebate was significantly extended. As note by Brian Easton, the tax relief for a young family “could be up to $13 a week more than for a man without children, on the same income. ”In addition, full relief was available to families whose head “was on up to ten per cent above average earnings. ”The Disabled Person’s Community Welfare Act was further implemented in 1978. A new income-tax scale was introduced, with the aim being switching income from low-income recipients to main earners. A new income-tax scale was introduced in 1978, which transferred income to main earners, the purpose of this change was to increase the income of one-earner families relative to one-and-a-bit earner families. The period of absence from New Zealand during which eligibility for National Superannuation was retained was lowered to 3 months, eligibility for the Additional benefit was extended to national superannuitants. Equal eligibility for the unemployment benefit was introduced for married men and women, Waitangi Day The government renamed New Zealand Day, established by the previous Third Labour Government, back to Waitangi Day in 1976 with the second Waitangi Day Act. Citizenship law When the Treaty of Waitangi made New Zealand a part of the British Empire, in the 1970s, Britain reacted to what was seen as excessive non-white migration from the Commonwealth by restricting migration from all Commonwealth countries
Third National Government of New Zealand
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Sir Robert Muldoon dominated the Third National Government of 1975 - 1984.
88.
New Zealand general election, 1981
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The 1981 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the 40th New Zealand Parliament. It saw the governing National Party, led by Robert Muldoon, win a term in office. Before the election, the National Party governed with 50 seats, the Social Credit Party held two. The National Party had won a victory in the 1975 election. The style of Robert Muldoons leadership was growing increasingly unpopular, both with his party and with the public, and there had been an abortive leadership challenge by Brian Talboys in 1980, some commentators believed that the 1981 election would mark an end to Muldoons government. Some pundits have claimed that the Springbok Tour increased votes for National in provincial electorates. The opposition Labour Party was led by Bill Rowling, who had been leader of the party in the past two elections. While Rowling had performed poorly against Muldoon in 1975, and was viewed by the public as weak. In the previous election, Labour had won a plurality of the vote, many believed that this time, Labour would manage to convert its support into seats, although that did prove not to be the case. Not all of Muldoons opponents gave their support to Rowling and the Labour Party, the small Social Credit Party, traditionally New Zealands third party, was enjoying strong support, but the first-past-the-post electoral system made it difficult for Social Credit to win seats. After the East Coast Bays by-election, Social Credit reached as high as 30% in the polls, the election was held on 28 November. 2,034,747 people were registered to vote, and 91. 4% turned out and that was a markedly higher turnout than recorded for the previous election, but as the official statistics for that election are regarded as highly misleading, the comparison is probably not valid. It is likely that turnout in the 1981 election was about the same as in the election before it, the 1981 election saw the National Party win 47 of the 92 seats in parliament, a drop of three from before the election. This meant that National kept its majority by only a single seat, the Labour Party won 43 seats, a gain of three. The Social Credit Party managed to retain its two seats, East Coast Bays and Rangitikei, for the second election in a row, Labour won more votes than National, but fewer seats, allowing National to retain government despite not winning the popular vote. Social Credit won more than 20% of the vote but only two seats. This result, and that of 1978, contributed to New Zealand adopting the Mixed Member Proportional system of representation in the 1990s. The challengers in question were Colin Moyle, Margaret Shields, Peter Neilson and Fran Wilde, the defeated incumbents were Winston Peters, Barry Brill, Bill Young and Ken Comber, respectively
New Zealand general election, 1981
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All 92 seats for the New Zealand House of Representatives 47 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1981
89.
41st New Zealand Parliament
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The 41st New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. Its composition was determined by the 1984 elections, and it sat until the 1987 elections, the 41st Parliament was the first term of the fourth Labour Party government. It marked the end of three terms of National Party administration under Robert Muldoon, the National Party, now in opposition, experienced a number of leadership disputes, replacing Muldoon first with Jim McLay and then with Jim Bolger. The 41st Parliament consisted of representatives, the highest number since the 10th Parliament. All of these representatives were chosen by geographical electorates, including four special Māori electorates. The tables below shows the results of the 1984 general election, Key Table footnotes, basil Arthur, the long-serving Labour MP for Timaru, died in 1985. The by-election in Timaru was won by Maurice McTigue of the National Party, New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results 1946-1987, Occasional Publications No 1, Department of Political Science
41st New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
90.
New Zealand general election, 1984
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The 1984 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the 41st New Zealand Parliament. It marked the beginning of the Fourth Labour Government, with David Langes Labour Party defeating the long-serving Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon and it was also the last election in which the Social Credit Party won seats as an independent entity. The election was also the one in which the New Zealand Party. Before the election, the National Party governed with 47 seats, the opposition Labour Party held 43 seats, and the Social Credit Party held two. Although National theoretically commanded a two-seat lead over the other parties, the 1984 election was called when Marilyn Waring told Muldoon that she would not support his government in the vote over an opposition-sponsored anti-nuclear bill. Muldoon, visibly drunk, announced an election on national television. Nevertheless, Muldoon appears to have wanted an election to reinforce his mandate, Muldoons government, which had been growing increasingly unpopular in its third term, was seen as rigid, inflexible, and increasingly unresponsive to public concerns. The Labour Party had actually gained a plurality of the vote in the two elections, but had narrowly missed out on getting a majority of the seats. Labours primary campaign message was one of change — Muldoons government, Labour also campaigned to reduce government borrowing. The New Zealand Party, founded by property tycoon Bob Jones, was launched primarily to oppose the Muldoon government, a right-wing liberal party, it promoted less government control over markets, in contrast to the paternalist and somewhat authoritarian policies of National, the other significant right-wing party. The 1983 electoral redistribution was even more influenced than the previous one in 1977. The Labour Party believed it had been disadvantaged in 1977 and it was not to let happen again. Every proposal was put to intense scrutiny, and this resulted in the electoral redistribution taking forty-one working days, as Social Credit had two MPs, the Labour Party nominee on the commission formally represented that party, which further increased tensions. The 1981 census had shown that the North Island had experienced population growth. The South Island had, for the first time, experienced a population loss, more of the South Island population was moving to Christchurch, and two electorates were abolished, while two electorates were recreated. In the North Island, six electorates were created, three electorates were recreated, and six electorates were abolished. The election was held on 14 July, turnout was 93. 7%, the highest turnout ever recorded in a New Zealand election. Most political scientists attribute the high turnout to a desire by voters for change, immediately after the election there was a constitutional crisis when Muldoon initially refused to follow the advice of the incoming Labour government and devalue the New Zealand Dollar
New Zealand general election, 1984
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All 95 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 48 seats needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1984
91.
New Zealand general election, 1987
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The 1987 New Zealand general election was a nationwide vote to determine the shape of the 42nd sitting of the New Zealand Parliament. The governing New Zealand Labour Party, led by Prime Minister David Lange, was re-elected for a second term, the election also saw the elimination of the Democratic Party from Parliament, leaving Labour and National as the only parties represented. Before the election, the Labour Party held 56 seats, giving it a majority in Parliament. The National Party held 37 seats, the Democrats, a small party devoted to the principles of Social Credit, held two seats. Of particular importance in the election were the reforms being undertaken by Roger Douglas. These reforms, sometimes known as Rogernomics, involved monetarist approaches to controlling inflation, corporatisation of government departments, all these things were strongly opposed by many traditional Labour supporters, who saw them as a betrayal of the partys left-wing principles. Many commentators believed that anger over Rogernomics could cost the government the election. Another matter of importance, and perhaps one which enabled Labour to survive public dissatisfaction, was the nuclear issue, the National Party intended to revoke the ban, but the New Zealand public were supportive of it. Labours support for the ban is often considered to be an important factor in the partys re-election, National was also bitterly divided, with some supporting the Rogernomics reforms, but MPs such as former Prime Minister Robert Muldoon bitterly opposed. Muldoon had undermined his successor as party leader, Jim McLay, Bolger was more centrist, but National still struggled to be seen as an alternative government. In the South Island, the shift of population to Christchurch had continued, overall, three electorates were newly created, three electorates were recreated, and four electorates were abolished. All of those electorates were in the North Island, changes in the South Island were restricted to boundary changes. The election was held on 15 August, and 2,114,656 people were registered to vote, turnout was 89. 1%, somewhat lower than the 1984 election. The election saw the Labour Party win 57 seats, enough for it to retain its outright majority, Labour held two more seats than after the previous election. The National Party won 40 seats, an increase of three and it was possible for both parties to increase their number of seats partly due to the disappearance of the Democrats and partly due to the increase in the total number of seats. Although Labour emerged from the election with a 17-seat lead over National, labours share of the vote was 48. 0%, while Nationals was 44. 0%. While Labour did retain its lead, the gap between Labour and National closed by a larger extent than the count would indicate. The Democrats, despite winning 5. 7% of the vote, did not win any electorates
New Zealand general election, 1987
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All 97 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 49 seats needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1987
92.
New Zealand general election, 1990
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The 1990 New Zealand general election was held on 27 October to determine the composition of the 43rd New Zealand parliament. The governing Labour Party was defeated, ending its controversial two terms in office, the National Party, led by Jim Bolger, won a landslide victory and formed the new government. The Labour Party had taken office after defeating the National Party under Robert Muldoon in the 1984 election, David Lange became Prime Minister and Roger Douglas became Minister of Finance. This internal dissent was off-set somewhat by new legislation and a strong stance against nuclear weapons. Labour was re-elected in the 1987 election with its parliamentary majority untouched, eventually Lange forced Douglas to resign in December 1988, but the crisis had weakened Langes position such that he resigned eight months later. He was replaced as Prime Minister by Geoffrey Palmer, but Palmer failed to revive Labours falling popularity, several months before the election, Palmer was replaced by Mike Moore. The National Party was performing strongly — its leader, Jim Bolger, spoke repeatedly of the Decent Society, the government was also being challenged by the NewLabour Party, founded by renegade MP Jim Anderton. The date for the 1990 election was 27 October,2,202,157 people were registered to vote, and 85. 2% of these people turned out. The number of seats being contested was 97 — this was the same as in the previous election, the 1990 election eventually saw a victory for the National Party, then in opposition. National won nearly half of the vote and 67 of the seats and this was the highest number of seats the party had ever won, either in absolute terms or as a percentage. Four new National MPs, were called the brat pack by Sir Robert Muldoon, the new Green Party gained the third-highest number of votes, but won no seats. The NewLabour Party won a seat, due to Jim Anderton retaining the Sydenham seat he originally won as a Labour candidate. The governing Labour Party, by contrast, suffered its worst-ever electoral defeat since it first won power in the 1935 election, winning only 29 of the seats and 35% of the vote, and losing 27 seats. Initially it appeared that twelve ministers and the Speaker had lost their seats, many of Labours talented class of 84 were sent away, though four of them, Annette King, Jim Sutton, Trevor Mallard and Judy Keall, returned in 1993. The result was due to intense anger at Labour and its policies rather than love of National. Six of these were one-term gains, recaptured by Labour in 1993, seats transferred from departing MPs to new MPs, The seats of North Shore, Papakura, Tarawera, Waitotara and Wallace, all held by departing National MPs, were won by new National candidates. The seats of Christchurch Central, Dunedin North, Eastern Hutt, Manurewa, Nelson, Palmerston North and Panmure, working with David, Inside the Lange Cabinet. The 1990 General Election, Perspectives on Political Change in New Zealand, Occasional Publications No 3,1990 Parliamentary Candidates for the New Zealand National Party
New Zealand general election, 1990
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All 97 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 49 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1990
New Zealand general election, 1990
93.
New Zealand general election, 1996
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The 1996 New Zealand general election was held on 12 October 1996 to determine the composition of the 45th New Zealand Parliament. It was notable for being the first election to be held under the new proportional electoral system. It saw the National Party, led by Jim Bolger, retain its position in government, New Zealand Firsts position as kingmaker, able to place either of the two major parties into government, was a significant election outcome. In the 1993 election, the National Party and the Labour Party had won 50 and 45 seats, the Alliance and the New Zealand First party had each won two seats. In the approach to MMP, however, there had been considerable rearrangement in parliament, as such, the situation just before the 1996 election was markedly different from the situation that had been established at the 1993 election. The 1996 election was notable for the significant change of electorate boundaries, because of the introduction of the MMP electoral system, the number of electorates had to be reduced, leading to significant changes. Many electorates were abolished, with their territories being incorporated into completely new electoral districts, more than half of the electorates contested in 1996 were newly constituted, and most of the remainder had seen significant boundary changes. In total,73 electorates were abolished,29 electorates were newly created, South Island Since the 1967 electoral redistribution, the South Island had its number of general electorates fixed at 25. For the 1996 election and onwards, the number of South Island electorates is fixed at 16. The number of electors on the roll of the South Island divided by 16 gives the target size for North Island and Māori electorates. North Island Based on the described above, the target size for North Island electorates resulted in 44 of them being required. Māori electorates All four existing Māori electorates were abolished, the calculation described above resulted in five Māori electorates being required, these were Te Puku O Te Whenua, Te Tai Hauauru, Te Tai Rawhiti, Te Tai Tokerau, and Te Tai Tonga. List seats The House of Representatives was to have 120 seats and this left 55 list seats to be filled. An outcome of the election was that no overhang seats were required, of the 2,418,587 people registered to vote,88. 3% turned out to vote. The turnout was an improvement on the previous two elections, but still slightly lower than what would have been expected during the 1980s. While the number of general electorates decreased from 95 to 60, in the election 842 candidates stood, and there were 21 registered parties with party lists. Of the candidates,459 were electorate and list,152 were electorate only, 73% of candidates were male and 27% female. The 1996 election eventually saw a victory for the governing National Party, the opposition Labour Party won slightly less
New Zealand general election, 1996
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All 120 seats in the House of Representatives 61 seats were needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 1996
New Zealand general election, 1996
New Zealand general election, 1996
94.
46th New Zealand Parliament
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The 46th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the New Zealand Parliament. Its composition was determined by the 1999 election, and it sat until the 2002 election, the 46th Parliament marked a change of government, with a coalition of the Labour Party and the Alliance taking office. Helen Clark replaced Jenny Shipley as Prime Minister, the National Party, which had formed a minority government for the last part of the 45th Parliament, became the largest opposition party, eventually emerging under a new leader, Bill English. Other parties in Parliament were ACT, the Greens, New Zealand First, several parties represented at the end of the previous Parliament, such as Mauri Pacific, were wiped out, failing to retain any of their seats. The 46th Parliament consisted of one hundred and twenty representatives, sixty-seven of these representatives were chosen by geographical electorates, including six Māori electorates. The remainder were elected by means of party-list proportional representation under the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, the table below shows the results of the 1999 general election, Key Table footnotes, There were no by-elections held during the term of the 46th Parliament. Don McKinnon, a National Party list MP, left Parliament in March 2000 to become Secretary-General of the Commonwealth and he was replaced by Arthur Anae, the next candidate on the National Party list. Simon Upton, a National Party list MP, left Parliament in January 2001 and he was replaced by Alec Neill, the next candidate on the National Party list
46th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
95.
New Zealand general election, 2002
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The 2002 New Zealand general election was held on 27 July 2002 to determine the composition of the 47th New Zealand Parliament. It saw the reelection of Helen Clarks Labour Party government, as well as the performance by the opposition National Party. Arguably the most controversial issue in the campaign was the end of a moratorium on genetic engineering. The release of Nicky Hagers book Seeds of Distrust prior to the election also sparked much debate, the book examined how the government handled the contamination of a shipment of imported corn with genetically modified seeds. Helen Clark called the Greens goths and anarcho-feminists during the campaign, on 12 June the government announced that the country would have a general election on 27 July. This was several months earlier than was required, a fact which caused considerable comment, the Prime Minister, Helen Clark, claimed that an early poll was necessary due to the collapse of her junior coalition partner, the Alliance. Critics, however, claimed that Clark could have continued to govern, some commentators believe that a mixture of these factors was responsible. Before the election, the Labour Party held 49 seats in parliament and it governed in coalition with the smaller Alliance, which had 10 seats. It also relied on support from the Greens, but this was an informal arrangement. Opposing Labour were the National Party, New Zealand First, ACT New Zealand, many opinion polls, indicated that Labour was popular enough to conceivably win an absolute majority, leaving it able to govern without the support of smaller parties. Labours dominance over National was such that for people, the question was not whether Labour would win. There were 2,670,030 registered voters, the highest number for any election in New Zealand, however, only 77% of these registered voters chose to cast a vote, a considerable drop from previous elections. Many commentators cited Labours dominance in the polls as a reason for lack of voting. Many people saw the outcome as inevitable, and so did not bother to vote at all, in the election 683 candidates stood, and there were 14 registered parties with party lists. Of the candidates,433 were electorate and list,160 were electorate only, 71% of candidates were male and 29% female. As most people expected, Labour was victorious and it did not, however, receive an absolute majority, gaining only 52 seats. Labours former coalition partner, the Alliance, was not returned to parliament, however, the new Progressive Coalition started by former Alliance leader Jim Anderton won two seats, and remained allied with Labour. The Greens, who were now distanced from Labour over the genetic engineering controversy, in general, it was a bad election for the parties of the right
New Zealand general election, 2002
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120 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives 61 seats needed for a majority
New Zealand general election, 2002
New Zealand general election, 2002
New Zealand general election, 2002
96.
48th New Zealand Parliament
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The 48th New Zealand Parliament was a term of the Parliament of New Zealand. Its composition was determined at an election held on 17 September 2005. The new parliament met for the first time on 7 November 2005 and it was dissolved on 3 October 2008. The Labour Party and the Progressive Party, backed by New Zealand First and United Future, the Labour-led administration was in its third term. The National Party and ACT form the opposition to the government. Other non-government parties are the Greens and the Māori Party, the 48th Parliament consists of 121 representatives. This represents an overhang of one seat, with the Māori Party having won one more electorates than its share of the vote would otherwise have given it, in total, sixty-nine of the MPs were chosen by geographical electorates, including seven Māori electorates. The remainder were elected by means of party-list proportional representation under the MMP electoral system, all the Māori Party MPs tried to alter their Oath of office by adding references to the Treaty of Waitangi. They all had to retake their oaths, 48th New Zealand Parliament - changes during the term parliamentary term Rod Donald, co-leader of the Green Party, died on 6 November 2005 before he was sworn in as a member of the 48th Parliament. He was replaced by the person on the Green Partys list, former MP Nándor Tánczos. Jim Sutton, a Labour list MP, retired from politics on 31 July 2006 and he was replaced by the next person on the Labour Partys list, Charles Chauvel. Don Brash, a National list MP and former leader of the National Party and he was replaced by the next person on the National Partys list, Katrina Shanks. Georgina Beyer, a Labour list MP, announced her retirement on 15 December 2006, on 20 February she was replaced by the next person on the Labour Partys list, former MP Lesley Soper. Taito Phillip Field, Labour MP for Mangere, quit the Labour party after being threatened with expulsion on 16 February 2007 and he continued to serve as an MP, and formed the New Zealand Pacific Party in January 2008. Gordon Copeland, a United Future list MP, left the party to become an independent MP in May 2007, ann Hartley, a Labour list MP, was elected to the North Shore City Council in the 2007 local body elections. She left Parliament when it resumed in 2008, and was replaced by the person on the Labour list, Louisa Wall. Brian Donnelly, a New Zealand First MP, resigned from Parliament from 12 February 2008, Donnelly was appointed as New Zealands High Commissioner to the Cook Islands. Dianne Yates, a Labour list MP, stood unsuccessfully for the Hamilton City Council in the 2007 local body elections and she resigned as an MP on 29 March 2008 and was replaced by William Sio on 1 April 2008 as the next person on Labours list
48th New Zealand Parliament
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Terms of the New Zealand Parliament
97.
New Zealand general election
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New Zealand is a representative democracy. Members of the House of Representatives, commonly called Parliament, normally gain their parliamentary seats through nationwide general elections, general elections are usually held every three years, they may be held at an earlier date in the event of a vote of no confidence or other exceptional circumstances. A by-election is held to fill a vacancy arising during a parliamentary term, the next general election will take place on 23 September 2017. New Zealand has a multi-party system due to proportional representation, the most significant constitutional change in 20th century New Zealand was the introduction of the mixed-member proportional voting system in 1993. The Chief Electoral Office and the Electoral Commission co-ordinate the electoral system, Local government politicians, including mayors, councillors and District Health Boards are voted in during the local elections, held every three years. These elections used single transferable vote and first past the post systems in 2007. The first national elections in New Zealand took place in 1853, womens suffrage was introduced in 1893, with New Zealand being the first modern country to do so. New Zealand general elections occur when the Prime Minister requests a dissolution of Parliament, theoretically, this can happen at any time, although a convention exists whereby Prime Ministers do not call early elections unless they have no reasonable alternative. Elections always take place on a Saturday, so as to minimise the effect of work or religious commitments that could inhibit people from voting, Voting happens at various polling stations, generally established in schools, church halls, sports clubs, or other such public places. Polling booths are set up in hospitals and rest homes for use by patients. The 2005 election made use of 6,094 such polling stations, voters may vote at any voting station in the country. Advance voting is available in the two weeks before election day, if voters cannot physically get to a polling place, they may authorise another person to collect their ballot for them. Overseas voters may vote by mail, fax, internet or in person at NZ embassies, disabled voters can choose to vote via a telephone dictation service. Voters are encouraged to bring them the EasyVote card sent to them before each election, which specifies the voters name, address. However, this is not required, voters may simply state their name, the voting process uses printed voting ballots. After the voting paper is issued, the voter goes behind a cardboard screen, the voter then folds their paper and places in their electorates sealed ballot box. Voters who enrol after the rolls have been printed, voting outside their electorate, according to a survey commissioned by the Electoral Commission, 71% of voters voted in less than 5 minutes and 92% in less than 10 minutes. 98% of voters are satisfied with the waiting time, New Zealand has a strictly enforced election silence, campaigning is prohibited on election day
New Zealand general election
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Sample of an EasyVote card
New Zealand general election
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New Zealand
New Zealand general election
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Ballot boxes at the Linwood Library, Christchurch, for the 2014 election. The white leftmost box is for special votes, with the orange boxes being for ordinary votes for the (from left to right) Te Tai Tonga, Port Hills, Christchurch Central and Christchurch East electorates. A voting screen can be seen to the left.
New Zealand general election
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Orange Guy
98.
Independence of New Zealand
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The independence of New Zealand is a matter of continued academic and social debate. New Zealand has no fixed date of independence, instead, independence came about as a result of New Zealands evolving constitutional status, New Zealand evolved as one of the British Dominions, colonies within the British Empire which gradually established progressively greater degrees of self-rule. They were always anomalous in terms, and the attempt to define a date of independence in the sense that one can be given for most ex-colonies is not really meaningful. However, a consideration of possible dates can help understanding of the processes of change, the principles behind the independence of New Zealand began before New Zealand even became a British colony in 1840. The principles of government within the Empire were laid down in the Durham Report. Canada, New Zealand, and the Australian colonies very soon followed suit, the British Parliament passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 to grant the colonys settlers the right to self-governance, only 12 years after the founding of the colony. New Zealand was therefore to all intents and purposes independent in domestic matters from its earliest days as a British colony, the first major step towards nationhood on the international stage came in 1919 when New Zealand was given a seat in the newly founded League of Nations. However, Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland were hostile towards this development, irrespective of any legal developments, some New Zealanders still perceived themselves as a distinctive outlying branch of the United Kingdom until at least the 1970s. Thus, New Zealand has no date of official independence. The concept of a national Independence Day does not exist in New Zealand, the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on 6 February 1840 marked the beginning of organised British colonisation of New Zealand. New Zealand was originally a sub-colony of the Colony of New South Wales, Waitangi Day is thus celebrated as New Zealands national day. Others dispute this, pointing to the use of the term kawanatanga in the Treaty deducts from rangatiratanga, New Zealand became a self-governing colony in 1853 following the passage of the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which established responsible government in the colony. New Zealand participated in the 1891 National Australian Convention in Sydney to consider the Federation of the Australian, the Convention agreed to four principles including the creation of a Federated army and navy. Interest in the proposed Australian Federation faded and New Zealand did not send a delegation to the 1897 National Australian Convention, in 1901 New Zealand did not ratify the Australian Constitution, and did not partake in the Federation of Australia. Prime Minister Joseph Ward determined that New Zealand should become a dominion, on 26 September 1907 the United Kingdom granted New Zealand Dominion status within the British Empire. New Zealand became known as the Dominion of New Zealand, the date was declared Dominion Day, but never reached any popularity as a day of independence. As a potential national day, Dominion Day never possessed any emotional appeal, the Dominion newspaper began on Dominion Day,1907. To regard it as an independence day is incorrect, the change to dominion status was seen as purely cosmetic
Independence of New Zealand
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Captain William Hobson was New Zealand's first British-appointed Governor (originally Lieutenant-Governor) 1840–1842.
Independence of New Zealand
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Lord Plunket declaring New Zealand a Dominion, 26 September 1907.
Independence of New Zealand
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Zealandia rejecting Australian Constitution in 1900.
Independence of New Zealand
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King George V with his prime ministers at the Imperial Conference of 1926
99.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. As of February 2017, there are more than 400 hours of content uploaded to YouTube each minute, as of April 2017, the website is ranked as the second most popular site in the world by Alexa Internet, a web traffic analysis company. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day
YouTube
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From left to right: Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim
YouTube
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Screenshot of YouTube's homepage
YouTube
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YouTube's headquarters as of 2010 in San Bruno, California.
100.
Paul Moon
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Paul Moon is a New Zealand historian and a professor at the Auckland University of Technology. He is a writer of New Zealand history and biography, specialising in Māori history, the Treaty of Waitangi. Paul Moon holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in History and Political Studies, a Master of Philosophy degree with distinction, a Master of Arts degree with honours, and a Doctor of Philosophy. In 2003, he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society at University College London, Moon is recognised for his study of the Treaty of Waitangi, and has published two books on the topic. He has also produced the biographies of Governors William Hobson and Robert FitzRoy, in 2003, he published the book Tohunga, Hohepa Kereopa, an explication regarding tohunga of the Ngāi Tūhoe. He has also written a biography of the Ngā Puhi politician and Kotahitanga leader Hone Heke Ngapua. In addition to writing books, Moon is a frequent contributor to national and international journals on a variety of history-related topics. In June 2014, Moon was shortlisted for the Ernest Scott Prize in History, the judges for 2014 were Professor Paula Hamilton from the University of Technology, Sydney, and Professor Tom Brooking from the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. The very different ways migrants, visitors, settlers and Maori experienced and interpreted the landscape reveal competing visions which shaped New Zealand’s future, the result is a richly evocative study which should be read by all who value the distinctiveness of this country. Moons 2008 book This Horrid Practice, in which he discusses cannibalism amongst historical Māori, has drawn criticism. It sparked accusations that Moon was demonising Maori, and some argued the book was a return to Victorian values, Moon hit back in a newspaper article in which he accused the critics of the book of attempting to censor him. He also was critical of some of the superficial commentaries made by particular academics, in 2009 the auction firm Dunbar Sloane announced its intention to sell a piece of wood allegedly taken from the flagpole Hone Heke chopped down at Russell in the mid-1840s. Moon was asked for an opinion and stated that the piece of wood was almost certainly a late nineteenth century fake. The item was withdrawn from auction, but sold privately to the Russell Museum later in the year for an undisclosed sum, paul Moon was born in Auckland, the son of Evan Moon, a solicitor, and Dragica Moon who emigrated to New Zealand from Montenegro in 1966. His fathers family came to New Zealand from Sussex, in the mid-1880s, paul Moon identifies as a Congregationalist, and in July 2007 completed a history of Three Kings Congregational Church, in Mt. Roskill, Auckland, for its centenary. Moons wife, Milica, is Serbian Orthodox, Hobson, Governor of New Zealand 1840–1842. Muldoon, A Study in Public Leadership, Te Ara Ki Te Tiriti, The Path to the Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty and its Times 1840–1845, a Tohungas Natural World, Plants, Gardening, and Food
Paul Moon
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Professor Paul Moon, 2011
101.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an EAN-13 bar code
102.
Victoria University of Wellington
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Victoria University of Wellington is a university in Wellington, New Zealand. It was established in 1897 by Act of Parliament, and was a constituent college of the University of New Zealand, the university is well known for its programmes in law, the humanities, and some scientific disciplines, and offers a broad range of other courses. Entry to all courses at first year is open, and entry to second year in some programmes is restricted, Victoria had the highest average research grade in the New Zealand Governments Performance-Based Research Fund exercise in 2012, having been ranked 4th in 2006 and 3rd in 2003. Victoria has been ranked 229th in the Worlds Top 500 universities by the QS World University Rankings, in 2017s QS World University Rankings Victoria was ranked in the top 2% of universities in the world, and in the top 1% for 14 subjects. Victoria is named after Queen Victoria, as 1897 was the 60th anniversary of her coronation, there was a dispute initially as to where to site it, and it opened in temporary facilities in Thorndon. It was eventually decided to place it in Kelburn, where it still has its primary campus. This decision was influenced by the Cable Car companys offer of a donation of £1,000 if it were located in Kelburn so that students would patronise the Cable Car from the city, the foundation stone of the historic Hunter Building was laid in 1904. An extramural branch was founded at Palmerston North in 1960 and it merged with Massey College on 1 January 1963. Having become a branch of Victoria upon the University of New Zealands 1961 demise, in 2004, Victoria celebrated the 100th birthday of its first home, the Hunter Building. In 2015, Victoria opened a new campus in Auckland to service the growing demand for its courses and its main campus is in Kelburn, a suburb on a hill overlooking the Wellington central business district, where its administration and humanities & social science and science faculties are based. A smaller campus in Te Aro is the base for the architecture, the Faculty of Education is in the Karori campus. The newest facility, the Victoria University Coastal Ecology Laboratory supports research programmes in marine biology, the Court of Convocation is composed of all graduates who choose to participate. Charles Wilson, at the time the librarian of the parliamentary library, was a member of the original council. For New Zealand residents entry to most courses is open, with a few exceptions, there is selection for entry into the second year in degrees such as the LLB, BArch and BDes. BA in criminology and creative writing is based on selection. It is one of three institutions to offer a degree in architecture in New Zealand. In conjunction with Massey University it owns the New Zealand School of Music, the blazon for the arms is, Vert on a fesse engrailed between three Crowns Or, a Canton Azure charged with four Estoilles Argent. What this means, The colour of the shield is first described, Vert is green so the shield is green
Victoria University of Wellington
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The original 1903 plan for Victoria University
Victoria University of Wellington
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Victoria University of Wellington's Pipitea Campus: the Faculty of Law
Victoria University of Wellington
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Victoria University of Wellington's Pipitea Campus: the west wing of Railway Station
Victoria University of Wellington
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Victoria University of Wellington's Kelburn Campus: the Hunter Building
103.
University of Otago
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The University of Otago is a public collegiate university located in Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. It scores highly for average research quality, and in 2006 was second only to the University of Auckland in the number of A-rated academic researchers it employs. The university ranks highly in national league table, in the past it has topped the New Zealand Performance Based Research Fund evaluation, the university was created by a committee, including Thomas Burns, and officially established by an ordinance of the Otago Provincial Council in 1869. The university accepted its first students in July 1871, making it the oldest university in New Zealand, between 1874 and 1961 the University of Otago was a part of the federal University of New Zealand, and issued degrees in its name. Otago is known for its lively student life, particularly its flatting, Otago students have a long standing tradition of naming their flats. The nickname Scarfie comes from the habit of wearing a scarf during cold southern winters, the universitys graduation song, Gaudeamus igitur, iuvenes dum sumus, acknowledges students will continue to live up to the challenge if not always in the way intended. The Otago Associations plan for the European settlement of southern New Zealand, conceived under the principles of Edward Gibbon Wakefield in the 1840s, envisaged a university. Dunedin leaders Thomas Burns and James Macandrew urged the Otago Provincial Council during the 1860s to set aside a land endowment for an institute of higher education. An ordinance of the established the university in 1869, giving it 100,000 acres of land. Burns was named Chancellor but he did not live to see the university open on 5 July 1871, the university conferred just one degree, to Alexander Watt Williamson, before becoming an affiliate college of the federal University of New Zealand in 1874. With the dissolution of the University of New Zealand in 1961 and the passage of the University of Otago Amendment Act 1961, originally operating from William Masons Post Office building on Princes Street, it relocated to Maxwell Burys Clocktower and Geology buildings in 1878 and 1879. This evolved into the Clocktower complex, a group of Gothic revival buildings at the heart of the campus. These buildings were inspired by then-new main building at Glasgow University in Scotland, Otago was the first university in Australasia to permit women to take a law degree. Ethel Benjamin graduated LLB in 1897, later that year she became the first woman in the British Empire to appear as counsel in court. Professor Robert Jack made the first radio broadcast in New Zealand from the department on 17 November 1921. Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II visited the university library with Duke of Edinburgh on 18 March 1970 and this was the first time the royals completed informal “walkabouts” to meet the public, and it was the first visit of Prince Charles and Princess Anne to this country. Because it had a range of courses, Otago attracted more students from outside its provincial district. This led to the growth of colleges and informal accommodation in north Dunedin around the faculty buildings, Otago now has the most substantial residential campus of any university in New Zealand or Australia, although this is not without its problems
University of Otago
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The University clock tower, looking east.
University of Otago
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University of Otago
University of Otago
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Aerial view of the University of Otago
University of Otago
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The University grounds in winter
104.
Jack Marshall
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Sir John Ross Marshall GBE CH ED PC, generally known as Jack Marshall, was a New Zealand politician. After spending twelve years as Deputy Prime Minister, he served as the 28th Prime Minister for most of 1972 and he grew up in Wellington, Whangarei, and Dunedin, attending Whangarei Boys High School and Otago Boys High School. He was noted for his ability at sports, particularly rugby, after leaving high school, Marshall studied law at Victoria University College. He gained an LL. B. in 1934 and an LL. M. in 1935 and he also worked part-time in a law office. He also wrote a series of books called Dr Duffer. In 1941, during World War II, Marshall entered the army, in his first few years of service, he was posted to Fiji, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and the Solomon Islands, eventually reaching the rank of major. During this time he spent five months in the United States at a marine staff school in Virginia. At the start of 1945, Marshall was assigned to a sent to reinforce New Zealand forces in the Middle East. This unit later participated in the battle of the Senio River, after the war, Marshall briefly established himself as a barrister, but was soon persuaded to stand as the National Partys candidate for the new Wellington seat of Mt Victoria in the 1946 election. He won the seat by 911 votes, however, because Marshall had taken on the case before his election, it was obvious that there had been no wrongdoing. As such, the Prime Minister, Peter Fraser of the Labour Party, Marshalls political philosophy, which was well-defined at this stage, was a mixture of liberal and conservative values. Marshalls politeness and courtesy were well known, and he was sometimes nicknamed Gentleman Jack and he disliked the aggressive style of some politicians, preferring a calmer, less confrontational approach. These traits were sometimes misinterpreted as weakness by his opponents, Marshall was a strong believer in common sense and pragmatism, and he disliked what he considered populism in other politicians of his day. In the 1949 election, Marshall kept his seat, the National Party gained enough seats to form a government, and Sidney Holland became Prime Minister. Marshall was elevated to Cabinet, gaining responsibility for the State Advances Corporation. He also became an assistant to Holland. After the 1951 election, Marshall became Minister of Health, in the 1954 election, his Mt Victoria seat was abolished, and he successfully stood for another Wellington electorate, Karori. After the election, he lost the Health portfolio, instead becoming Minister of Justice, in these roles, he supported the retention of the death penalty for murder – New Zealands last execution was carried out in 1957, during Marshalls time in office
Jack Marshall
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Jack Marshall in 1961
105.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
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Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
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Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
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OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
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OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
106.
Radio New Zealand
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Radio New Zealand is a New Zealand public service radio broadcaster and Crown entity formed by the Radio New Zealand Act 1995. It operates the news, current affairs, and arts network Radio New Zealand National and classical music, since 2014, the organisation focuses increasingly on its production of digital content in audio, video and written forms. The organisation plays a role in New Zealand public broadcasting. Under law, it is responsible for the Radio New Zealand International Pacific shortwave service and it has a statutory role under the Civil Defence Emergency Management Act 2002 to act as a lifeline utility in emergency situations. The New Zealand Parliament also fully funds its AM Network, for the broadcast of Parliamentary proceedings, the organisation placed a strong emphasis on training its staff in Received Pronunciation, until it began promoting local and indigenous accents in the 1990s. The broadcaster is bound by the Charter and Operating Principles included in the Radio New Zealand Act and it must operate a news service, an international shortwave service and an archiving programme. It must also produce and commission high quality programming based on research of public needs, in achieving these objectives, it must be socially and financially responsible. Radio New Zealand National, formerly National Radio, is Radio New Zealands general public service broadcaster, flagship news and current affairs programmes Morning Report, Midday Report and Checkpoint total thirty hours every week and news updates are broadcast every hour. Its news service has specialist correspondents, reporters and a network of regional correspondents, magazine programmes include a broad range of contributors, interviews, music pieces and dramas, with reports and regular features in English and Māori. The network provides coverage of science, politics, philosophy, religion, rural affairs, sports, Radio New Zealand National broadcasts in AM and FM via mono terrestrial transmitters based around New Zealand and the Optus satellite. It is also available on Sky Digital TV channel 421, Freeview satellite channel 50, Radio New Zealand National claims a cumulative audience of 522,000 people, which would make it the most popular station in New Zealand. Its station share of 11% also makes it one in terms of station share among people 15. The network was known as Concert FM but the name was changed as part of a wider name change within Radio New Zealand to associate Concert FM with the Radio New Zealand brand. The station broadcasts in FM stereo via terrestrial transmitters located around New Zealand and it is also available on Sky Digital TV channel 502, and on Freeviews satellite and terrestrial services on channel 51. Concert features four full-time continuity presenters and several part-time and specialist presenters, the playlist is among the most diverse and eclectic of the worlds state run classical music networks. The AM Network is a network of radio transmitters operated by Radio New Zealand which broadcast all sittings of the New Zealand Parliament through a contract with the Parliament. Sitting hours are seasonal, and may be extended due to certain circumstances, AM Network Parliamentary coverage is also streamed online, with podcasts and transcripts available. The transmitters were used by The Concert Programme before it moved to FM broadcasting
Radio New Zealand
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Radio New Zealand House
107.
History of New Zealand
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The history of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links and land. The first European explorer to sight New Zealand was Abel Janszoon Tasman on 13 December 1642, captain James Cook, who reached New Zealand in October 1769 on the first of his three voyages, was the first European explorer to circumnavigate and map New Zealand. From the late 18th century, the country was visited by explorers and other sailors, missionaries. In 1840 the Treaty of Waitangi was signed between the British Crown and various Māori chiefs, bringing New Zealand into the British Empire, there was extensive British settlement throughout the rest of the century. War and the imposition of a European economic and legal system led to most of New Zealands land passing from Māori to Pākehā ownership, from the 1890s the New Zealand parliament enacted a number of progressive initiatives, including womens suffrage and old age pensions. The country remained a member of the British Empire, and 110,000 men fought in World War I. After the war New Zealand signed the Treaty of Versailles, joined the League of Nations, when World War II broke out in 1939, New Zealanders contributed to the defence of the British Empire, the country contributed some 120,000 troops. From the 1930s the economy was highly regulated and a welfare state was developed. Meanwhile, Māori culture underwent a renaissance, and from the 1950s Māori began moving to the cities in large numbers and this led to the development of a Māori protest movement which in turn led to greater recognition of the Treaty of Waitangi in the late 20th century. In the 1980s the economy was deregulated and a number of socially liberal policies. Foreign policy involved support for Britain in the wars, and close relations after 1940 with the United States. Foreign policy after 1980 became more independent especially in pushing for a nuclear-free region, subsequent governments have generally maintained these policies, although tempering the free market ethos somewhat. In 1984, the Fourth Labour government was elected amid a constitutional, the economic reforms were led by finance minister Roger Douglas (finance minister, who enacted fundamental, radically neo-liberal and unexpectedly pro-free market reforms known as Rogernomics. New Zealand was originally settled by Polynesians from Eastern Polynesia, the most current reliable evidence strongly indicates that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around 1280 CE. The descendants of settlers became known as the Māori, forming a distinct culture of their own. The original settlers quickly exploited the abundant large game in New Zealand, such as moa, as moa and other large game became scarce or extinct, Māori culture underwent major change, with regional differences. In areas where it was possible to grow taro and kūmara and this was not possible in the south of the South Island, but wild plants such as fernroot were often available and cabbage trees were harvested and cultivated for food. Warfare also increased in importance, reflecting increased competition for land, in this period, fortified pā became more common, although there is debate about the actual frequency of warfare
History of New Zealand
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Māori whānau from Rotorua in the 1880s. Many aspects of Western life and culture, including European clothing and architecture, became incorporated into Māori society during the 19th century.
History of New Zealand
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The Abel Tasman map 1644, also known as the Bonaparte Tasman map that is part of the collection of the State Library of New South Wales, Australia.
History of New Zealand
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First map of New Zealand, drawn by Captain James Cook.
108.
Military history of New Zealand
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The military history of New Zealand is an aspect of the history of New Zealand that spans several hundred years. When first settled by Māori almost a millennium ago, there was land and resources. Initially being fought with close range weapons of wood and stone, colonisation by Britain led to the New Zealand land wars in the 19th century in which settler and imperial troops and their Māori allies fought against other Māori and a handful of Pākehā. In the first half of the 20th century, New Zealanders of all races fought alongside Britain in the Boer War, in the second half of the century and into this century the New Zealand Defence Force has provided token assistance to the United States in several conflicts. New Zealand has also contributed extensively to multilateral peacekeeping operations. The level of intertribal warfare amongst pre-European Māori is unknown, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of battles and wars but little research has been carried out into how often wars actually happened. Archaeological evidence suggests that population growth and the extinction of the moa, warfare increased as tribes. At some point, perhaps before this change, one group migrated to the Chatham Islands. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s. In the classic Māori culture of 1550 CE onward, warriors were held in high esteem, Māori were unusual in having no distance weapons such as bows or slings, so all fighting took place at close range. Defence was based on hill forts, the remains of which can be all over New Zealand. The largest battle recorded was that of Hingakaka with several thousand combatants, the Musket Wars were a series of battles in the early 19th century, fought between various Māori tribal groups, mainly on the North Island. In time, all the tribes traded to obtain muskets and the conflict reached an uneasy stalemate. The wars gave Māori experience in fighting with and defending against guns – experience which would be vital in the New Zealand Wars. The expedition was sent by Governor Bourke from Sydney, but was criticised for use of excessive force by a British House of Commons report in 1835. The New Zealand or Land Wars were a series of wars fought between Māori on one side and a mixture of troops, imperial troops and other Māori on the other. The name Māori Wars has fallen into disuse, a Māori name for the conflict is Te Riri Pākehā. While the fighting began in 1843 and the last shots were fired in the early 20th century
Military history of New Zealand
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New Zealand troops unloading at a French port in 1918.
Military history of New Zealand
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Flag of New Zealand
Military history of New Zealand
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Infantry from the 2nd Battalion, Auckland Regiment, New Zealand Division in the Switch Line near Flers, taken some time in September 1916, after the Battle of Flers-Courcelette.
Military history of New Zealand
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New Zealand soldiers and civilians in London at the end of World War I, 1918
109.
Treaty of Waitangi
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The Treaty of Waitangi is a treaty first signed on 6 February 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and various Māori chiefs from the North Island of New Zealand. It resulted in the declaration of British sovereignty over New Zealand by Lieutenant Governor William Hobson in May 1840, the Treaty established a British Governor of New Zealand, recognised Māori ownership of their lands, forests and other properties, and gave the Māori the rights of British subjects. In return the Māori people ceded New Zealand to Queen Victoria, the English and Māori versions of the Treaty differed significantly, so there is no consensus as to exactly what was agreed. From the British point of view, the Treaty gave Britain sovereignty over New Zealand, Māori believed they ceded to the Crown a right of governance in return for protection, without giving up their authority to manage their own affairs. After the initial signing at Waitangi, copies of the Treaty were taken around New Zealand, in total there are nine copies of the Treaty of Waitangi including the original signed on 6 February 1840. Around 530 to 540 Māori, at least 13 of them women, in the 1970s the treaty gained prominence amid greater awareness of Maori issues and grievances, particularly with regard to land claims. Māori have looked to the Treaty for rights and remedies for land loss and unequal treatment by the state, from the late 1960s Māori began drawing attention to breaches of the Treaty, and subsequent histories have emphasised problems with its translation. In 1975, the Waitangi Tribunal was established as a permanent commission of inquiry tasked with researching breaches of the Treaty by the British Crown or its agents, the move showed that the original document was not a firm foundation for the construction of a State. Today the Treaty is generally considered the document of New Zealand as a nation. Despite this, it is often the subject of heated debate, many Māori feel that the Crown did not fulfil its obligations under the Treaty, and have presented evidence of this before sittings of the Waitangi Tribunal. Some non-Māori New Zealanders have suggested that Māori may be abusing the Treaty in order to claim special privileges. The Crown, in most cases, is not obliged to act on the recommendations of the Tribunal but nonetheless in many instances has accepted that it breached the Treaty and its principles. Settlements for Treaty breaches to date have consisted of hundreds of millions of dollars of reparations in cash and assets, the date of the signing has been a national holiday, now called Waitangi Day, since 1974. Between 1795 and 1830 a steady flow of sealing and then whaling ships visited New Zealand, mainly stopping at the Bay of Islands for food supplies, many of the ships came from Sydney. Trade between Sydney and New Zealand increased as traders sought kauri timber and flax and missionaries purchased large areas of land in the Bay of Islands. The purchase of muskets by Ngāpuhi in Sydney began a devastation of the Māori population in a series of as many as 3000 tribal battles known as the Musket Wars between 1807 and 1845. In 1831, thirteen chiefly rangatira from the far north of the country met at Kerikeri to compose a letter to King William IV asking for help to guard their lands. Specifically, the chiefs sought protection from the French, the tribe of Marion, in response, the British government sent James Busby in 1832 to be the British Resident in New Zealand
Treaty of Waitangi
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One of the few extant copies of the Treaty of Waitangi
Treaty of Waitangi
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James Busby, British Resident in New Zealand
Treaty of Waitangi
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Captain William Hobson
Treaty of Waitangi
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Henry Williams, who translated the Treaty into Māori with the help of his son Edward Marsh Williams.
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New Zealand Wars
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The New Zealand Wars were a series of armed conflicts that took place in New Zealand from 1845 to 1872 between the New Zealand government and the Māori. The colonial government summoned thousands of British troops to mount major campaigns to overpower the Māori King Movement and also acquire farming, guerilla-style tactics were used by both sides in later campaigns, often fought in dense bush. Over the course of the Taranaki and Waikato campaigns the lives of about 1800 Māori and 800 Europeans were lost, historians, however, have debated whether Māori signatories fully understood this last point, due to the possible mistranslation of the word sovereignty in the treaty copies. The majority of Māori wanted to sign in order to consolidate peace and they also wished to acquire the technological culture of the British. All pre-treaty colonial land-sale deals had taken place directly between two parties, in the early period of contact Māori generally sought trade with Europeans. The British and the French established mission stations, and missionaries received land from iwi for houses, schools, churches, as part of the Treaty of Waitangi, colonial authorities decreed that Māori could sell land only to the Crown. The various conflicts of the New Zealand wars span a period. The earliest conflicts in the 1840s happened at a time when Māori were still the predominant power, the first armed conflict between Māori and the European settlers took place on 17 June 1843 in the Wairau Valley, in the north of the South Island. The clash was sparked when settlers led by a representative of the New Zealand Company—which held a title deed to a block of land—attempted to clear Māori off the land ready for surveying. The party also attempted to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha, fighting broke out and 22 Europeans were killed, as well as four to six Māori. Several Europeans were slain after being captured, in early 1844, the new Governor, Robert FitzRoy, investigated the incident and declared the settlers were at fault. The Wairau Affray—described as the Wairau Massacre in early texts—was the only armed conflict of the New Zealand Wars to take place in the South Island. The Flagstaff War took place in the far north of New Zealand, around the Bay of Islands, in 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor. At this time Hone Heke challenged the authority of the British, there were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, after the Battle of Ruapekapeka Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. It was Tāmati Wāka Nene they approached to act as the intermediary to negotiate with Governor Grey, the fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land. The Hutt Valley campaign of 1846 came as a sequel to the Wairau Affray, Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha was also taken into custody during the campaign, he was detained without charge in Auckland for two years. The bloodshed heightened settlers fears in nearby Wanganui, which was given a military force to guard against attack
New Zealand Wars
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Memorial in the Auckland War Memorial Museum for those who died, both European and Māori, in the New Zealand Wars. "Kia mate toa" can be translated as "fight unto death" or "be strong in death", and is the motto of the Otago and Southland Regiment of the New Zealand Army. The flags are that of Gate Pā and the Union Flag.
New Zealand Wars
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Hone Heke cuts down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororāreka.
New Zealand Wars
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Premier Sir George Grey
New Zealand Wars
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Gustavus Von Tempsky, captain of the Forest Rangers.
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Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
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This is a timeline of the history of New Zealands involvement with Antarctica. 1838–1840 French and American expeditions, led by Jules Dumont dUrville, john Sac, a Māori travelling with Wilkes, becomes the first New Zealander to cross the Antarctic Circle. 1895 New Zealander Alexander von Tunzelmann becomes the first person to set foot on Antarctica,1899 February British expedition led by Carstens Borchgrevink, including several New Zealanders, establishes first base in Antarctica, at Cape Adare. This expedition becomes the first to winter over on the continent,1902 Scott Island was discovered and landed upon by Captain William Colbeck. 1910 Robert Falcon Scott leaves for Antarctica from Port Chalmers, scotts party later died on the return journey after being delayed by a blizzard. 1911–1914 Four New Zealanders are members of Douglas Mawsons Australian Antarctic expedition,1923 Ross Dependency proclaimed on 30 July as a British Territory entrusted to New Zealand. 1928 US Navy Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd leaves Dunedin for the first sea-air exploration expedition to the Antarctic, Byrd overflew the South Pole with pilot Bernt Balchen on 28 and 29 November 1929, to match his overflight of the North Pole in 1926. 1929 Combined UK-Australia-NZ expedition led by Douglas Mawson, New Zealand members include RA Falla,1933 New Zealand Antarctic Society founded. 1946 New Zealand joins the International Whaling Commission to help oversee whaling in the southern ocean,1956 McMurdo Station established, construction of both Scott Base and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station started. 195720 January Scott Base established in Ross Dependency, New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition of 1957–58, named the Borchgrevink Glacier. Hallett Station South of Cape Adare is established as a joint New Zealand-United States operation, Hillary was the first New Zealander to reach the South Pole overland. New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition of 1958–59, named the Mountaineer Range, united States Operation Deep Freeze starts, based in Christchurch. 19591 December Antarctic Treaty signed with other involved in scientific exploration in Antarctica. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research established an Antarctic Division,1964 January Walter Nash becomes the first Prime Minister of New Zealand to visit Antarctica. It is not rebuilt but is used as a base until 1973. 1972–1974 First solo voyage to Antarctica, by New Zealand-born yachtsman and author David Lewis 1974 December Joint NZ-France expedition makes first ascent, Antarctic Museum Centre opened at Canterbury Museum in Christchurch. 1975 Prime Minister Bill Rowling had a proposal made at the Oslo Meeting for Antarctic to be declared a World Park. 1976 Thelma Rogers, of New Zealands DSIR, becomes the first woman to winter over on Antarctica,1977 New Zealand proclaims Exclusive Economic Zone of 200 nautical miles, which provides for the zone to also include Ross Dependencys waters
Timeline of New Zealand's links with Antarctica
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A map of the Ross Dependency, the part of Antarctica claimed by New Zealand.
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Geography of New Zealand
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The geography of New Zealand encompasses two main islands and a number of smaller islands, located near the centre of the water hemisphere. New Zealands landscape ranges from the sounds of the southwest to the sandy beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps while a volcanic plateau covers much of central North Island, New Zealands varied landscape has appeared in television series, such as Xena, Warrior Princess. An increasing number of movies have also filmed there, including the Lord of the Rings trilogy. It is situated about 2,000 kilometres southeast of Australia across the Tasman Sea, its closest neighbours to the north being Tonga, the relative proximity of New Zealand north of Antarctica has made South Island a gateway for scientific expeditions to the continent. New Zealand is in Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean at 41°S 174°E and it has an area of 267,710 square kilometres, making it slightly smaller than Italy and Japan and a little larger than the United Kingdom. New Zealand is long and narrow and it has 15,134 km of coastline and extensive marine resources. The country claims the fifth-largest Exclusive Economic Zone in the world, covering over four million square kilometres and it is an isolated country with no land borders. The South Island is the largest land mass and contains one quarter of the population. The island is divided along its length by the Southern Alps, the east side of the island has the Canterbury Plains while the West Coast is famous for its rough coastlines, very high proportion of native bush, and Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers. The North Island is less mountainous than the South, and is marked by volcanism, New Zealand is a largely mountainous country. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island, the closest mountains surpassing it in elevation are found not in Australia, but in New Guinea and Antarctica. The North Island Volcanic Plateau covers much of central North Island with volcanoes, lava plateaus, the tallest peak on North Island is Mount Ruapehu, an active, cone-shaped volcano. The proportion of New Zealands area covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, if estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2. 2%. Lake Taupo is near the centre of the North Island and is the largest lake by area in the country. It lies in a created by the Oruanui eruption, the largest eruption in the world in the past 70,000 years. There are 3,820 lakes with an area larger than one hectare
Geography of New Zealand
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Geography of New Zealand
Geography of New Zealand
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Topography of New Zealand
Geography of New Zealand
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Strong winds in the Cook Strait produce high waves which erode the shore, as shown in this image.
Geography of New Zealand
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The pancake rocks near Punakaiki, a karst area formed of limestone.
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Climate of New Zealand
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The climate of New Zealand is varied due to the countrys diverse landscape. Most regions of New Zealand belong to the zone with a maritime climate characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago, the Meteorological Service of New Zealand Limited, established as a State-Owned Enterprise in 1992, issues weather forecasts and official weather warnings. Rainfall is generally plentiful in New Zealand, with most cities receiving between 620 mm or 24 in and 1,317 mm or 51.9 in of precipitation annually. Rainfall is normally distributed evenly throughout the year in most parts of the country, summer and autumn maxima can be found in places closer to the southwest, such as Invercargill and Milford Sound. How much rain a place receives is highly dependent on topography, the Southern Alps, the North Island Volcanic Plateau and surrounding ranges can produce large variation in rainfalls in places barely tens of kilometres apart. Snow falls in New Zealands South Island and at altitudes in the North Island. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island and it is also extremely rare in Auckland and Wellington with one snowfall each in 2011 after nearly 40 years where none occurred. Snow is more inland in both main islands, though snow to sea level does occur on average once or twice per year in the central. As with many islands in the world, the influence of the ocean curtails any extremes in coastal temperature, the greater temperature ranges are found in the interior of the Canterbury and Southland regions, and especially Central Otago. Central Otago and inland Canterburys Mackenzie Basin have the closest New Zealand has to continental climates, being generally drier and less directly modified by the ocean. These areas can experience temperatures in the low 30s °C and snow and severe frosts in winter. Mean annual temperatures range from 10 °C in the south to 16 °C in the north, the coldest month is usually July and the warmest month is usually January or February. Generally there are small variations between summer and winter temperatures. An example of this is Auckland which has a variation of just 9 °C or 16 °F between the average high temperature and average mid-summer high temperature. Temperature variation throughout the day is also relatively small, temperatures also drop about 0.7 °C or 1.3 °F for every 100 m of altitude. Northern cities such as Auckland, Whangarei, and Tauranga experience mean yearly maxima of between 19–20 °C and mean yearly minima of around 11–12 °C. Eastern cities on the North Island such as Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings also have mean yearly maxima of between 19–20 °C but have slightly lower yearly mean minima of around 9–10 °C
Climate of New Zealand
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Winter snowfall in Dunedin
Climate of New Zealand
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Midland Line blanketed in heavy snow
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Environment of New Zealand
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The environment of New Zealand is characterised by unique flora and fauna and a variety of landforms contained within a small island nation. The biota of New Zealand is one of the most unusual on Earth, more recently a component has been introduced by humans. New Zealands biodiversity exhibits high levels of endemism, both in its flora and fauna, until recently the islands had no native terrestrial mammals except for bats, the main component of the fauna being insects and birds. Its flora is dominated by Gondwanan plants, comprising historically of forests, New Zealand has developed a national Biodiversity Action Plan to address conservation of considerable numbers of threatened flora and fauna within New Zealand. Conservationists recognised that threatened bird populations could be saved on offshore islands, around 30 species are listed as endangered. The kiwi, a symbol, is also under threat. A curious bird, it cannot fly, has loose, hair-like feathers and long whiskers, the only terrestrial mammals that were in New Zealand prior to human habitation were three species of bat. A number of mammals are found on the coast and waters of New Zealand. Maori and European settlers introduced a range of mammals some of which have become serious invasive species. However, the combination of factors such as climate change and invasive species, as well as increasing agricultural. New Zealands forest ecosystems for example are being considered as the second most endangered of the world, the climate varies from cool temperate in the south and warm temperate in the north, with the exception of the North Island Volcanic Plateau. Rainfall varies from a low of 325 mm in Central Otago to an average of 5-8,000 mm in Fiordland, most lowland areas have ample rainfall for farming and habitation. In the South Island, the high Southern Alps, which run north–south, for a small country the geography is extremely varied in both landforms and altitude. New Zealands landscape ranges from the sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps, the highest peak of which is Aoraki/Mount Cook, the tallest peak on North Island is Mount Ruapehu, an active, cone-shaped volcano. Nearly 30 percent of the mass of New Zealand is in public ownership and has some degree of protection. The level of protection according to the land status. The Ministry for the Environment has produced two State of the Environment reports to date, one in 1997 and the other in 2007, in 2007, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development conducted an environmental performance review of New Zealand
Environment of New Zealand
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A tuatara, an endangered reptile found only in New Zealand. Eighty percent of New Zealand's biota is endemic.
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Geology of New Zealand
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The geology of New Zealand is noted for its volcanic activity, earthquakes and geothermal areas because of its position on the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica, the rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and Western Antarctica. The oldest rocks in New Zealand date from mid Cambrian times, the lower rocks are divided into the Western Province, consisting mainly of granite and gneiss, and an Eastern Province, consisting mainly of greywacke and schist. The provinces are divided into terranes – large slices of crust with different geological histories that have been brought together by tectonic activity to form New Zealand. The plutonic basement rocks are subdivided into the Hohonu, Karamea, Median and Paparoa batholiths and these rocks form the foundations beneath offshore Taranaki, and the West Coast, Buller, Northwest Nelson, Fiordland and Stewart Island. Most New Zealand granites were formed in Devonian-Carboniferous time and Jurassic-Cretaceous time, the rocks can be matched to similar rocks in Eastern Australia. The Western Province sedimentary rocks form the foundations beneath the Northwestern portion of the South Island, to the West of the Alpine Fault, the Eastern Province sedimentary rocks form the foundation for the rest of New Zealand. They are mostly composed of greywacke together with argillite, the Alpine Fault that corresponds to the line of the Southern Alps has separated the basement rocks that used to be adjacent by about 460 km. For example, Nelson and Southland used to be adjacent, as were Marlborough, the Buller and Takaka terranes of the Western Province formed in Cambrian-Devonian time and contain New Zealand’s oldest greywacke. It marks the site of a subduction zone on the edge of Gondwana. The Central Arc Terranes are of Carboniferous-Jurassic age, and are believed to be related to ancient volcanic arcs and they contain sandstone and mudstone derived from volcanic rock, and some limestone. The Brook Street terrane contains Glossopteris fossils, linking New Zealand to Gondwana, the Maitai terrane includes the Dun Mountain Ophiolite Belt, which contains dark serpentinised ultramafic rocks. These rocks form a line throughout the length of the country that can be detected by the anomaly it produces. Ophiolites are slices of oceanic crust and magma that have detached from a subducting plate. The Caples, Torlesse Composite and Waipapa Composite terranes formed in Carboniferous-Cretaceous time, much of the rocks were deposited as submarine fans. They have different origins, as shown by different chemical compositions, many rocks in the Western Province have been metamorphosed into gneiss. Many rocks in the Eastern Province have been metamorphosed into schist, Rocks grade continuously from greywacke to high-grade schist. Refer to the GNS Map of New Zealands Geological Foundations, New Zealand and New Caledonia represent the visible part of a portion of continental crust, usually referred to as Zealandia
Geology of New Zealand
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The continent of Zealandia
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National parks of New Zealand
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The national parks of New Zealand are 13 protected areas administered by the Department of Conservation. Although the national parks contain some of New Zealands most beautiful scenery, since the 1980s the focus has been on developing a more diverse representation of New Zealand landscapes. The parks are all culturally significant, many also contain historic features, a 14th national park, Te Urewera National Park, was disestablished in 2014. The national parks are administered by the Department of Conservation for the benefit, use and they are popular tourist destinations, with three-tenths of overseas tourists visiting at least one national park during their stay in New Zealand. The National Parks Act of 1980 was established in order to codify the purpose, governance, access to specially protected areas constituted under the act is by permit only. Under the Act, national parks are to be maintained in their state as far as possible to retain their value as soil, water. Native plants and animals are to be preserved and introduced plants, development in wilderness areas established under the act is restricted to foot tracks and huts used for wild animal control or scientific research. The Act allows the Department of Conservation to provide hostels, huts, camping grounds, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, roading, more comprehensive services within the parks, such as guided walks and skiing tutorials, are privately provided with concessions from the department. This table lists the current and former national parks north to south. * – World Heritage Site or part thereof
National parks of New Zealand
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Mount Tongariro in winter, Tongariro National Park.
National parks of New Zealand
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Map of New Zealand with the national parks marked in green.
National parks of New Zealand
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Satellite photo of Egmont National Park (the forested area).
National parks of New Zealand
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Totaranui beach, Abel Tasman National Park.
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Christchurch
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Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. The Christchurch urban area lies on the South Islands east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula and it is home to 389,700 residents, making it New Zealands third most-populous urban area behind Auckland and Wellington. The city was named by the Canterbury Association, which settled the province of Canterbury. The name of Christchurch was agreed on at the first meeting of the association on 27 March 1848 and it was suggested by John Robert Godley, who had attended Christ Church, Oxford. Some early writers called the town Christ Church, but it was recorded as Christchurch in the minutes of the management committee of the association, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter on 31 July 1856, making it officially the oldest established city in New Zealand. The Avon River flows through the centre of the city, with a park located along its banks. At the request of the Deans brothers, the river was named after the River Avon in Scotland, the usual Māori name for Christchurch is Ōtautahi. This was originally the name of a site by the Avon River near present-day Kilmore Street. The site was a dwelling of Ngāi Tahu chief Te Potiki Tautahi. The Ōtautahi name was adopted in the 1930s, prior to that the Ngāi Tahu generally referred to the Christchurch area as Karaitiana, a transliteration of the English word Christian. The citys name is abbreviated by New Zealanders to Chch. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is the fingerspelled letter C signed twice, with the second to the right of the first. Archaeological evidence found in a cave at Redcliffs in 1876 has indicated that the Christchurch area was first settled by moa-hunting tribes about 1250 CE. These first inhabitants were thought to have followed by the Waitaha tribe. Following tribal warfare, the Waitaha were dispossessed by the Ngati Mamoe tribe and they were in turn subjugated by the Ngāi Tahu tribe, who remained in control until the arrival of European settlers. Their abandoned holdings were taken over by the Deans brothers in 1843 who stayed, the First Four Ships were chartered by the Canterbury Association and brought the first 792 of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton Harbour. These sailing vessels were the Randolph, Charlotte Jane, Sir George Seymour, the Charlotte Jane was the first to arrive on 16 December 1850. The Canterbury Pilgrims had aspirations of building a city around a cathedral and college, the name Christ Church was decided prior to the ships arrival, at the Associations first meeting, on 27 March 1848
Christchurch
Christchurch
Christchurch
Christchurch
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Dunedin
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Dunedin is the second-largest city in the South Island of New Zealand, and the principal city of the Otago region. It is named for the capital of Scotland, generally Anglicised as Edinburgh, Dunedin was the largest New Zealand city by territorial land area until superseded by Auckland on the creation of the Auckland Council in November 2010. Dunedin was the largest city in New Zealand by population from the 1860s until about 1900, the city population at 5 March 2013 was 120,246. The Dunedin urban area lies on the central-eastern coast of Otago, the harbour and hills around Dunedin represent the remnants of an extinct volcano. The city suburbs extend out into the valleys and hills, onto the isthmus of the Otago Peninsula, and along the shores of the Otago Harbour. The citys most important activity in economic terms centres around tertiary education – Dunedin is home to the University of Otago, New Zealands first university, and the Otago Polytechnic. Students account for a proportion of the population,21.6 percent of the citys population was aged between 15 and 24 at the 2006 census, compared to the New Zealand average of 14.2 percent. In 2014 Dunedin was designated as a UNESCO Creative City of Literature, archaeological evidence shows the first human occupation of New Zealand occurred between AD 1250–1300, with population concentrated along the southeast coast. A camp site at Kaikai Beach, near Long Beach, has dated from about that time. There are numerous sites in what is now Dunedin, several of them large and permanently occupied. The population contracted but expanded again with the evolution of the Classic culture which saw the building of several pā, fortified settlements, notably Pukekura at, there was a settlement in what is now central Dunedin occupied as late as about 1785 but abandoned by 1826. Maori tradition tells first of a people called Kahui Tipua living in the area, then Te Rapuwai, semi-legendary, the next arrivals were Waitaha followed by Kāti Mamoe late in the 16th century and then Kai Tahu who arrived in the mid 17th century. These migration waves have often represented as invasions in European accounts. They were probably migrations like those of the European which incidentally resulted in bloodshed, the sealer John Boultbee recorded in the 1820s that the Kaika Otargo were the oldest and largest in the south. Lieutenant James Cook stood off what is now the coast of Dunedin between 25 February 1770 and 5 March 1770, naming Cape Saunders and Saddle Hill and he reported penguins and seals in the vicinity, which led sealers to visit from the beginning of the 19th century. Permanent European occupation dates from 1831, when the Weller brothers founded their whaling station at Otago, modern Otakou, epidemics badly reduced the Maori population. By the late 1830s the Harbour had become an international whaling port, johnny Jones established a farming settlement and a mission station, the South Islands first, at Waikouaiti in 1840. After inspecting several areas around the eastern coast of the south island, the name comes from Dùn Èideann, the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland
Dunedin
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Dunedin in April 2011, looking across the University of Otago campus in autumn
Dunedin
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Coat of arms
Dunedin
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Logo
Dunedin
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St Paul's Cathedral and The Dunedin Town Hall in winter
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Invercargill
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Invercargill is the southernmost and westernmost city in New Zealand, and one of the southernmost cities in the world. It is the centre of the Southland region. It lies in the heart of the expanse of the Southland Plains on the Oreti or New River some 18 km north of Bluff. Many streets in the city, especially in the centre and main shopping district, are named after rivers in Great Britain, mainly Scotland. These include the main streets Dee and Tay, as well as named after the Forth, Tyne, Esk, Don, Thames, Mersey, Ness, Yarrow, Spey. The 2013 census showed the population was 51,696, up 2. 7% on the 2006 census number, Southland was a scene of early extended contact between Europeans and Maori, notably whalers and missionaries – Wohlers at Ruapuke. In 1853, Walter Mantell purchased Murihiku from local Maori iwi, Otago, of which Southland was itself part, was the subject of planned settlement by the Free Church, an offshoot of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Settlement broadened with the discovery of gold in Central Otago in the 1860s, today, traces of Scottish speech persist in Southland voices, with R often pronounced with a rolling burr. This is more noticeable among country people, in 1856, a petition was put forward to Thomas Gore Browne, the Governor of New Zealand, for a port at Bluff. Due to the Otago gold rush, the population grew during the 1860s with the settlement of Bluff. Browne agreed to the petition and gave the name Invercargill to the settlement north of the port, the settlements chief surveyor was John Turnbull Thomson, a British civil engineer. Under the influence of James Menzies, Southland Province seceded from Otago in 1861 following the escalation of political tensions, however, rising debt forced Southland to rejoin Otago in 1870 and the provincial system, and with it the province of Otago, was abolished entirely in 1876. This debt was caused by a population decline stemming from poor returns from pastoral farming, in 1874, Invercargills population was less than 2,500 which reflected the drift north to large centres. In the 1880s, the development of an industry based on butter. In December 1905, Invercargill voted in local prohibition of alcohol sales and this lasted for 40 years until voted out by returning servicemen in the Second World War. When prohibition ended, a committee of citizens persuaded the Government to give the monopoly on sales in Invercargill to the specially formed Invercargill Licensing Trust. Based on a scheme in Carlisle, England, it returns profits to city amenities, even today, alcohol is not sold in supermarkets. In recent years, publicity has been brought to the city by the election of Tim Shadbolt
Invercargill
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View over central Invercargill
Invercargill
Invercargill
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Civic Theatre, the town hall of Invercargill - built in 1906.
Invercargill
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Spring in Esk Street, one of the main shopping streets of Invercargill
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Napier, New Zealand
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Napier is a New Zealand city with a seaport, located in Hawkes Bay on the eastern coast of the North Island. The population of Napier is about 62,100 as of the June 2016, about 18 kilometres south of Napier is the inland city of Hastings. These two neighbouring cities are often called The Bay Cities or The Twin Cities of New Zealand, Napier is about 320 kilometres northeast of the capital city of Wellington. The City of Napier has an area of 106 square kilometres. Napier has also become an important grape and wine production area, with the grapes grown around Hastings, large amounts of sheeps wool, frozen meat, wood pulp, and timber also pass through Napier annually for export. Smaller amounts of materials are shipped via road and railway to the large metropolitan areas of New Zealand itself, such as Auckland. Napier is a popular tourist city, with a concentration of 1930s Art Deco architecture. It also has one of the most photographed tourist attractions in the country, thousands of people flock to Napier every February for the Tremains Art Deco Weekend event, a celebration of its Art Deco heritage and history. Other notable tourist events attracting many outsiders to the region annually include F. A. W. C, food and Wine Classic events, and the Mission Estate Concert at Mission Estate and Winery in the suburb of Taradale. Later, the Ngāti Kahungunu became the dominant force from Poverty Bay to Wellington and they were one of the first Māori tribes to come in contact with European settlers. The rivers were continually feeding freshwater into the area, captain James Cook was one of the first Europeans to see the future site of Napier when he sailed down the east coast in October 1769. He commented, On each side of this head is a low, narrow sand or stone beach. He said the harbour entrance was at the Westshore end of the shingle beach, the site was subsequently visited and later settled by European traders, whalers and missionaries. By the 1850s, farmers and hotel-keepers arrived, the Crown purchased the Ahuriri block in 1851. In 1854 Alfred Domett, a future Prime Minister of New Zealand, was appointed as the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Domett named many streets in Napier to commemorate the colonial era of the British Indian Empire. Napier was designated as a borough in 1874, but the development of the surrounding marshlands, development was generally confined to the hill and to the port area of Ahuriri. There was a swamp between the now Hastings Street and Wellesley Road and the sea extended to Clive Square, on 3 February 1931, most of Napier and nearby Hastings was levelled by an earthquake. The collapses of buildings and the fires killed 256 people
Napier, New Zealand
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View of Napier on Hawke Bay
Napier, New Zealand
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Napier's Tom Parker Fountain at dusk
Napier, New Zealand
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Sound Shell (1931) in Napier at night.
Napier, New Zealand
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T & G Dome at dusk
121.
Hastings, New Zealand
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Hastings is a New Zealand city and is one of the two major urban areas in Hawkes Bay, on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand. The population of Hastings is about 68,900 as of the June 2016, Hastings is about 18 kilometres inland of the coastal city of Napier. These two neighbouring cities are often called The Bay Cities or The Twin Cities, the combined population of the Napier-Hastings Urban Area is 131,000 people, which makes it the sixth-largest urban area in New Zealand, closely following Tauranga. The city is the centre of the Hastings District. The city of Hastings and its suburbs of Flaxmere and Havelock North are the principal settlements in the Hastings District. These main centres are surrounded by thirty-eight rural settlements, including Clive, Hastings District covers an area of 5,229 square kilometres and has 1.7 % of the population of New Zealand, ranking it fourteenth in size out of the seventy-four territorial authorities. Since the merger of the surrounding and satellite settlements, Hastings has grown to one of the largest urban areas in Hawkes Bay. Hastings District is a food production region, the fertile Heretaunga Plains surrounding the city produce stone fruits, pome fruit, kiwifruit and vegetables, and the area is one of New Zealands major red wine producers. Associated business include food processing, agricultural services, rural finance, Hastings is the major service centre for the surrounding inland pastoral communities and tourism. Near the fourteenth century CE, Māori arrived in Heretaunga or Hawkes Bay, settling in the river valleys and along the coast where food was plentiful. It is believed that Māori arrived at Heretaunga by canoe, travelling down the coast from the north, landing at Wairoa, Portland Island, the Ahuriri Lagoon at Westshore, and at Waimarama. Their culture flourished, along with gradual deforestation of the land and they were one of the first Māori tribes to come in contact with European settlers. The Māori owners leased approximately seventy square kilometres on the Heretaunga Plains to Thomas Tanner in 1867, in 1870, twelve people, known as the 12 apostles, formed a syndicate to purchase the land for around £1 10s an acre. The original name of the location which was to become the centre was Karamu. In 1871, the New Zealand Government decided to route the new railway south of Napier through a notional Karamu junction in the centre of the Heretaunga Plains and this location was on Francis Hickss land. The decision on the route was based largely on two reports by Charles Weber, the provincial engineer and surveyor in charge of the railway. Karamu junction was renamed Hastings in 1873, exactly who chose the name has been disputed, although Thomas Tanner claimed that it was him and that the choice was inspired by his reading the trial of Warren Hastings. In any event, the name fitted well with other names in the district
Hastings, New Zealand
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Hastings Heretaunga (Māori)
Hastings, New Zealand
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Warren Hastings in 1767/68
Hastings, New Zealand
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Hastings CBD
Hastings, New Zealand
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Hastings City Square
122.
Nelson, New Zealand
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Nelson is a city on the eastern shores of Tasman Bay, and is the economic and cultural centre of the Nelson Region. Nelson is the oldest city in the South Island and the second-oldest settled city in New Zealand, Nelson city is bordered to the west and south-west by the Tasman District Council and the north-east, east and south-east by the Marlborough District Council. The city does not include Richmond, the areas second-largest settlement, Nelson City has a population of around 50,000, making it New Zealands 12th most populous city and the geographical centre of New Zealand. When combined with the town of Richmond which has close to 14,000 residents, Nelson is well known for its thriving local arts and crafts scene, Each year, the city hosts events popular with locals and tourists alike, such as the Nelson Arts Festival. The annual Wearable Art Awards began near Nelson and a local museum, Nelson was named in honour of the Admiral Horatio Nelson who defeated both the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Many roads and public areas around the city are named after people and ships associated with that battle, inhabitants of Nelson are referred to as Nelsonians. Nelsons Māori name, Whakatū, means build, raise, or establish, in an article to The Colonist newspaper on 16 July 1867, Francis Stevens described Nelson as The Naples of the Southern Hemisphere. Today, Nelson has the nicknames of Sunny Nelson due to its high sunshine hours per year or the Top of the South because of its geographic location, settlement of Nelson began about 700 years ago by Māori. There is evidence the earliest settlements in New Zealand are around the Nelson-Marlborough regions, the earliest recorded iwi in the Nelson district are the Ngāti Kuia, Ngāti Tumatakokiri, Ngāti Apa and Rangitane tribes. Raids from northern tribes in the 1820s, led by Te Rauparaha and his Ngāti Toa, soon decimated the local population, the New Zealand Company in London planned the settlement of Nelson. They intended to buy cheaply from the Māori some 200,000 acres which they planned to divide into one thousand lots, the Company earmarked future profits to finance the free passage of artisans and labourers and their families, and for the construction of public works. However, by September 1841 only about one third of the lots had sold, despite this the Colony pushed ahead, and land was surveyed by Frederick Tuckett. Three ships sailed from London under the command of Captain Arthur Wakefield, however, after some delay, Hobson allowed the Company to investigate the Tasman Bay area at the north end of the South Island. The Company selected the now occupied by Nelson City because it had the best harbour in the area. The Company secured a vague and undetermined area from the Māori for £800 that included Nelson, Waimea and this allowed the settlement to begin, but the lack of definition would prove the source of much future conflict. The three colony ships sailed into Nelson Haven during the first week of November 1841, within 18 months the Company had sent out 18 ships with 1052 men,872 women and 1384 children. However, fewer than ninety of the settlers had the capital to start as landowners, the early settlement of Nelson province included a proportion of German immigrants, who arrived on the ship Sankt Pauli and formed the nucleus of the villages of Sarau and Neudorf. These were mostly Lutheran Protestants with a number of Bavarian Catholics
Nelson, New Zealand
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A view of Nelson from the "Centre of New Zealand"
Nelson, New Zealand
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Coat of arms
Nelson, New Zealand
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Southern suburbs of Nelson (right) and the nearby town of Richmond (left) seen from the air
Nelson, New Zealand
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Diocese of Nelson Christ Church Cathedral on Church Hill, central Nelson.
123.
Palmerston North
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Palmerston North, commonly referred to by locals as Palmerston, or colloquially Palmy, is the main city of the Manawatu-Wanganui region of the North Island of New Zealand. Palmerston North is located inland, in the eastern Manawatu Plains, the city is 35 km from the rivers mouth and 12 km from the end of the Manawatu Gorge. It is about 140 km north of the capital, Wellington, the city covers a land area of 395 square kilometres. The citys location was once more than a clearing in a forest and occupied by small communities of indigenous Māori. In the mid 19th century, it was discovered and settled by Europeans, on foundation, the settlement was bestowed the name Palmerston, in honour of Viscount Palmerston, a former Prime Minister of Great Britain. The suffix North was added in 1871 by the Post Office to distinguish the settlement from Palmerston in the South Island, the Māori transliteration of Palmerston North, is Pamutana. However, Te Papaioea is the preferred Māori name, Palmerston North is the countrys seventh-largest city and eighth largest urban area, with an urban population of 84,300. Ngāti Rangitāne were the local Māori iwi living in the known as Te Ahu-ā-Tūranga. He came on a ship and explored possibly as far inland as the site of Woodville. He reported his discovery on arrival back to Porirua, colonel Wakefield heard of the potential that the Manawatu had for development and visited in 1840. In 1846 Stephen Charles Hartley, another trader, heard from tangata whenua of a clearing in the Papaioea forest and he proceeded through the bush and forest. In 1858, the Government began negotiations with local iwi to purchase land in Manawatu, there was a dispute at the time between rival iwi Ngāti Rangitāne and Ngāti Raukawa as to who has the right to sell. The dispute is resolved in favour of Rangitāne, in 1864, Te Ahu-a-Turanga Block was sold by Rangitāne to the Government for £12,000, in an effort to open the Manawatu to settlement. Stewart returned in 1866 on behalf of the Wellington Provincial Council and made the original survey, the focal point was an open space of 17 acres subsequently known as The Square. On 3 October 1866, Palmerston was formally endorsed after Isaac Earl Featherston signed a proclamation defining the boundaries of the settlement, the first sections were sold after. Among the first settlers included Scandinavians, who arrived in 1871 and they established settlements at Awapuni and Whakarongo/Stoney Creek. Later the same year, the suffix North was added to distinguish the settlement of the name in the South Island. In 1872 a petition was launched to change the name of the settlement, a public meeting in 1873 ends with no clear decision on the name
Palmerston North
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Clockwise from top: The Square, Central Business District, All Saints Church, City Library, The Square Clock Tower
Palmerston North
Palmerston North
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Looking SE towards Palmerston North city centre from Palmerston North Hospital. In the distance is Tararua Range.
Palmerston North
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New Zealand Police Central District is shown in orange.
124.
Human rights in New Zealand
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Human rights in New Zealand are addressed in the various documents which make up the constitution. Specifically, the two laws which protect human rights are the New Zealand Human Rights Act 1993 and the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. In addition, New Zealand has also ratified numerous international United Nations treaties, Universal suffrage for Māori men over 21 was granted in 1867, and extended to European males in 1879. In 1893, New Zealand was the first self-governing nation to grant universal suffrage, however, a distinctive feature of New Zealands electoral system is a form of special representation for Maori in parliament. Initially considered a temporary solution on its creation in 1867, this system has survived debate as to its appropriateness and effectiveness. Critics have described special representation as a form of apartheid, in 1992, when the Royal Commission on the Electoral System recommended the abolishment of the separate system, strong representations from Maori organisations resulted in its survival. Human rights in New Zealand are addressed in the constitution, in addition, New Zealand has also ratified numerous international treaties as part of the United Nations. In May 2009, for the first time New Zealand prepared a national Universal Periodic Review at the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva, Switzerland. Having joined the United Nations in 1945, New Zealand has ratified seven of the nine core key human rights treaties, namely ICERD, ICCPR, ICESCR, CEDAW, CRC, CAT, in 2009 New Zealand was seeking a position on the United Nations Human Rights Council. Then New Zealand Foreign Minister Murray McCully stated We believe that US membership of the council will strengthen it, by any objective measure, membership of the council by the US is more likely to create positive changes more quickly than we could have hoped to achieve them. In May 2009, for the first time New Zealand prepared a national Universal Periodic Review at the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva, the legal system takes the framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy. Human rights in New Zealand have never been protected by any constitutional document or legislation. Because New Zealands human rights obligations are not entrenched and are part of common law. The Human Rights Commission has identified this constitutional arrangement as an area in need of action to identify opportunities for giving effect to human rights protections. Section 7 of the Bill of Rights Act requires the Attorney-General to draw to the attention of Parliament the introduction of any Bill that is inconsistent with the Act. The Ministry of Justice, which prepares this advice for the Attorney-General, here is a list of bills reported by the Attorney General as being inconsistent with the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990. The 2009 report by the U. S. Department of State noted that, he law provides for an independent judiciary, in recent years concerns have been expressed that New Zealand is not performing as well in regard to human rights as it used to. The right to freedom of speech is not explicitly protected by law in New Zealand but is encompassed in a wide range of doctrines aimed at protecting free speech
Human rights in New Zealand
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John Key and Helen Clark at UNDP
Human rights in New Zealand
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New Zealand
Human rights in New Zealand
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New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy over land title
125.
Law of New Zealand
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The law of New Zealand can be found in several sources. The primary sources of New Zealand law are statutes enacted by the New Zealand Parliament, at a more fundamental level, the law of New Zealand is based on three related principles, parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law, and the separation of powers. As a former British colony, the New Zealand legal system is based on the English law. There are also important differences, which reflect the unique culture that has developed in New Zealand. Before 1840 there was no formal system in New Zealand. Māori chiefs held the power to people for misdeeds but this power, though dependent on custom. Tohunga could also use supernatural means to punish those who violated the code of tapu, the arrival of Europeans from the late eighteenth century undermined the power of both chief and tohunga. Europeans did not believe in tapu and widely violated it, the transient nature of many Europeans also made it difficult for chiefs to impose justice on them. As a result, New Zealand became increasingly lawless, the Treaty of Waitangi, signed in 1840, is widely believed to have established British law in New Zealand. However, there are problems with this theory. Firstly, the Māori and English language versions of the Treaty are substantially different, the English version transfers sovereignty to Queen Victoria and grants Māori the rights of British subjects. Although no specific mention is made in the Treaty of any legal system, the Māori version, however, states that Victoria receives kawanatanga while the chiefs retain tino rangatiratanga in clause two as opposed to the property rights promised in the English version. In the eyes of some modern Māori, the New Zealand legal system is invalid as it violates the Treatys promise of tino rangatiratanga, another problem with the idea that the Treaty established the rule of British law is that in 1840 Māori still controlled New Zealand. In practical terms, British-based law was established in New Zealand not through the Treaty of Waitangi but through conquest, the Treaty was never ratified and has little standing in New Zealand law. In 1877 a judge ruled that it was a legal nullity, in 1975 the Treaty of Waitangi Act was passed establishing the Waitangi Tribunal and enabling it to investigate and report on contemporary breaches of the Treaty, and recommend compensation. This had little impact until 1985, when the Act was amended to allow investigations into historic breaches, the Tribunals rulings are not binding although in certain circumstances it can prevent or place conditions on the sale of state owned land. Since the 1980s references to the Treaty have appeared in pieces of legislation. However the government is not generally bound by the Treaty, nor are the people of New Zealand, a Supreme Court was first established in 1841, and various lower courts subsequently established
Law of New Zealand
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The Dunedin Law Courts, built in 1902
126.
List of Governors-General of New Zealand
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The following is a list of the Governors and Governors-General of New Zealand. These functions are performed on the advice of the Prime Minister, since the office was established in 1841, twenty-one individuals have served as Governor or Governor-General. The list does not include Lieutenant-Governors of the provinces of New Ulster, persons listed in light grey are interim administrators who exercised duties between Governors and Governors-General. Governor-General of New Zealand, Former Governors-General, archived from the original on 22 February 2013. The huge challenge ahead of the Maori Queens successor, the Governors, New Zealand Governors and Governors-General. Official Website of the Governor-General of New Zealand A history of the Governor-General in New Zealand Rulers. org, Extensive list of Governors-General of New Zealand
List of Governors-General of New Zealand
List of Governors-General of New Zealand
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Willoughby Shortland
List of Governors-General of New Zealand
List of Governors-General of New Zealand
127.
Agriculture in New Zealand
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Agriculture in New Zealand is the largest sector of the tradable economy, contributing about two-thirds of exported goods in 2006-7. For the year ended March 2002, agricultural exports were valued at over $14.8 billion, Pastoral farming is the major land use but there are increases in land area devoted to horticulture. New Zealand is a member of the Cairns Group which is seeking to have free trade in agricultural goods, in 1984 the Labour government ended all farm subsidies, and by 1990 the agricultural industry became the most deregulated sector in New Zealand. To stay competitive in the heavily subsidised European and US markets New Zealand farmers had to increase the efficiency of their operations. Animal farming is based, cows and sheep are rarely housed or fed large quantities of grain, with most farmers using grass based supplements such as hay. Pigs are usually kept indoors, either in gestation crates, farrowing crates, fattening pens, in Northland, the major form of pastoral farming is beef cattle. In the Waikato and Taranaki areas, dairy cattle predominate, through the rest of New Zealand, sheep farming is the major rural activity, with beef cattle farming in the hills and high country, and dairying increasing in Canterbury, Otago and Southland. New Zealand is the eighth largest milk producer, with about 2. 2% of world production. Total production was 1.3 billion kg of milk solids, there are approximately 4.2 million dairy milking cows in New Zealand, and 5.26 million dairy cattle in total at 30 June 2007, an increase from 3 million in 1982. In mid-2005, there were 12,786 dairy farms, with an area of 2.1 million hectares. Traditional dairy production areas are the areas of the country, Waikato, Taranaki, Southland, Northland, Horowhenua, Manawatu. Fonterra is the processor of milk in New Zealand. It processes 94.8 percent of all solids from dairy farms. Other large dairy companies are Tatua Co-operative Dairy Company, Westland Milk Products, livestock is predominantly grass-fed, but hay and silage is used in the winter months to make up for slower pasture growth. There were 38.5 million sheep and 4.39 million beef cattle in New Zealand in June 2007, the number of sheep saw a substantial fall from the 70.3 million in 1982, while beef cattle numbers declined by about ten percent over the same period. 573,000 tonnes of meat was produced in 2006-7. NZD2.08 billion of lamb, NZD283 million of mutton, production of beef and veal in 2006-7 was 623,000 tonnes, with NZD1.64 billion in exports. There were 13,254 beef farms,13,905 sheep farms and 1,614 mixed beef/sheep farms in 2005, with areas of 1.5 million hectares,8.1 million hectares, and 655,000 hectares respectively
Agriculture in New Zealand
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A bullock wagon team taking wool from a farm station. The number of sheep in New Zealand peaked in the 1980s and is now reducing due to lower profits.
Agriculture in New Zealand
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Early label from a tin of mutton from New Zealand
Agriculture in New Zealand
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Beef and dairy cattle are important components of New Zealand agriculture
Agriculture in New Zealand
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Rural landscape with sheep
128.
Energy in New Zealand
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Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population, New Zealand is a net importer of energy, in the form of petroleum products. The ratio of non-renewable and renewable energy sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008 and this ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014. The proportion of energy varies annually, depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes. In 2014, approximately 60% of primary energy was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels, in 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules. Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998, New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries. New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate nuclear power stations, from 1994 to 2014, the energy intensity of the economy per unit of GDP declined by 24 per cent to 2.67 MJ/$. A contributing factor is the growth of relatively less energy-intensive service industries, total primary energy is indigenous production, plus imports, less exports and international transport. Energy supply and demand in New Zealand in 2010 is dominated by hydrocarbon fuels, especially oil, coal is produced from four underground and 21 opencast mines. Over 80% of New Zealands coal reserves are contained in Southland lignite deposits, most coal production is by Solid Energy, a government owned corporation. Oil and gas is produced from 21 petroleum licenses / permits, the most important fields are Kapuni, Maui, Pohokura and Kupe. Exploration for oil and gas reserves includes the Great South Basin and offshore areas near Canterbury, reticulated natural gas is available in most major North Island towns and cities. Approximately 40% of primary energy is from renewable energy sources, approximately 80% of electricity comes from renewable energy, primarily hydropower and geothermal power. Studies have shown that it is feasible to provide 100% of the electricity demand by renewable power without risking with shortages in energy supply. In terms of intensity, New Zealand is just a little lower than the global average. Electrical energy in New Zealand is mainly derived from energy sources such as from hydropower, geothermal power. The large share of energy sources makes New Zealand one of the most sustainable countries in terms of energy generation. Electricity demand increased by an average of 2. 1% per year from 1974 to 2008, exploration and production of fossil fuels comes under Crown Minerals, a division of the Ministry of Economic Development. The Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority is responsible for preparing a national energy efficiency
Energy in New Zealand
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New Zealand primary energy supply 2014. Source: MBIE Energy in New Zealand 2014
129.
Taxation in New Zealand
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Taxes in New Zealand are collected at a national level by the Inland Revenue Department on behalf of the Government of New Zealand. National taxes are levied on personal and business income, and on the supply of goods, there are currently no land taxes, but local property taxes are managed and collected by local authorities. Some goods and services carry a tax, referred to as an excise or a duty. These are collected by a range of government agencies such as the New Zealand Customs Service, there is no social security tax. New Zealand went through a program of tax reform in the 1980s. The top marginal rate of tax was reduced from 66% to 33%. Goods and services tax was introduced, initially at a rate of 10%, Land taxes were abolished in 1992. Tax reform continues in New Zealand, in 2005–06, 43% of the New Zealand Governments core revenue came from individuals income taxes. Salary and wages business and self-employed income income from rental income overseas income Income tax varies dependent on income levels in any specific tax year. Rates are for the tax year 1 April 2015 to 31 March 2016, the earners levy rate for the period 1 April 2015 to 31 March 2016 is 1. 45%. In New Zealand, the income is taxed by the amount that falls within each tax bracket. For example, persons who earn $70,000 will pay only 30% on the amount that falls between $48,001 and $70,000 rather than paying on the full $70,000. Consequently, the income tax for that specific income will accumulate to $14. The amount of tax actually payable can be reduced by claiming tax credits, e. g. for donations, childcare and housekeeper, independent earners, payroll donations, income under $9,880, and children. Tax credits on income under $9,880 and for children were removed effective from 1 April 2013, in most cases employers deduct the relevant amount of income tax from salary and wages prior to these being paid to the individual. This system, known as pay-as-you-earn, or PAYE, was introduced in 1958, in addition, banks and other financial institutions deduct the relevant amount of income tax on interest and dividends as these are earned. This is known as resident withholding tax, individuals who are tax resident in more than one country may be liable to pay tax more than once on the same income. New Zealand has double taxation agreements with countries that set out which country will tax specific types of income
Taxation in New Zealand
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Taxation
130.
Tourism in New Zealand
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Tourism is an important industry in New Zealand, directly contributing NZ$7.3 billion of the countrys GDP in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs. A further 5% of GDP is indirectly contributed through the effects of tourism. International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealands export earnings, international and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealands economy every year. Currently the Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand Paula Bennett also serves as Minister of Tourism, by far the highest number of New Zealands tourists come from Australia due to their close proximity and relations. The vast majority of tourist arrivals to New Zealand come through Auckland Airport, two per cent of visitors arrive by sea. Many international tourists spend time in Auckland, Christchurch, Queenstown, Rotorua, other high-profile destinations include the Bay of Islands, Waitomo Caves, Aoraki / Mount Cook, and Milford Sound. Many tourists travel large distances through the country during their stays, domestic tourism is also important, though expenditure and trip numbers have been declining or stagnating in the face of fast-growing international tourism. Domestic tourist spending of NZ$9.8 billion a year still exceeds that of international visitors, in November 2012 readers of UK paper The Telegraph voted New Zealand the best country in the world to go to on holiday. The national airline, Air New Zealand, was voted third-best long-haul carrier, except China and India none of the other Top 10 nationalities require a short term visa for New Zealand. Since the start of a 2000 advertising campaign by Tourism New Zealand, Tourism New Zealand, the countrys official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide. Public concern over the impacts of air travel may threaten tourism growth in New Zealand. However, Ministry of Tourism data predicts a four percent annual growth in tourist numbers in New Zealand, perhaps the best known slogan is Dont leave town until youve seen the country. Outside of trunk routes connecting main cities, airfares can, due to a lack of competition, domestic tourism contributed NZ$14 billion to New Zealands economy. 31 million day trips and 16.6 million overnight trips were made in the year ended December 2012, however, total spending stayed static, with a 2% decline in day trip spending offset by a 1% increase in overnight spending. Popular tourist activities in New Zealand include sightseeing, adventure tourism, to support active travel, New Zealand has numerous walking and hiking paths, some of which, like the Milford Track, have huge international recognition. There is also a route the length of the country, Te Araroa Trail, which is in the process of being finished as of the late 2000s
Tourism in New Zealand
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New Zealand landscapes: Snow-capped mountains near Milford Sound
Tourism in New Zealand
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New Zealand landscapes: A beach at sunset near Greymouth
Tourism in New Zealand
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New Zealand landscapes: Hills above the Whanganui River
Tourism in New Zealand
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Sky Tower, in Auckland, the tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, is an observation tower as well as a revolving restaurant.
131.
Demographics of New Zealand
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The demographics of New Zealand encompass the gender, ethnic, religious, geographic, and economic backgrounds of the 4.7 million people living in New Zealand. New Zealanders, informally known as Kiwis, predominantly live in areas on the North Island. The five largest cities are Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, Hamilton, few New Zealanders live on New Zealands smaller islands. Waiheke Island is easily the most populated island with 9,150 residents, while Great Barrier Island. New Zealand is part of a realm and most people born in the external territories of Tokelau, the Ross Dependency. In 2006, more people who identified themselves with these islands lived in New Zealand than on the Islands themselves, the majority of New Zealands population is of European descent, with the indigenous Māori being the largest minority, followed by Asians and non-Māori Pacific Islanders. This is reflected in immigration, with most new migrants coming from Britain and Ireland, in 2001 an estimated 460,000 New Zealanders lived abroad, mostly in Australia, representing nearly one-quarter of NZs highly skilled workforce. The largest Māori iwi is Ngapuhi with 122,211 people or 24 percent of the Māori population. Auckland is the most ethnically diverse region in New Zealand with 56.5 percent identifying as Europeans,18.9 percent as Asian,11.1 percent as Māori and 14.4 percent as other Pacific Islanders. The ethnicity of the aged under 18 years is more diverse than the population aged 65 years or older. Recent increases in interracial marriages have resulted in more people identifying with more than one ethnic group, approximately three-quarters of the population of New Zealand during the census were of European ethnicity. English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language are the official languages, New Zealand English is mostly non-rhotic and sounds similar to Australian English, with a common exception being the centralisation of the short i. The Maori language has undergone a process of revitalisation and is spoken by 4.1 percent of the population, New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification. As of the 2013 census, just under half the population identify as Christians, with Hinduism, Buddhism, New Zealand has no state religion and just over 40% of the population do not have a religion. Farming is an occupation in New Zealand, although more people are employed as sales assistants. Most New Zealanders earn wage or salary income, with a personal income in 2013 of $28,500. Unemployment stood at 5.1 percent in June 2016, while the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal Kiwi is commonly used both internationally and by locals. The name derives from the kiwi, a flightless bird
Demographics of New Zealand
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Auckland Wellington
Demographics of New Zealand
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Fewer than 1 person per square km
Demographics of New Zealand
Demographics of New Zealand
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Christchurch Hamilton
132.
New Zealand Sign Language
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New Zealand Sign Language or NZSL is the main language of the Deaf community in New Zealand. It became a language of New Zealand in April 2006, alongside English. New Zealand Sign Language has its roots in British Sign Language, there are 62. 5% similarities found in British Sign Language and NZSL, compared with 33% of NZSL signs found in American Sign Language. Like other natural languages, it was devised by and for deaf people. It uses the same two-handed manual alphabet as BSL and Auslan and it uses more lip-patterns in conjunction with hand and facial movement to cue signs than BSL, reflecting New Zealands history of oralist education of deaf people. Its vocabulary includes Māori concepts such as marae and tangi, the first non-Polynesian immigrants to New Zealand were from Britain, and those who were deaf brought British Sign Language with them. The first known teacher of language was Dorcas Mitchell, who taught the children of one family in Charteris Bay, Lyttelton Harbour. By 1877 she had taught 42 pupils, when the first school for the deaf was opened at Sumner, south east of Christchurch in 1878, Mitchell applied unsuccessfully for the position of principal. Instead it went to Gerrit Van Asch, who agreed with the Milan congress of deaf educators of 1880 that teaching should be oral only, and this was the policy of the school until 1979. A documentary film about the school made in the 1950s makes no mention of sign language, similar policies were maintained at the schools at Titirangi and Kelston that opened in 1940 and 1958. Unsurprisingly, the children used sign language secretly and after leaving school, the main haven for NZSL was the Deaf Clubs in the main centres. In 1979, Total Communication was adopted at the Sumner School, as a result, younger signers use a number of Australasian signs in their NZSL, to such an extent that some call traditional NZSL Old Sign. NZSL was adopted for teaching in 1994, in 1985, Marianne Ahlgren proved in her PhD thesis at Victoria University of Wellington that NZSL is a fully-fledged language, with a large vocabulary of signs and a consistent grammar of space. The New Zealand Sign Language Teachers Association was set up in 1992, over the next few years adult education classes in NZSL began in several centres. Also in 1992 an interpreter training programme was established at the Auckland Institute of Technology and they had as early as 1984 sought support for more research to determine the need for sign language interpreters. Other than a one-off course run in 1985, this was the first time a professional training programme with a qualification was offered in New Zealand. Many of those who have gone on to work as professional NZSL interpreters began their journey in NZSL community classes taught by members of the NZSLTA. An important step toward the recognition of NZSL was the publication in 1998 of a comprehensive NZSL dictionary by Victoria University of Wellington and the Deaf Association of NZ
New Zealand Sign Language
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New Zealand Sign Language
133.
Architecture of New Zealand
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The architecture of New Zealand is influenced by various cultures but it is predominantly of a European style. Polynesian influence is seen in some areas. Many of the imposing structures in and around Dunedin and Christchurch were built in the latter part of the 19th century as a result of the economic boom following the Central Otago Gold Rush. A common style for these landmarks is the use of basalt blocks and facings of cream-coloured Oamaru stone. Several more recent buildings have mimicked this style by using brick in place of basalt, notable among these buildings are Otago Girls High School and the Timaru Basilica. This region was able to call upon the talents of many fine architects during this period, among them Robert Lawson, Francis Petre, Benjamin Mountfort, and George Troup. Oamaru stone, despite its susceptibility to the elements, is used as a construction material on several fine buildings. The historic sector of town contains numerous fine buildings built in this creamy stone, among them the Forrester Gallery. Waitaki Boys High School is also an example of the use of Oamaru stone architecture. Napier and Christchurch have suffered damage to heritage buildings as a result of earthquakes. Napier was rebuilt after a 1931 earthquake in an art deco style, the 2010 Canterbury earthquake and the 2011 Christchurch earthquake damaged many buildings in Christchurch as well as in the Canterbury region. New Zealand Registered Architects Board is a board that assesses. New Zealand Institute of Architects is an organisation that promotes Architects. Not all New Zealand Architects are members of the NZIA, list of New Zealand architects Culture of New Zealand New Zealand Registered Architects Board Register of New Zealand Architects New Zealand Institute of Architects
Architecture of New Zealand
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The St Mary's Basilica in Invercargill was designed by Francis Petre, a renowned New Zealand architect.
Architecture of New Zealand
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Waitetoko Church, Lake Taupo
Architecture of New Zealand
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Kemp House, Kerikeri
Architecture of New Zealand
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Katherine Mansfield birthplace
134.
New Zealand art
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New Zealand art consists of the visual and plastic arts originating from the geographical location of New Zealand. It come from different traditions, indigenous Māori art, that of the early European settlers, because New Zealand is so isolated, in the past many artists had to go overseas to make a living. The visual arts flourished in the decades of the 20th century. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, Māori visual art consists primarily of four forms, carving, tattooing, weaving and painting. The creation of art was governed by the rules of tapu, most traditional Māori art was highly stylised and featured motifs such as the spiral, the chevron and the koru. The colours black, white and red dominated, carving was done in three media, wood, bone, and stone. Arguably ta moko was another form of carving, wood carvings were used to decorate houses, fencepoles, containers, taiaha and other objects. The most popular type of stone used in carving was pounamu, a form of jade, but other kinds were also used, especially in the North Island, both stone and bone were used to create jewellery such as the hei-tiki. Large scale stone face carvings were sometimes created. The introduction of tools by Europeans allowed more intricacy and delicacy. Carving is traditionally a tapu activity performed by men only, ta moko is the art of traditional Māori tattooing, done with a chisel. Men were tattooed on many parts of their bodies, including faces, buttocks, women were usually tattooed only on the lips and chin. The art declined in the 19th century following the introduction of Christianity, although modern moko are in traditional styles, most are carried out using modern equipment. Body parts such as the arms, legs and back are popular locations for modern moko, weaving was used to create numerous things, including wall panels in meeting houses and other important buildings, as well as clothing and bags. While many of these were functional, others were true works of art taking hundreds of hours to complete. Cloaks in particular could be decorated with feathers and were the mark of an important chief, in pre-European times the main medium for weaving was flax, but following the arrival of Europeans cotton, wool and other textiles were also used, especially in clothing
New Zealand art
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Portrait of Hinepare of Ngāti Kahungunu (1890) by Gottfried Lindauer, showing chin moko, pounamu hei-tiki and woven cloak.
New Zealand art
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Charcoal rock drawing at Carters rockpool on the Opihi River
New Zealand art
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Late twentieth century carved house post depicting the navigator Kupe. Although in an essentially traditional style, this carving was created using metal tools and uses modern paints, creating a form distinct from that of pre-European times.
New Zealand art
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A view of the Murderers' Bay, as you are at anchor here in 15 fathom, Isaac Gilsemans, 1642
135.
Media of New Zealand
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The media of New Zealand include television stations, radio stations, newspapers, magazines, and websites. Most outlets are foreign-owned, with media conglomerates like New Zealand Media and Entertainment, Fairfax New Zealand, MediaWorks New Zealand, the media of New Zealand predominantly use New Zealand English, but Community Access and several local other outlets provide news and entertainment for linguistic minorities. NZ On Air funds public service programming on the publicly owned Television New Zealand and Radio New Zealand, there is limited censorship in New Zealand of political expression, violence or sexual content. Reporters Without Borders ranks New Zealand highly on press freedom, ranking it seventh-best worldwide in 2008, in the same 2010 study, for comparison, the UK placed 19th, and the US 20th). The country has strict laws that follow the English model. Internet censorship in Australia is more extensive, and New Zealand has refused to follow suit, Television in New Zealand was introduced in 1960. Provision was first made for the licensing of private radio and television stations in New Zealand by the Broadcasting Act 1976, there are currently 11 national free-to-air channels,22 regional free-to-air stations and several pay TV networks. Programming and scheduling is done in Auckland where all the networks are now headquartered. The Freeview terrestrial service, named Freeview|HD is a high definition digital television service launched on 14 April 2008. The service currently serves areas surrounding Auckland, Hamilton, Tauranga, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, digital cable television currently operates in Wellington and Christchurch on TelstraClears cable TV system. High Definition programming is available from Freeview on terrestrial broadcast only, only a limited range of channels are available in High Definition. New Zealand radio is dominated by twenty-seven networks and station-groups, but also several local. Two companies have a rivalry in the commercial radio market. The Iwi Radio Network is funded by Te Māngai Pāho and the Pacific Media Network is predominantly funded by NZ On Air. The number of newspapers in New Zealand has dramatically reduced since the early 20th century as a consequence of radio, television and new media being introduced to the country. Aucklands New Zealand Herald serves the upper North Island, Wellingtons The Dominion Post serves the lower North Island and Canterburys The Press, provincial and community newspapers, such as the Waikato Times daily, serve particular regions, cities and suburbs. Ownership of New Zealand newspapers is dominated by Fairfax New Zealand, local and overseas tabloids and magazines cover food, current affairs, personal affairs, gardening and home decor, and business or appeal to gay, lesbian, ethnic and rural communities. The literature of New Zealand includes many works written in English and Maori by New Zealanders and migrants during the 20th, novelists include Patricia Grace, Albert Wendt and Maurice Gee, childrens authors include Margaret Mahy
Media of New Zealand
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The first episode of Coronation Street was the first programme to broadcast on New Zealand television.
Media of New Zealand
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Radio New Zealand headquarters in Wellington.
Media of New Zealand
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The New Zealand Herald in 2006.
136.
Flag of New Zealand
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The flag of New Zealand is a defaced Blue Ensign with the Union Flag in the canton, and four red stars with white borders to the right. The stars pattern represents the asterism within the constellation of Crux, chosen by an assembly of Māori chiefs at Waitangi in 1834, the flag was of a St Georges Cross with another cross in the canton containing four stars on a blue field. After the formation of the colony in 1840, British ensigns began to be used, the current flag was designed and adopted for use on Colonial ships in 1869, was quickly adopted as New Zealands national flag, and given statutory recognition in 1902. For several decades there has been debate about changing the flag, in 2016, a two-stage binding referendum on a flag change took place with voting on the second final stage closing on 24 March. In this referendum, the country voted to keep the flag by 57% to 43%. The need for a flag of New Zealand first became clear when the trading ship Sir George Murray, the ship had been sailing without a flag, a violation of British navigation laws. New Zealand was not a colony at the time and had no flag, among the passengers on the ship were two high-ranking Māori chiefs, believed to be Patuone and Taonui. The ships detention was reported as arousing indignation among the Māori population, unless a flag was selected, ships could continue to be seized. The first flag of New Zealand was adopted 9 March 1834 by a made by the United Tribes of New Zealand. The United Tribes later made the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand at Waitangi in 1835, three flags were proposed, all designed by the missionary Henry Williams, who was to play a major role in the translation of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. The flag is flown on the flag pole at Waitangi. After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, the British Union Flag was used, although the former United Tribes flag was used by a number of ships from New Zealand. The New Zealand Company settlement at Wellington, for example, continued to use the United Tribes flag until ordered to replace it by Governor William Hobson in May 1840. New Zealand did not have a badge, or indeed a coat of arms of its own at this stage. In 1869 the First Lieutenant of the Royal Navy vessel Blanche, Albert Hastings Markham, submitted a design to Sir George Bowen and his proposal, incorporating the Southern Cross, was approved. It was initially used only on government ships, but was adopted as the de facto national flag, one of the first recorded accounts of the New Zealand national Blue Ensign flag being flown in battle was at Quinns Post, Gallipoli, in 1915. It was not, however, flown officially, the flag was brought back to New Zealand by Private John Taylor, Canterbury Battalion. The first time the Flag of New Zealand was flown in a naval battle, the national flag is defined in legislation as the symbol of the Realm, Government, and people of New Zealand and like most other laws, can be changed by a simple majority in Parliament
Flag of New Zealand
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The flag of New Zealand outside the Beehive in Wellington
Flag of New Zealand
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New Zealand
Flag of New Zealand
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The flag pole at Waitangi, flying (left – right) the Flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, the Ensign of the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Union Flag, 5 February 2006.
Flag of New Zealand
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First Lieutenant Albert Hastings Markham, designer of the Flag of New Zealand.
137.
Religion in New Zealand
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In New Zealand, Christianity is the most common religion with almost half of the population at the 2013 New Zealand Census declaring an affiliation. The majority of 19th century European migrants came from the British Isles, while 47.5 percent of New Zealanders affiliate with Christianity, regular church attendance is probably closer to 15%. The number of people affiliated with Christianity has declined since the 1990s, with increased immigration to New Zealand, especially from Asia, the number of people affiliating with non-Christian religions has also increased. New Zealands religious history after the arrival of Europeans saw substantial missionary activity, the Church Missionary Society sent missionaries to settle in New Zealand. Samuel Marsden of the Church Missionary Society, officiated at its first service on Christmas Day in 1814, the CMS founded its first mission at Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands in 1814 and over the next decade established farms and schools in the area. In June 1823 Wesleydale, the first Wesleyan mission in New Zealand, was established at Whangaroa, jean Baptiste Pompallier was the first Roman Catholic bishop in New Zealand and, with a number of Marist Brothers, he organised the Roman Catholic Church throughout the country. In 1892 the New Zealand Church Mission Society formed in a Nelson church hall, the religious climate of early New Zealand was influenced by voluntarism. Waves of new immigrants brought their particular faiths with them, Catholicism meanwhile was the dominant religion on the West Coast with its many mining concerns, and in Central Otago. Immigration since 1991 has resulted in religions like Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism growing rapidly, however, a large portion of the growth of these religions has occurred in Auckland. New Zealand censuses have collected data on religious affiliation since 1851, one complication in interpreting religious affiliation data in New Zealand is the large proportion who object to answering the question, roughly 173,000 respondents in 2013. Most reporting of percentages is based on the number of responses. In the early 20th century New Zealand census data indicates that the vast majority of New Zealanders affiliated with Christianity. The total percentages in the 1921 non-Māori census were, 45% Anglicans,19. 9% Presbyterians,13. 6% Catholics,9. 5% Methodists and 11. 2% Others, the population increased 7. 8% between the 2006 and 2001 census. The most notable trend in religion over that time is the 26. 2% increase in the number of people indicating no religion, the table below is based on religious affiliation data recorded at the last three censuses for usually resident people. Note that figures and percentages may not add to 100 percent as it is possible for people to more than one religion. Hinduism emerged as the second largest religious group in New Zealand after Christianity in the 2006 census, mainstream Christian denominations, while still representing the largest categories of census religious affiliation, are not keeping pace with population increase. Anglicans fell by 95,154 to 459,771 and Presbyterians decreased by 69,936 to 330,903, Roman Catholic numbers decreased by 16,053 to 492,384. The only other religious groups above 100,000 members are Christian, compare this with numbers in 1901, where 42% of people identified with the Anglican denomination, 23% with Presbyterian, and 14% with Catholicism
Religion in New Zealand
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The Holy Trinity Cathedral (Anglican) in Parnell, Auckland.
Religion in New Zealand
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Canterbury Mosque, New Zealand; June 2006. Built over 1984–85 it was the world's southern-most mosque until 1999.
Religion in New Zealand
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Image of a Gurudwara, the Sikh place of worship, South Auckland.
138.
Parliament of Fiji
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The Parliament of Fiji is the unicameral legislature of the Republic of the Fiji. It consists of 50 members elected every 4 years using open-list proportional representation in one nationwide constituency. The Fijian Parliament dates from 10 October 1970, when Fiji became independent from the United Kingdom, the Parliament replaced the former colonial legislative body, the Legislative Council, which had existed in various forms throughout the entire colonial period. Since independence, Parliamentary rule has been interrupted three times, the first interruption was from 1987 through 1992, owing to two coups détat in 1987 instigated by Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka. The second interruption occurred when a coup in 2002 attempted by George Speight rendered the system unworkable. A general election in 2001 restored the democratic system, the Republic of Fiji Military Forces overthrew the government again in 2006. No further elections would be held until the September 2014 election, the composition of Parliament has changed over the years. From 1972 to 1987, there were 52 Representatives and 22 Senators, in 1992, Parliament was enlarged to 70 Representatives and 34 Senators, figures marginally adjusted in 1999 to provide for 71 Representatives and 32 Senators. 25 of these were elected by universal suffrage, the remaining 46 were reserved for Fijis ethnic communities and were elected from communal electoral rolls,23 Fijians,19 Indo-Fijians,1 Rotuman, and 3 General electors. The Senate was less powerful than the House of Representatives, the Senate could not initiate legislation, the Senates powers over financial bills were more restricted, it could veto them in their entirety, but could not amend them. Amendments to the Constitution were excepted, the veto of the Senate was absolute, as a result of the parliament building having only one debating chamber, the Senate and House of Representatives used the same chamber at different times. The 2013 Constitution promulgated by the interim government abolished the Senate. The Parliament of Fiji consists of 50 members and is led by the Prime Minister of Fiji, the current Parliament was elected in the 2014 election, with FijiFirst, led by Prime Minister Frank Bainimarama, holding a majority of 32 seats. The Social Democratic Liberal Party, led by Teimumu Kepa, gained 15 seats, the National Federation Party, lea by Biman Prasad, gained 3 seats and became the only party on the crossbench. Politics of Fiji List of legislatures by country Parliament of Fiji Live Streaming Fiji Government Online Portal Official Website of the Parliament of Fiji
Parliament of Fiji
Parliament of Fiji
139.
Parliament of the Marshall Islands
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The Legislature of the Marshall Islands has 33 members, elected for a four-year term in single-seat and five multi-seat constituencies. The last election was November 21,2011, the twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are four parties in the Marshall Islands, Aelon Kein Ad, Kien Eo Am, United Peoples Party. Control is shared by the AKA and the KEA
Parliament of the Marshall Islands
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Legislature of the Marshall Islands Nitijeļā
140.
Parliament of Nauru
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The Parliament of Nauru has 19 members, elected for a three-year term in multi-seat constituencies. The President of Nauru is elected by the members of the Parliament, the number of seats was increased to 19 following elections in 2013. The members of the Parliament of Nauru are elected by a voting system. On 22 March 2010, Radio New Zealand International reported that President Marcus Stephen had dissolved Parliament in readiness for elections on 24 April 2010, the election saw all 18 MPs returned, but by this stage nine of them had formed the Opposition, resulting in a deadlocked Parliament. Another election was held in June 2010 as a result of the continuing deadlock, after weeks of uncertainty, the deadlock was resolved when the Opposition agreed to have one of its own MPs, Ludwig Scotty, elected as Speaker. President Stephen then suggested that the number of MPs should be expanded to 19, the Speaker is the presiding officer of Parliament. The Speaker is an MP elected by the MPs, the Speaker has no vote in no-confidence votes and presidential elections. Following the April 2008 election, Riddell Akua was appointed Speaker of the Parliament of Nauru, two weeks after the April 2010 election, Godfrey Thoma was elected Speaker. Due to the political deadlock fresh elections were held in June, Scotty resigned at the end of the 20th Parliament in March 2013. Godfrey Thoma was elected to replace him, following the 2013 election, Scotty was re-elected to the speakers post
Parliament of Nauru
141.
Parliament of Papua New Guinea
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The National Parliament of Papua New Guinea is the unicameral national legislature in Papua New Guinea. It was created in 1964 as the House of Assembly of Papua and New Guinea, the 111 members of parliament serve five-year terms,89 of whom are chosen from single-member open electorates, which are sometimes referred to as seats but are officially known as constituencies. The remaining 22 are chosen from single-member provincial electorates, the 20 provinces, the province of Bougainville. Each provincial member becomes governor of his province unless he takes a ministerial position, from 1964 until 1977 an Optional Preferential Voting System was used. The first past the post system was used from 1977 until 2002, electoral reforms introduced by former Prime Minister Mekere Morauta introduced Limited Preferential Voting, in which voters numbered three preferred candidates. LPV was first used nationally in the 2007 election, the Prime Minister then appoints his cabinet from fellow parliament members. Papua New Guinea has a political culture, and no party in the history of parliament has yet won a majority. Therefore, negotiations between parties have always been necessary to form governments, New governments are protected from votes of no confidence during their first 18 months and during the last 12 months before a national election. All citizens over the age of 18 may vote, although voting is not compulsory
Parliament of Papua New Guinea
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The main entrance of the National Parliament building
Parliament of Papua New Guinea
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Papua New Guinea
142.
Parliament of Samoa
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The Legislative Assembly is the Parliament of Samoa based in the capital, Apia, where the countrys central administration is situated. In the Samoan language, the Legislative Assembly of Samoa is sometimes referred to as the Samoan Fono while the government of the country is referred to as the Malo. The word fono is a Samoan and Polynesian term for councils or meetings great and small and applies to national assemblies and legislatures, the modern government of Samoa exists on a national level alongside the countrys faamatai indigenous chiefly system of governance and social organisation. The Samoan Fono is descended from the Western Samoa Legislative Assembly established under New Zealand rule in the early 1900s, on the countrys political independence in 1962, the 5th Legislative Assembly became the 1st Samoan Parliament. The Samoan Fono has 50 Members of Parliament,47 members are matai, elected in six two-seat and 35 single-seat constituencies. The other 2 Members are elected by, and represent, individual voters, an extra Member of Parliament was added after the 2016 election in order to meet the quota of 10% female MPs. Members of Parliament in Samoa are directly elected by universal suffrage, the Head of State or O le Ao o le Malo is elected for a five-year term by the Fono. Elections are held under a plurality system. Samoan electors are divided into six two-seat and 35 single-seat constituencies, in addition, two seats are reserved for individual voters, non-indigenous citizens who may not hold a chiefly title or any customary interest in Samoan land. Electors must be Samoan citizens and aged over 21, candidates must be qualified as electors, and in addition those for territorial seats must hold a matai title. The Fono is responsible for electing the O le Ao o le Malo, the Fono is currently in its 14th term. The Fono is housed in a bee-hive shaped building based on the traditional Samoan fale, electoral Constituencies of Samoa List of Speakers of the Legislative Assembly of Samoa Politics of Samoa List of legislatures by country Official website
Parliament of Samoa
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Members of the First Legislative Assembly of Samoa under New Zealand administration, circa 1921.
Parliament of Samoa
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Legislative Assembly of Samoa Fono
143.
Parliament of Tonga
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The Legislative Assembly of Tonga has 26 members in which 17 members elected by majority of the people for a 5-year term in multi-seat constituencies via the single non-transferable vote system. There are 9 members elected by the 33 hereditary nobles of Tonga, the Assembly is controlled by the speaker of the House who is elected by majority of the elected members of Parliament and constitutionally appointed by the king. A Legislative Assembly providing for representation of nobles and commoners was established in 1862 by King George Tupou I and this body met every four years and was continued in the 1875 Constitution. An increase in the number of nobles from twenty to thirty saw the Assembly grow to 70 members, amendments in 1914 saw a reduction in the size of the Assembly and annual sittings. The principle of representation of nobles and commoners was retained. The Legislative Assembly is presided over by a Speaker, appointed by the monarch, the current Speaker is Lord Tuʻivakanō. A complete list of the Speakers is below, Until 2010, the government was appointed by the monarch without reference to Parliament, the last term under the old system was the 2008 Tongan Legislative Assembly. Political reform in 2010 saw the Prime Minister elected by Parliament from among its members, gloria Poleo Politics of Tonga List of legislatures by country Official website
Parliament of Tonga
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Legslative Assembly of Tonga Fale Alea
144.
Parliament of Niue
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The Niue Assembly is the legislature of Niue. It consists of 20 members,14 representatives of the villages and 6 elected on a common roll, members are directly elected by universal suffrage, and serve a three-year term. Niue follows the Westminster system of government, with the Premier elected by the Assembly, the Assembly is descended from the Island Council established under the Cook Islands Act 1915. This was disbanded in 1959 and reconstituted as the Assembly, which was granted greater control. The Assembly assumed full law-making power within the constitution upon self-government in 1974, the Assembly is physically located in Alofi. The Assembly is presided over by a Speaker, elected by its members from outside their ranks, if a member of the Assembly is elected Speaker, they must resign their seat. The Speaker does not vote in proceedings, and does not enjoy a casting vote, the current Speaker is Togiavalu Pihigia. Elections are held under a plurality system, with electors in the fourteen villages electing one member per village by majority vote. Electors must be New Zealand citizens, resident for at least three months, and candidates must have been electors, resident for twelve months, the Assembly is currently in its 14th term. The 14th Assembly was elected at the 2011 elections, the power of the Assembly to pass legislation is circumscribed by the constitution. Any member may introduce a bill, but the Assembly may not proceed on bills dealing with financial matters without the consent of the Premier, a bill becomes law when passed by the Assembly and certified by the Speaker. List of Speakers of the Niue Assembly
Parliament of Niue
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Niue
145.
Parliament of Guam
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The Legislature of Guam is the legislature for the United States territory of Guam. The legislative branch is unicameral, with a house consisting of fifteen senators. All members of the legislature are elected at-large, after the enactment of the Organic Act, the First Guam Legislature was elected in 1950. The current 34th Guam Legislature was elected in November 2016, the Guam Legislature meets in the territorial capital of Hagåtña in the Guam Congress Building, located at 163 Chalan Santo Papa. During the Spanish colonial era, lasting roughly from the 1670s until 1898, all political decisions on the island were left to a Madrid appointed governor, who, until 1817, reported to the Viceroy of New Spain in Mexico. Due to New Spains distance from Guam and the speed of transportation of the times, Spain lost Guam during the 1898 Spanish–American War in a bloodless invasion. Governor Captain Willis Winter Bradley instituted the Guam Congress during the 1930s as an advisory body to the naval governor. On December 8,1941, Imperial Japanese forces invaded Guam, the island was eventually retaken in 1944 during the intense Battle of Guam. The result was the Guam Organic Act of 1950 signed by President Harry S. Truman, the act established a civilian territorial government with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. It was the first time that Guam had a civilian government. The Guam Organic Act of 1950 provides for the establishment of the Guam Legislature, the Organic Act provides that the Guam Legislature is a unicameral body with up to twenty-one members and that elections shall be held every two years. Until a change to Guam law in 1996, the Guam Legislature had 21 members, called senators, senators of the Guam Legislature have been elected both by a number of at-large districts and by an island-wide at-large election. Since the 1980s, senators of the Guam Legislature have been elected at-large through an open partisan primary, in the November 1996 legislative elections, the Republican Party defeated the Democratic Party. In the November 1998 legislative elections, the Republican Party defeated the Democratic Party, the Republicans held a 12 seat super majority. In the November 2000 legislative elections, the Republican Party defeated the Democratic Party, in the November 2002 legislative elections, the Democratic Party defeated the Republican Party. In the November 2004 legislative elections, the Republican Party defeated the Democratic Party, in the November 2006 legislative elections, the Republican Party defeated the Democratic Party. In the November 2008 legislative elections, the Democratic Party defeated the Republican Party, the Democrats hold 10 seats Judith T. Won Pat, Vice Speaker Benjamin J. F. Cruz, Legislative Secretary Tina R. Muna Barnes, Majority Leader Rory J. Respicio, Judith P. Guthertz, aguon, Jr. and Matthew J. Rector
Parliament of Guam
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Guam
146.
Parliament of Norfolk Island
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The Norfolk Legislative Assembly was the prime legislative body of Norfolk Island from 1979 to 2015. Formed after the Norfolk Island Act 1979 was passed in the Australian parliament, the last assembly was the 14th, elected on 13 March 2013. The assembly had 9 members, elected for a three-year term, the assembly was elected by a popular vote for a term of not more than three years. Electors each had nine votes, which could be divided in any way between candidates, but no more than two votes could be given to any particular individual candidate. This variation of cumulative voting is called the weighted first past the post system, all nine seats were held by independents, as Norfolk Island did not have major political parties. However, a branch of the Australian Labor Party was active. A five-person Community Advisory Council would be set up to manage the transition, with Chief Minister Snell, in 2014, Snell travelled to Canberra to argue against a complete change to the arrangements governing the island. He did not oppose the island joining Australias tax and welfare system, snells overtures and a non-binding referendum held on the island were unsuccessful, and the assembly met for the last time on 17 June 2015. List of Speakers of the Norfolk Legislative Assembly Politics of Norfolk Island Cabinet of Norfolk Island
Parliament of Norfolk Island
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Norfolk Legislative Assembly
147.
Parliament of the Northern Mariana Islands
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The Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature is the territorial legislature of the U. S. commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The legislative branch of the territory is bicameral, consisting of a 20-member lower House of Representatives, Representatives serve two-year terms and Senators serve four-year terms, both without term limits. The territorial legislature meets in the capital of Saipan. Similar to the United States Congress, the Senate seats are divided into three districts whose boundaries are identical to those of the municipalities, the Constitution provides for the creation of a fourth district for the Northern Islands when the population exceeds 1,000. In the first election after the ratification of the Constitution, the Senator with the third-highest number of votes held their seat for two years. Requirements for Senator are a minimum age of 25, residence in the Commonwealth for five years, the Constitution permits a higher residence requirement to be legislated. The House seats are elected from seven districts, two districts have one seat each, one for Rota and Aguijan and the other for Tinian. The remaining five districts elect multiple members, three with two members, and two with six members, and are all located on Saipan, with one including the Northern Islands. The Constitution provides for the Northern Islands to be a district when the population exceeds the number of people represented by any Representative. Reapportionment occurs every 10 years following the census, requirements for Representative are a minimum age of 21, residence in the Commonwealth for three years, and a registered voter in the district represented. As with the Senate, the Constitution permits the Legislature to enact a higher residence requirement, the Legislature also has a youth congress, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Youth Congress. The Commonwealth was officially established in January 1978, and as the constitution prescribed, over the years, as permitted by the constitution, House membership was increased to 20 beginning with the 16th Legislature in 2008, the Constitutional maximum. The Northern Mariana Islands election calendar was one of the few political divisions in the United States where general elections were held in odd-numbered years, Northern Mariana Islands House of Representatives Northern Mariana Islands Senate List of Northern Mariana Islands Governors Official website
Parliament of the Northern Mariana Islands
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Northern Mariana Islands
148.
New Zealand Parliament
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The New Zealand Parliament is the legislative branch of New Zealand, consisting of the Queen of New Zealand and the New Zealand House of Representatives. Before 1951, there was a chamber, the New Zealand Legislative Council. The Parliament was established in 1854 and is one of the oldest continuously functioning parliaments in the world, the House of Representatives is a democratically elected body whose members are known as Members of Parliament. It usually consists of 120 MPs, though sometimes due to overhang seats. 70 MPs are elected directly in electorate seats and the remainder are filled by list MPs based on each partys share of the party vote, Māori were represented in Parliament from 1867, and in 1893 women gained the vote. New Zealand does not allow sentenced prisoners to vote, the Parliament is closely linked to the executive branch. The House of Representatives has met in the Parliament Buildings located in Wellington, Parliament funds the broadcast of its proceedings through Parliament TV, AM Network and Parliament Today. It was based on the Westminster model and had a house, called the House of Representatives. The members of the House of Representatives were elected under the first-past-the-post voting system, originally Councillors were appointed for life, but later their terms were fixed at seven years. In 1951, the Council was abolished altogether, making the New Zealand legislature unicameral, under the Constitution Act, legislative power was also conferred on New Zealands provinces, each of which had its own elected Legislative Council. These provincial legislatures were able to legislate for their provinces on most subjects, over a twenty-year period, political power was progressively centralised, and the provinces were abolished altogether in 1876. Four Māori electorates were created in 1867 during the term of the 4th Parliament, originally the New Zealand Parliament remained subordinate to the British Parliament, the supreme legislative authority for the entire British Empire. One historical speciality of the New Zealand Parliament was the country quota, from 1889 on, districts were weighted according to their urban/rural split. The country quota was in effect until it was abolished in 1945 by a mostly urban-elected Labour government, the New Zealand Parliament is sovereign with no institution able to over-ride its decisions. The ability of Parliament to act is, legally, unimpeded, for example, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 is a normal piece of legislation, it is not superior law as codified constitutions are in some other countries. The only thing Parliament is limited in its power are on some entrenched issues relating to elections and these issues require either 75% of all MPs to support the bill or a referendum on the issue. The Queen of New Zealand is one of the components of Parliament—formally called the Queen-in-Parliament and this results from the role of the monarch to sign into law the bills that have been passed by the House of Representatives. The House of Representatives was established as a house and has been the Parliaments sole chamber since 1951
New Zealand Parliament
New Zealand Parliament
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New Zealand Parliament Pāremata Aotearoa
New Zealand Parliament
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New Zealand Parliament Buildings