Higher Education in Germany

The German system is usually classified as "continental European" and it is predominantly affected by the federal organisation of the state. The respective federal states (Bundesländer) differ in their education policy depending on their state governments. Even though there exist some frameworks coordinating the respective education policies, the legislative prescriptions and organisation of education contents is very heterogeneous.

The higher education system is subdivided into universities and “Fachhochschulen” (polytechnics), which implies a division into more theory- and more applied-oriented approaches. There are all together 333 higher education institutions: besides 117 universities or equivalent higher education institutions, there are 160 Fachhochschulen and 56 Colleges of Art and Music. Normally only the universities have the right to confer doctoral degrees.

With only a few exceptions, the universities in Germany are state institutions. Because of the federal structure of Germany, universities are controlled and financed by the respective Ministries of Education. The relationship between the Ministries of the federal states and the universities is regulated by the different Acts of Higher Education of each federal state, which in turn are determined and coordinated by the Framework Act of Higher Education, the HRG ( Hochschulrahmengesetz ), which is in force for all the federal states.

Because of the specific characteristicas of the German system, in which states control universities, Germany has a very well-funded network of federal research institutes (of which Max Planck and Leibnitz are the two biggest networks). Hiring practices vary by discipline, but many of these institutes search candidates on the international markets. While postdocs vary in length and duties, the best of them are for 6 years and have no teaching or administrative obligations.

In 2001, a reform began to be enacted to liberalize the academic system and diversify the career pattern. It included a new "junior professor" position. Criteria other than seniority are being evaluated for the purpose of career advancement. However, the outcome of this reform has not been entirely successful so far. Few universities opened junoir professorship positions. Despite institutional attempts to expand the pool of potential candidates - as academic job positions are increasingly being advertised online and outside Germany - informal contacts still matter at the moment of assigning a position.

To become Scientific Assistant or Junior Professor, a PhD degree is required. As already mentioned, both positions can be held for maximum six years.

Assistants are working toward their Habilitation, while Junior Professors do not have to write a Habilitation. Instead, they have to carry out a wider variety of tasks, including research, teaching, administration and management. In practice, however, the Junior Professorship has not (yet?) become a strong alternative to the Habilitation track. This has become evident, for example, in the area of Law. Not many universities created Junior Professorships and scholars who did obtain such positions are encouraged to write a Habilitation nonetheless.

The procedure to become a Junior Professor involves several stages and can easily take a year. Both an internal and an external commission rank the candidates. In case both lists correspond with each other, the final ranking is presented to the faculty. Subsequently, the principal of the university has to agree on the list, after which it is sent to the minister of eduction of the Bundesland for final approval.

To become W2 Professor, one needs the Habilitation (in the case of Scientific Assistants) or a positive evaluation of the Juniorprofessur (in the case of Junior Professors).

The Habilitation is an additional stage of qualification after the PhD and is also called the “second PhD”. Usually, scholars write their habilitation while in employment as assistants of professors (Wissenschaftliche Assistenten). The habilitation can be either a thesis (opus magnum) or several scientific publications of outstanding quality (cumulative Habilitation). The habilitation commission of the faculty makes the decision regarding the acceptance of a habilitation. This committee grants the academic title of Private Lecturer (Privatdozent) and the teaching licence (venia legendi). After having achieved this academic grade, scholars can apply for professorships. Habilitated academics who do not have a full professorship at a university have the status of Private Lecturer and may work as freelancers for or be employed by the university.

The procedure for the appointment of professors (Berufungsverfahren) is the same at all German universities. In the Humanities and the Social Sciences, a committee of the faculty presents a shortlist of three candidates to the faculty. Members of the appointment committee may be representatives of other faculties, but special attention is paid to the "subject specific competence". According to the provisions of the Federate State laws, at least nine individuals [candidates or jury members??] must participate in the procedure. A "sufficient number" of expert opinions are collected from experts who do not have a personal relationship with the candidates and who have an established academic reputation in the academic community. These experts are asked to provide comparative evaluations of all the candidates.

According to the normal appointment procedure, the appointment committee sends a ranked list to the university senate, which is free to modify the list before it is submitted to the ministry. The ministries cannot easily justify ignoring the lists but they are free to appoint one of the three candidates. It happens that the ministry disregards suggestions emanating from the faculties.

An important feature of German academia is that with the exception of Junior Professors, habilitated academics usually cannot obtain a W3 professorship at their own university. This is specified in the Higher Education Act (HRG) and is called internal promotion prohibition.

Job Security

The German academic career is not tenure track: by law a junior staff member cannot be promoted to a professorial position within the same institution. However, one becomes a civil servant from Academic Assistant (C2/W2 positions in the old/new system) onwards. This means that compared to other countries academics in Germany obtain tenure at a relatively late age, as on average one becomes Academic Assistant at the age of 42.

Due to the university system that guarantees the university relative academic freedom, the position of professor in Germany is stronger and more independent than, for instance, in France. As civil servants, professors have a series of attendant rights and benefits, yet this status is subject to discussion. For example, it is considered now to relate professorial pay to performance rather than merely to age.

Source: Deutscher Hochschulverband and Academics.de

These salaries are fixed salaries, which are not increased according to seniority. To compensate for the reduction in salary – compared to the previous C-salaries – there is a system of bonuses. Bonusses are paid, for instance, for administrative tasks and success in research and teaching. Academics also obtain family and child allowances.

While the salary is considered to be not very negotiable, it is possible to negotiate the salary when having another job offer. However, what is far more negotiable then salaries in the German system are academic benefits (sabaticals, research assistants, research budgets etc.). All this can be negotiated when there is a competing job offer and this is also often the way in which full professors improve their working conditions. Competing job offers in general seem to be a relativelly effective tool for improving one's working conditions in German academia.

Number of Existing Positions

Internal Recruitment

There are no exact numbers regarding recruitment. Partially due to the fact that it is difficult to be promoted to a tenured professorial position in the institution where one holds a junior position (apart from a Junior Professorship), mobility between universities in Germany is relatively high.

Useful Websites

Info for History

• Verband der Historiker und Historikerinnen Deutschlands
• Virtual Library Geschichte Deutschland
• French Institute on German History

Info for Law

Please contact us if you can provide relevant information. 

Sources

Berning, E. (2004) 'Petrified Structures and still little Autonomy and Flexibility. Country Report Germany', J. Enders and E. de Weert, eds. The International Attractiveness of the Academic Workplace in Europe. Frankfurt, Gewerkschaft Erziehung und Wissenschaft 107, 160-182.

Enders, J. (2001), 'A Chair Systems in Transition: Appointments, Promotions, and Gate-keeping in German Higher Education', Higher Education 41: 3-25.

Enders, J. (2005), 'Border Crossings: Research Training, Knowledge Dissemination and the Transformation of Academic Work', Higher Education 49: 119-133.

Griffin, G., T. Green, et al. (2005), The Relationship between the Process of Professionalization in Academe and Interdisciplinarity: A Comparative Study of Eight European Countries, University of Hull, UK.

Huisman, J. and J. Bartelse, eds. (2001), Academic Careers: a Comparative Perspective. Report prepared for the Dutch Advisory Council for Science and Technology Policy on academic careers, The Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Finland, Flanders and the United Kingdom, Enschede.

Krebs, R., I. Siouti, et al. (2005), 'Disciplinary Barriers between the Social Sciences and Humanities. National Report on Germany'

Musselin, C. (2004), 'Towards a European Academic Labour Market? Some Lessons Drawn from Empirical Studies on Academic Mobility', Higher Education 48: 55-78.

Musselin, C. (2005), 'European Academic Labor Markets in Transition', Higher Education 49: 135-154.