Saffron

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles
Delicate saffron threads, plucked from crocus flowers and dried

Saffron (pronounced /ˈsæfrən/ or /ˈsæfrɒn/)[1] is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigmas and styles, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in food. Saffron, long among the world's most costly spices by weight,[2][3][4] was probably first cultivated in or near Greece.[5] C. sativus is probably a form of C. cartwrightianus, that emerged by human cultivators selectively breeding plants for unusually long stigmas in late Bronze Age Crete.[6] It slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

Saffron's taste and iodoform or hay-like fragrance result from the chemicals picrocrocin and safranal.[7][8] It also contains a carotenoid pigment, crocin, which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its recorded history is attested in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical treatise compiled under Ashurbanipal,[9] and it has been traded and used for over four millennia. Iran now accounts for approximately 90% of the world production of saffron.[10]

Etymology[edit]

A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word "saffron". It might stem from the 12th-century Old French term safran, which comes from the Latin word safranum, from the Arabic az-za'faran,[11] which comes from the Persian word zarparan meaning "flower with golden petals".[12]

Species[edit]

Description[edit]

Köhler's Medicinal Plants:
  corolla
  stamens
  corm
  stigma
C. sativus.

The domesticated saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, is an autumn-flowering perennial plant unknown in the wild. It probably descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering Crocus cartwrightianus,[13][14] which is also known as "wild saffron"[15] and originated in Crete[16] or mainland Greece.[8] An origin in Southwest Asia,[3][17] although often suspected, has been disapproved by botanical research.[18] The saffron crocus probably resulted when C. cartwrightianus was subjected to extensive artificial selection by growers seeking longer stigmas. C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources.[14][19] As a genetically monomorphic clone,[16] it slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia.

It is a sterile triploid form, which means that three homologous sets of chromosomes compose each specimen's genetic complement; C. sativus bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.[20] Being sterile, the purple flowers of C. sativus fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of corms, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via this vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.[13] The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as 5 cm (2 in) in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to 5 cm (2 in) above the plant's neck.[20]

The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-photosynthetic leaves known as cataphylls. These membrane-like structures cover and protect the crocus's 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are 1–3 mm (0.04–0.12 in), in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). C. sativus cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear bracteoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as pedicels.[20] After aestivating in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to 40 cm (16 in) in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.[21] The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are 20–30 cm (8–12 in) in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged style 25–30 mm (1.0–1.2 in) in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson stigma, which are the distal end of a carpel.[13][20]

Cultivation[edit]

Saffron bulbs for vegetative reproduction

The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from Crocus cartwrightianus. It is a triploid that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.[22][14]

Crocus sativus thrives in the Mediterranean maquis, an ecotype superficially resembling the North American chaparral, and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and short periods of snow cover.[13][23] Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages 1,000–1,500 mm (39–59 in); saffron-growing regions in Greece (500 mm or 20 in annually) and Spain (400 mm or 16 in) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,[24] and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. Nematodes, leaf rusts, and corm rot pose other threats. Yet Bacillus subtilis inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.[25]

Saffron harvesting, Torbat-e Heydarieh, Iran

The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged 7–15 cm (3–6 in) deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.[20] Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting 15 cm (6 in) deep and in rows 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) apart; depths of 8–10 cm (3–4 in) optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.

C. sativus prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-calcareous soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some 20–30 tonnes (20–30 long tons; 22–33 short tons) of manure per hectare. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.[26] After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.[27] All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.[28] Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.[29]

One freshly picked flower yields an average 30 mg (0.0011 oz) of fresh saffron or 7 mg (0.00025 oz) dried; roughly 150 flowers yield 1 g (0.035 oz) of dry saffron threads; to produce 12 g (0.42 oz) of dried saffron, 1 kg (2.2 lb) of flowers are needed; 1 lb (0.45 kg) yields 0.2 oz (5.7 g) of dried saffron.[26] To glean 1 lb (450 g) of dry saffron requires the harvest of 50,000–75,000 flowers; a kilogram requires 110,000–170,000 flowers.[30][31] Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.[32]

Spice[edit]

Chemistry[edit]

Structure of picrocrocin:[33]
  βD-glucopyranose derivative
  safranal moiety
Esterification reaction between crocetin and gentiobiose. Components of α–crocin:
  βD-gentiobiose
  crocetin

Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma-yielding compounds. It also has many nonvolatile active components,[34] many of which are carotenoids, including zeaxanthin, lycopene, and various α- and β-carotenes. However, saffron's golden yellow-orange colour is primarily the result of α-crocin. This crocin is trans-crocetin di-(β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester; it bears the systematic (IUPAC) name 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.[34] Crocins themselves are a series of hydrophilic carotenoids that are either monoglycosyl or diglycosyl polyene esters of crocetin.[34] Crocetin is a conjugated polyene dicarboxylic acid that is hydrophobic, and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is esterified with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are sugars, a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may comprise more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.[5]

The bitter glucoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. Picrocrocin (chemical formula: C
16
H
26
O
7
; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carboxaldehyde) is a union of an aldehyde sub-molecule known as safranal (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carboxaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid zeaxanthin that is produced via oxidative cleavage, and is the glycoside of the terpene aldehyde safranal.[35]

When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield Dglucose and a free safranal molecule.[33] Safranal, a volatile oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.[7][36] Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.[35] A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one, which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.[37] Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.[37] Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating pH levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and oxidising agents. It must, therefore, be stored away in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.

Grades and ISO 3632 categories[edit]

Red threads and yellow styles from Iran
High quality red threads from Austrian saffron
Pure Kashmiri saffron package

Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors including the amount of style picked along with the red stigma. Age of the saffron is also a factor. More style included means the saffron is less strong gram for gram, because the colour and flavour are concentrated in the red stigmas. Saffron from Iran, Spain and Kashmir is classified into various grades according to the relative amounts of red stigma and yellow styles it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: "sargol" (red stigma tips only, strongest grade), "pushal" or "pushali" (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and "konge" (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are "coupé" (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), "mancha" (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength "rio", "standard" and "sierra" saffron. The word "mancha" in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has PDO protected status and this is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.[38] In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called "Mongra" (stigma alone) or "Laccha" (stigmas attached with parts of the style).[39] Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high grade saffron.

In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard ISO 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.[40] However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.

Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash") are also key. Grading standards are set by the International Organization for Standardization, a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric absorbance. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.

These data are measured through spectrophotometry reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.

However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced wine tasters.[41] However, ISO 3632 grade and colouring strength information allow consumers to make instant comparisons between the quality of different saffron brands, without needing to purchase and sample the saffron. In particular, consumers can work out value for money based on price per unit of colouring strength rather than price per gram, given the wide possible range of colouring strengths that different kinds of saffron can have.

Adulteration[edit]

Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration, particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the Safranschou code.[42] Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like beetroot, pomegranate fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with turmeric, paprika, and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.[43][44] Safflower is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with horse hair, corn silk, or shredded paper. Tartrazine or sunset yellow have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.[45]

Types[edit]

Saffron from different producer countries, picked and dried in different ways gives rise to different end qualities.

The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. The most intense varieties tend to be Iranian. Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is marketed in small quantities.[46][47]

Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or zafferano dell'Aquila, is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's Abruzzo region, near L'Aquila. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from Inquisition-era Spain[when?]. But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in San Gavino Monreale, Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (Crocus sativus 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combine with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its dark maroon-purple hue; it is among the world's darkest, which hints at strong flavour, aroma, and colouring effect.

Trade[edit]

Sale of saffron in Iran

Almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east. The other continents, except Antarctica, produce smaller amounts. In 2014, 250 t (250,000 kg) were produced worldwide.[48] Iran is responsible for around 90–93% of global production, and much of their produce is exported.[10] A few of Iran's drier eastern and southeastern provinces, including Fars, Kerman, and those in the Khorasan region, glean the bulk of modern global production. In 2005, the second-ranked Greece produced 5.7 t (5,700 kg), while Morocco (the Berber region of Taliouine), and Kashmir, tied for third rank, each producing 2.3 t (2,300 kg).[10]

India-administered Kashmiri and İspanya (Spain) saffron at market in Turkey

In recent years, Afghan cultivation has risen. Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Italy are, in decreasing order, lesser producers. Prohibitively high labour costs and abundant Iranian imports mean that only select locales continue the tedious harvest in Austria, Germany, and Switzerland—among them the Swiss village of Mund, whose annual output is a few kilograms.[8] Microscale production of saffron can be found in Australia (mainly the state of Tasmania),[49] Canada, Central Africa, China, Egypt, parts of England[50] France, Israel, Italy (Basilicata),[51][52] Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden (Gotland), Turkey (mainly around the town of Safranbolu), the United States (California and Pennsylvania).[3][34]

Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from US$500 to US$5,000 per pound, or US$1,100–11,000/kg. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was $1,000 per pound, or US$2,200 per kilogram.[3] In February 2013, a retail bottle containing 0.06 ounces could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of $4,336 per pound or as little as about $2,000/pound in larger quantities. A pound contains between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.

Uses[edit]

Saffron threads are soaked in hotbut not boilingwater for several minutes prior to use in cuisine. This helps release the aromatic components.
Dried saffron
Nutritional value per 1 tbsp (2.1 g)
Energy 27 kJ (6.5 kcal)
1.37 g
Dietary fibre 0.10 g
0.12 g
Saturated 0.03 g
Trans 0.00 g
Monounsaturated 0.01 g
Polyunsaturated 0.04 g
0.24 g
Vitamins Quantity
%DV
Vitamin A 11 IU
Thiamine (B1)
0%
0 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
1%
0.01 mg
Niacin (B3)
0%
0.03 mg
Vitamin B6
2%
0.02 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
2 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
2%
1.7 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 μg
Vitamin D
0%
0 IU
Minerals Quantity
%DV
Calcium
0%
2 mg
Copper
1%
0.01 mg
Iron
2%
0.23 mg
Magnesium
2%
6 mg
Manganese
29%
0.6 mg
Phosphorus
1%
5 mg
Potassium
1%
36 mg
Selenium
0%
0.1 μg
Sodium
0%
3 mg
Zinc
0%
0.02 mg
Other constituents Quantity
Water 0.25 g
Kaempferol 4.3 mg
Ash 0.11 g

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,[53] Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice and khoresh of Iran,[54][55] the Milanese risotto of Italy, the paella of Spain, the bouillabaisse of France, to the biryani with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. One of the most esteemed use for saffron is in the preparation of the Golden Ham, a precious dry-cured ham made with saffron from San Gimignano. Common saffron substitutes include safflower (Carthamus tinctorius, which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), annatto, and turmeric (Curcuma longa).

Saffron has a long history of use in traditional medicine.[56][57] Saffron has also been used as a fabric dye, particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.[58] It is used for religious purposes in India.[citation needed]

Nutrition[edit]

Dried saffron is composed of 65% carbohydrates, 6% fat, 11% protein (table) and 12% water.

In comparison to other spices or dried foods, the nutrient content of dried saffron shows richness of nutritional value across B vitamins and dietary minerals (table). In a serving of one tablespoon (2 grams), manganese is present as 28% of the Daily Value while other nutrients are negligible (table).

Research[edit]

One limited meta-analysis concluded that saffron supplementation improved symptoms in patients with major depressive disorders[59] and a review indicated that it helped with mild to moderate depression.[60]

History[edit]

A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building. It is one of many depicting saffron; they were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, on the Aegean island of Santorini.

The documented history of saffron cultivation spans more than three millennia.[13] The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus is probably Crocus cartwrightianus. If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus, then it may have emerged by human cultivators selectively breeding specimens for unusually long stigmas in late Bronze Age Crete.[6] It slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.

Eastern[edit]

Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum, Singapore.

Saffron was detailed in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal.[9] Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.[61] Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.[62][63] The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.[64] Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the Minoan palace culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (Crocus sativus 'Hausknechtii') in Derbent, Isfahan, and Khorasan by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,[62] ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.[65] Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.[66] During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.[67]

Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500–900 years ago.[68][69][70] Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,[5] attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.[71] Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but turmeric, a less expensive dye, or jackfruit.[72] Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. Gamboge is now used to dye the robes.[73]

Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.[74] Yet saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume pharmacopoeia titled Shennong Bencaojing (神农本草经: "Shennong's Great Herbal", also known as Pen Ts'ao or Pun Tsao), a tome dating from 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the fabled Yan ("Fire") Emperor (炎帝) Shennong, it discusses 252 phytochemical-based medical treatments for various disorders.[75] Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to Chinese herbalist Wan Zhen, "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."[70]

Wider Near East[edit]

The Minoans portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.[61][76] Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to Cilicia, where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.[23] Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.[62] Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in Gaza, townspeople in Rhodes,[77] and the Greek hetaerae courtesans used saffron in their scented waters, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.[66]

In late Ptolemaic Egypt, Cleopatra used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.[78] Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.[79] Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such Levantine cities as Sidon and Tyre in Lebanon.[80] Aulus Cornelius Celsus prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the mithridatium.[81]

Western Europe[edit]

Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany

Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as jusselle and conditum.[82][83][84][85] Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern Gaul, where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the Avignon papacy in the 14th century AD.[86] Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.[87]

The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for saffron-based medicaments to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long Saffron War.[88] The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in Basel; it thereby grew prosperous.[89] The crop then spread to Nuremberg, where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the Safranschou code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.[90] Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.[91]

The Essex town of Saffron Walden, named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).[50][92]

The Americas[edit]

Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the Schwenkfelder Church left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.[46] By 1730, the Pennsylvania Dutch cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.[93] Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.[94] Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.[95] American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.[46]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Saffron – Definition and More". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 21 November 2012. 
  2. ^ Rau 1969, p. 53.
  3. ^ a b c d Hill 2004, p. 272.
  4. ^ "World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir". Rediff. Retrieved 7 January 2013. 
  5. ^ a b c McGee 2004, p. 422.
  6. ^ a b Negbi 1999, p. 1.
  7. ^ a b McGee 2004, p. 423.
  8. ^ a b c Katzer, G. (2010). "Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)". Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages. Retrieved 1 December 2012. 
  9. ^ a b Russo, Dreher & Mathre 2003, p. 6.
  10. ^ a b c Ghorbani 2008, p. 1.
  11. ^ "Saffron". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016. 
  12. ^ Asbaghi, Asya (1988). Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen. Wiesbaden: O. Harrasowitz. ISBN 3447027576. OCLC 19588893. 
  13. ^ a b c d e Deo 2003, p. 1.
  14. ^ a b c Grilli Caiola 2003, p. 1.
  15. ^ Kafi et al. 2006, p. 24.
  16. ^ a b Rubio-Moraga et al. 2009.
  17. ^ Grigg 1974, p. 287.
  18. ^ Plant. Syst. Evol., 128, 89, 1977
  19. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 28.
  20. ^ a b c d e Kafi et al. 2006, p. 23.
  21. ^ Willard 2002, p. 3.
  22. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 30–31.
  23. ^ a b Willard 2002, pp. 2–3.
  24. ^ Deo 2003, p. 2.
  25. ^ Sharaf-Eldin et al. 2008.
  26. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 3.
  27. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 3–4.
  28. ^ Willard 2002, p. 4.
  29. ^ Negbi 1999, p. 8.
  30. ^ Hill 2004, p. 273.
  31. ^ Rau 1969, p. 35.
  32. ^ Lak, D. (11 November 1998). "Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron". BBC News. Retrieved 11 September 2011. 
  33. ^ a b Deo 2003, p. 4.
  34. ^ a b c d Abdullaev 2002, p. 1.
  35. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 1.
  36. ^ Dharmananda 2005.
  37. ^ a b Leffingwell 2002, p. 3.
  38. ^ Amjad Masood Husaini; Azra N. Kamili; M. H. Wani; Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva; G. N. Bhat (2010). Husaini, Amjad M., ed. "Sustainable Saffron (Crocus sativus Kashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir". Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology. UK: Global Science Books. 4 (2): 118. ISBN 978-4-903313-67-2. ISSN 1749-0472. 
  39. ^ Amjad Masood Husaini; Badrul Hassan; Muzaffar Y. Ghani; Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva; Nayar A. Kirmani (2010). Husaini, Amjad, ed. "Saffron (Crocus sativus Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems". Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology. UK: Global Science Books. 4 (2): 110. ISBN 978-4-903313-67-2. ISSN 1749-0472. 
  40. ^ Verma & Middha 2010, p. 1–2.
  41. ^ Hill 2004, p. 274.
  42. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 102–104.
  43. ^ "Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports". Australian Broadcasting Corp. 4 November 2003. Retrieved 29 September 2011. 
  44. ^ Hussain, A. (28 January 2005). "Saffron Industry in Deep Distress". London: BBC News. Retrieved 15 September 2011. 
  45. ^ Hooker, Lucy (13 September 2017). "The problem for the world's most expensive spice". BBC. 
  46. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 143.
  47. ^ Willard 2002, p. 201.
  48. ^ Monks, Keiron (3 September 2015). "Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold". CNN. Retrieved 22 January 2016. 
  49. ^ Courtney, P. (19 May 2002). "Tasmania's Saffron Gold". Landline. Australian Broadcasting Corp. Retrieved 29 September 2011. 
  50. ^ a b Granleese, Bob (16 November 2013). "Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it'". The Guardian. 
  51. ^ "Giovani recuperano terreni La crisi? Si può combattere anche a colpi di... zafferano". Retrieved 2018-06-04. 
  52. ^ "L'Alsia promuove lo sviluppo dello zafferano". l'Eco di Basilicata (in Italian). 2015-07-20. Retrieved 2018-06-04. 
  53. ^ Simmons, Shirin (October 2007). A Treasury of Persian Cuisine. Stamford House Publishing. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-1-904985-56-3. 
  54. ^ "Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)". 11 July 2017. 
  55. ^ "Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)". 20 August 2017. 
  56. ^ Mousavi, S. Z.; Bathaie, S. Z. (2011). "Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research". Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine. 1 (2): 27–66. 
  57. ^ Basker, D; Negbi, M (1983). "Uses of saffron". Journal of Economic Botany. 37 (2): 228–236. doi:10.1007/BF02858789. JSTOR 4254486. 
  58. ^ Dalby 2002, p. 138.
  59. ^ Hausenblas HA; Saha D; Dubyak PJ; Anton SD (November 2013). "Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials". Journal of Integrative Medicine. 11 (6): 377–383. doi:10.3736/jintegrmed2013056. PMC 4643654Freely accessible. PMID 24299602. 
  60. ^ Lopresti AL; Drummond PD (2014). "Saffron (Crocus sativus) for depression: a systematic review of clinical studies and examination of underlying antidepressant mechanisms of action". Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental. 29: 517–527. doi:10.1002/hup.2434. PMID 25384672. 
  61. ^ a b Honan, W. H. (2 March 2004). "Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 September 2011. 
  62. ^ a b c Willard 2002, p. 2.
  63. ^ Humphries 1998, p. 20.
  64. ^ Willard 2002, p. 12.
  65. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 17–18.
  66. ^ a b Willard 2002, p. 41.
  67. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 54–55.
  68. ^ Lak, D. (23 November 1998). "Gathering Kashmir's Saffron". BBC News. Retrieved 12 September 2011. 
  69. ^ Fotedar, S. (1999). "Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution". Vitasta. Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata. 32 (1): 128. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011. 
  70. ^ a b Dalby 2002, p. 95.
  71. ^ Dalby 2003, p. 256.
  72. ^ Finlay 2003, p. 224.
  73. ^ Hanelt 2001, p. 1352.
  74. ^ Fletcher 2005, p. 11.
  75. ^ Hayes 2001, p. 6.
  76. ^ Ferrence & Bendersky 2004, p. 1.
  77. ^ Willard 2002, p. 58.
  78. ^ Willard 2002, p. 55.
  79. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 34–35.
  80. ^ Willard 2002, p. 59.
  81. ^ Celsus 1989.
  82. ^ Way, A. (1843). Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way. Camden soc. p. 268. Retrieved May 18, 2016. 
  83. ^ Pratt, A. (1855). The Flowering Plants of Great Britain. The Flowering Plants of Great Britain. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 180. Retrieved May 18, 2016. 
  84. ^ Napier, R., ed. (1882). A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde. Elliot Stock. pp. 104–105. Retrieved May 18, 2016.  (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)
  85. ^ "Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein" [Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine] (in German). Translated by R. Maier. 1991. Retrieved 3 February 2012. 
  86. ^ Willard 2002, p. 63.
  87. ^ Willard 2002, p. 70.
  88. ^ Willard 2002, p. 99.
  89. ^ Willard 2002, p. 101.
  90. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 103–104.
  91. ^ Willard 2002, p. 133.
  92. ^ "Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years". BBC News. 7 November 2014. 
  93. ^ Willard 2002, p. 138.
  94. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 138–139.
  95. ^ Willard 2002, pp. 142–146.

Bibliography[edit]

Books

Journal articles

External links[edit]