Maithili language

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Maithili
मैथिली / মৈথিনী
Maithili in Tirhuta script.svg
Maithili.svg
Maithili in traditional Tirhuta and recent Devanagari script
Native toIndia and Nepal
RegionBihar and Jharkhand in India;[1][2] Province No. 2 and Province No. 1 in Nepal
EthnicityMaithil
Native speakers
30–35 million (2000)[3]
(only 13.58 million reported their languages as Maithili on the 2011 census of India,[4] as many consider it to be a variety of Hindi
Dialects
Tirhuta (Mithilakshar) (Former)
Kaithi (Maithili style) (Former)
Devanagari (Current)
Official status
Official language in
 India (8th schedule of Constitution of India, Bihar, Jharkhand)[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-2mai
ISO 639-3mai
Glottologmait1250[9]
Maithili region.jpg
Maithili-speaking region of Bihar and Jharkhand

Maithili (/ˈmaɪtɪli/;[10] Maithilī) is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian subcontinent, mainly spoken in India and Nepal. In India, it is spoken in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand and is one of the 22 recognised Indian languages.[11][1][2] In Nepal, it is spoken in the eastern Terai and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal.[12][13] Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi.[14] Today it is written in the Devanagari script.[15]

Official status[edit]

In 2003, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as a recognised Indian language, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts in India.[11]

The Maithili language is included as an optional paper in the UPSC Exam.

In March 2018, Maithili received the second official language status in the Indian state of Jharkhand.[16]

Geographic distribution[edit]

In India, Maithili is spoken mainly in Bihar and Jharkhand in the districts of Darbhanga, Samastipur, Madhubani, Muzaffarpur, Sitamarhi, Begusarai, Munger, Khagaria, Purnia, Katihar, Kishanganj, Sheohar, Bhagalpur, Madhepura, Araria, Supaul, Vaishali, Saharsa, Ranchi, Bokaro, Jamshedpur, Dhanbad and Deoghar. Madhubani, Samastipur and Darbhanga constitute cultural and linguistic centers.[17]

In Nepal, Maithili is spoken mainly in the Outer Terai districts including Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa, Sunsari, Siraha, Morang and Saptari Districts. Janakpur is an important linguistic centre of Maithili.[17]

Classification[edit]

In the 19th century, linguistic scholars considered Maithili as a dialect of Bihari languages and grouped it with other languages spoken in Bihar. Hoernlé compared it with Gaudian languages and recognized that it shows more similarities with Bengali languages than with Hindi. Grierson recognized it as a distinct language and published the first grammar in 1881.[18][19]

Chatterji grouped Maithili with Magadhi Prakrit.[20]

Dialects[edit]

Maithili varies greatly in dialects.[21] The standard form of Maithili is Sotipura or Central Maithili or Madhubani dialect[22] which is mainly spoken in Darbhanga and Madhubani districts in Bihar, India.[23]

Several other dialects of Maithili are spoken in India and Nepal, including Dehati, Kisan, Bantar, Barmeli, Musar, Tati, Kortha and Jolaha. All the dialects are intelligible to native Maithili speakers.[17]

Origin and history[edit]

The name Maithili is derived from the word Mithila, an ancient kingdom of which King Janaka was the ruler (see Ramayana). Maithili is also one of the names of Sita, the wife of King Rama and daughter of King Janaka. Scholars in Mithila used Sanskrit for their literary work and Maithili was the language of the common folk (Abahatta).

The beginning of Maithili language and literature can be traced back to the 'Charyapadas', a form of Buddhist mystical verses, composed during the period of 700-1300 AD. These padas were written in Sandhya bhasa by several Siddhas who belonged to Vajrayana Buddhism and were scattered throughout the territory of Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. Several of Siddas were from Mithila region such as Kanhapa, Sarhapa etc. Prominent scholars like Rahul Sankrityanan, Subhadra Jha and Jayakant Mishra provided evidences and proved that the language of Charyapada is ancient Maithili or proto Maithili.[26] Apart from Charyapadas, there has been rich tradition of folk culture, folk songs and which were popular among common folks of Mithila region.[citation needed]

After the fall of Pala rule, disappearance of Buddhism, establishment of Karnāta kings and patronage of Maithili under Harasimhadeva (1226–1324) of Karnāta dynasty dates back to the 14th century (around 1327 AD). Jyotirishwar Thakur (1280–1340) wrote a unique work Varnaratnākara in Maithili prose. [27] The Varna Ratnākara is the earliest known prose text, written by Jyotirishwar Thakur in Mithilaksar script[18], and is the first prose work not only in Maithili but in any modern Indian language.[28]

In 1324, Ghyasuddin Tughluq, the emperor of Delhi invaded Mithila, defeated Harisimhadeva, entrusted Mithila to his family priest Kameshvar Jha, a Maithil Brahmin of the Oinwar dynasty. But the disturbed era did not produce any literature in Maithili until Vidyapati Thakur (1360 to 1450), who was an epoch-making poet under the patronage of king Shiva Singh and his queen Lakhima Devi. He produced over 1,000 immortal songs in Maithili on the theme of love of Radha and Krishna and the domestic life of Shiva and Parvati as well as on the subject of suffering of migrant labourers of Morang and their families; besides, he wrote a number of treaties in Sanskrit. His love-songs spread far and wide in no time and enchanted saints, poets and youth. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu saw the divine light of love behind these songs, and soon these songs became themes of Vaisnava sect of Bengal. Rabindranath Tagore, out of curiosity, imitated these songs under the pseudonym Bhanusimha. Vidyapati influenced the religious literature of Asama, Bangal, Utkala and gave birth to a new Brajabuli language.[citation needed]

The earliest reference to Maithili or Tirhutiya is in Amaduzzi's preface to Beligatti's Alphabetum Brammhanicum, published in 1771.[29] This contains a list of Indian languages amongst which is 'Tourutiana.' Colebrooke's essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, written in 1801, was the first to describe Maithili as a distinct dialect.[30]

Many devotional songs were written by Vaisnava saints, including in the mid-17th century, Vidyapati and Govindadas. Mapati Upadhyaya wrote a drama titled Pārijātaharaṇa in Maithili. Professional troupes, mostly from dalit classes known as Kirtanias, the singers of bhajan or devotional songs, started to perform this drama in public gatherings and the courts of the nobles. Lochana (c. 1575 – c. 1660) wrote Rāgatarangni, a significant treatise on the science of music, describing the rāgas, tālas, and lyrics prevalent in Mithila.[citation needed]

During the Malla dynasty's rule Maithili spread far and wide throughout Nepal from the 16th to the 17th century.[31][32] During this period, at least seventy Maithili dramas were produced. In the drama Harishchandranrityam by Siddhinarayanadeva (1620–57), some characters speak pure colloquial Maithili, while others speak Bengali, Sanskrit or Prakrit.[citation needed]

After the demise of Maheshwar Singh, the ruler of Darbhanga Raj, in 1860, the Raj was taken over by the British Government as regent. The Darbhanga Raj returned to his successor, Maharaj Lakshmishvar Singh, in 1898. The Zamindari Raj had a lackadaisical approach toward Maithili. The use of Maithili language was revived through personal efforts of MM Parameshvar Mishra, Chanda Jha, Munshi Raghunandan Das and others.[citation needed]

Publication of Maithil Hita Sadhana (1905), Mithila Moda (1906), and Mithila Mihir (1908) further encouraged writers. The first social organization, Maithil Mahasabha, was established in 1910 for the development of Mithila and Maithili. It blocked its membership for people outside from the Maithil Brahmin and Karna Kayastha castes. Maithil Mahasabha campaigned for the official recognition of Maithili as a regional language. Calcutta University recognized Maithili in 1917, and other universities followed suit.[citation needed]

Babu Bhola Lal Das wrote Maithili Grammar (Maithili Vyakaran). He edited a book Gadyakusumanjali and edited a journal Maithili.[citation needed] In 1965, Maithili was officially accepted by Sahitya Academy, an organization dedicated to the promotion of Indian literature.[citation needed]

In 2002, Maithili was recognized on the VIII schedule of the Indian Constitution as a major Indian language; Maithili is now one of the twenty two national languages of India.[33]

The publishing of Maithili books in Mithilakshar script was started by Acharya Ramlochan Saran.[citation needed]

Phonology[edit]

Consonants[edit]

Labial Dental/
Alveolar 		Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Stop/
Affricate 		voiceless प p त t ट ʈ च tɕ क k
aspirated फ pʰ थ tʰ ठ ʈʰ छ tɕʰ ख kʰ
voiced ब b द d ड ɖ ज dʑ ग ɡ
voiced aspirated भ bʱ ध dʱ ढ ɖʱ झ dʑʱ घ ɡʱ
Fricative voiceless फ़ (ɸ~f) स s ष (ʂ) श (ɕ) ख़ (x) ः -(h)*
voiced ज़ (z) झ़ (ʑ) ह (ɦ)
Nasal म m न n ण ɳ ञ (ɲ) ङ ŋ
Flap and Trill consonants र ɾ~r ड़ (ɽ)
Lateral ल l
Approximant व (ʋ~w) य (j)
  • Fricative sounds [ʂ, ɕ] only occur marginally, and are typically pronounced as a dental fricative /s/ in most styles of pronunciation.ः is always added after a vowel.
  • In most styles of pronunciation, the retroflex flap [ɽ] occurs marginally, and is usually pronounced as an alveolar tap /r/ sound.
  • A retroflex nasal sound [ɳ] only occurs before a voiced retroflex /ɖ/ sound.
  • Approximant sounds [ʋ, w, j] and fricative sounds [ɸ, f, z, ʑ, x], mainly occur in words that are borrowed from Sanskrit or in words of Perso-Arabic origin. From Sanskrit, puʂp(ə) as puɸp(ə). Conjunct of ɦj as ɦʑ as in graɦjə as graɦʑə.

Vowels[edit]

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close इ ɪ ई iː उ ʊ ऊ uː
Mid ऎ e ए eː अ

ə~ɐ

अऽ əː ऒ o ओ oː
Open ॲ

æ~ɛ

ऍ ɛː ॴ a आ aː ऑ ɔ ऑ ɔː
  • All vowels have nasal counterparts, represented by "~" in IPA and ँ on the vowels, like आँ ãː .
  • All vowel sounds are realized as nasal when occurring before or after a nasal consonant.[34]
  • Sounds æ~ɛ and æ̃~ɛ̃ are often replaced by dipthongs in most of the dialects.
  • There are three short vowels, as described by Grierson, but not counted by modern grammarians. But they could be understood as syllable break :- ॳ / ɘ̆ /, इऺ/ ɪ̆ /, उऺ/ ʊ̆ / . Or as syllable break ऺ in Devanagari and "." in IPA.

Diphthongs[edit]

अय् / əɪ / - अय्सनऺ / əɪsən / 'like this'
अव् / əʊ / - चव्मुखऺ / tɕəʊmʊkʰ / 'four faced'
अयॆ / əe / - अयॆलाः / əela:h / 'came'
अवॊ (अऒ) / əo / - अवॊताः / əota:h / 'will come'
ऐ / a:i / - ऐ / a:i / 'today'
औ / a:u / - औ / a:u / 'come please'
आयॆ (आऎ) / a:e / - आयॆलऺ / a:el / 'came'
आवॊ (आऒ) / a:o / - आवॊबऺ / a:ob / 'will come'
यु (इउ) / iʊ/ - घ्यु / ghiu / 'ghee'
यॆ (इऎ) / ie / - यॆः / ieh / 'only this'
यॊ (इऒ) / io / - कह्यो / kəhio / 'any day'
वि (उइ) / uɪ / - द्वि / dui / 'two'
वॆ (उऎ) /ue/ - वॆ: / ueh / 'only that'

Svarabhakti (Vowel Epenthesis)[edit]

A peculiar type of phonetic change is recently taking place in Maithili by way of epenthesis i.e. backward transposition of final i and u in all sort of words. Thus:

Standard Colloquial - Common Pronunciation


अछि / əchi / - अइछऺ / əich / 'is'

रवि / rəbi / - रइबऺ / rəib / 'sunday'

मधु / mədhu / - मउधऺ / məudh / 'honey'

बालु / ba:lu / - बाउलऺ / ba:ul / 'sand'

Morphology[edit]

Main article: Maithili grammar

Grammatical cases[edit]

Nouns are inflected for several cases. Grammarians consider only few of them to be pure inflection.

Cases (Consonant stem inflection)

Case name Postpositions Singular Inflection Plural Inflection* Periphrastic Plural
Masculine Nueter Masculine Neuter
Nominative

(कर्ता kartā)

∅ (Inherent Vowel) -अनऺ (-नऺ), -अनिऺ (-निऺ)

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

 सभऺ

səbʰᵊ

Accusative

(कर्म karma)

Definite Object

(without determiners)


के ke -अके (-के) (ə)keː सभऺके
Indefinite

Object

-अ ə ∅ -अ ə -अनऺ (-नऺ), -अनिऺ (-निऺ)

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

सभ
Instrumental

(करण karaṇa)

सॏं sɔ̃ -अहिँ (-हिँ) * †(ə)ɦɪ̃ -एँ ẽ -अन्हिऺ (-न्हिऺ)

(ə)nʰɪ̆

सभेँ, सभऺसॏं
Dative

(सम्प्रदान sampradāna)

कॅ, लॕ, लेलऺ

kɛː, læ, leːlᵊ

-अल (-ल)

(ə)lə

No forms सभऺकॅ
Ergative

(सापेक्ष)‡

न, नॆ nə, ne -एँ ẽː
Ablative

(अपादान apādāna)

सॆ se -अहु (-हु) *, -अतः (-तः)

(ə)ɦʊ,(ə)təh

सभऺसॆ, सभहु*
Genitive

(सम्बन्ध sambandha)

करऺ kərᵊ -अकऺ (-कऺ)

(ə)kᵊ
-अरऺ (-रऺ) (ə)rᵊ

-केरऺ, -आँँकऺ

keːrᵊ, ãːkə̆ᵊ

सभकऺ, सभऺकरऺ
Locative

(अधिकरण adhikaraṇa)

मेँ mẽː (Inessive),

पर्, पॅ pər, pɛː (Superessive)

-अहि (-हि)*

(ə)ɦɪ

-ए eː -आँ ãː सभऺमेँ, सभऺपर्, सभहि*
Vocative

(सम्बोधन sambodhana)

∅ -अनऺ (-नऺ), -अनिऺ (-निऺ)

(ə)nᵊ, (ə)nɪ̆

सभऺ
  • *These forms are abundant in literature, but are less used in spoken language.
  • †It is a form came from locative.
  • ‡Ergative is more used in eastern and southern dialects. Maithili also has parallel accusative structure and both can be used. If ergative is used, then nominative is used as absolutive.
  • Inflectional plural is less in use than the Periphrastic one, mostly found in literature.
  • In the brackets, Vowel Stems are given.
  • Instead of सभ; लोकनिऺ loːknɪ̆, आरनिऺ aːrənɪ̆, सबहिऺ səbəɦɪ̆, गण ɡəɳᵊ, जन dʑənᵊ could be used for animates.

Vowel stem - अ

Case name Singular Inflection Plural Inflection
Masculine Nueter Masculine Nueter
Nominative


-ॵ ɔ -अऽ əː -अनऺ, -अनिऺ

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

-अनऺ, -अनिऺ

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Accusative


-अँ ə̃ -अऽ əː -अँ ə̃ -अनऺ, -अनिऺ

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Instrumental


-एँ ẽ Same as Masculine -अन्हिऺ

ənʰɪ̆

Same as Masculine
Dative


-अल ələ No form
Ablative


-अहु *, -अतः

əɦʊ, ətəh

Genitive


-अकऺ əkᵊ -केरऺ, -आँँकऺ

kerᵊ, ãːkᵊ

Locative


-ए, -अहि * -आँ

ãː

Vocative


अऽ -अनऺ, -अनिऺ

ənᵊ, ənɪ̆

Writing system[edit]

Consonants in Mithilakshar

Maithili was traditionally written in their own script which is known as Mithilakshar or Tirhuta. This script is similar to Bengali script. Devanagari script is most commonly used since the 20th century.[35]

The Tirhuta (Mithilakshar) and Kaithi scripts are both currently included in Unicode.

Maithili calendar[edit]

Main article: Tirhuta Panchang

The Maithili calendar or Tirhuta Panchang is followed by the Maithili community of India and Nepal. It is one of the many Hindu calendars based on Vikram Samvat. It is a sidereal solar calendar in which the year begins on the first day of Baisakh month, i.e., Mesh Sankranti. This day falls on 13/14 April of the Georgian calendar. Pohela Baishakh in Bangladesh and in West Bengal, Rangali Bihu in Assam, Puthandu in Tamil Nadu, and Vaishakhi in Punjab are observed on the same day. These festivals mark the beginning of new year in their respective regions.

Names and approximate lengths of Maithili months[36]
No. Name Maithili (Tirhuta) Maithili (Devanagari) Sanskrit Days (Traditional Hindu sidereal solar calendar)
1 Baisakh বৈসাখ बैसाख वैशाख 30 / 31
2 Jeth জেঠ जेठ ज्येष्ठ 31 / 32
3 Akhadh অখাঢ় अखाढ़ आषाढ 31 / 32
4 Saon সারোন साओन श्रावण 31 / 32
5 Bhado ভাদো भादो भाद्रपद, भाद्र, प्रोष्ठपद 31 / 32
6 Aasin আসিন आसिन आश्विन 31 / 30
7 Katik কাতিক कातिक कार्तिक 29 / 30
8 Agahan অগহন अगहन अग्रहायण, मार्गशीर्ष 29 / 30
9 Poos পূস पूस पौष 29 / 30
10 Magh মাঘ माघ माघ 29 / 30
11 Phagun ফাগুন फागुन फाल्गुन 29 / 30
12 Chait চৈতি चैति चैत्र 30 / 31

Literature[edit]

Main article: Maithili literature

See also[edit]

Bibliography[edit]

  • George A. Grierson (1909). An Introduction to the Maithili dialect of the Bihari language as spoken in North Bihar. Asiatic Society, Calcutta.
  • Ramawatar Yadav, Tribhvan University. Maithili Language and Linguistics: Some Background Notes (PDF). University of Cambridge.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b "मैथिली लिपि को बढ़ावा देने के लिए विशेषज्ञों की जल्द ही बैठक बुला सकते हैं प्रकाश जावड़ेकर". Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  2. ^ a b "मैथिली को भी मिलेगा दूसरी राजभाषा का दर्जा". Hindustan. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
  3. ^ Maithili at Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018)
  4. ^ [1]
  5. ^ "Maithili". Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
  6. ^ "Bajjika - MultiTree". multitree.org. Retrieved 6 March 2020.
  7. ^ https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/census/documents/Nepal/Nepal-Census-2011-Vol1.pdf
  8. ^ "झारखंड : रघुवर कैबिनेट से मगही, भोजपुरी, मैथिली व अंगिका को द्वितीय भाषा का दर्जा". Archived from the original on 21 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
  9. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Maithili". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  10. ^ "Maithili". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  11. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2018.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  12. ^ "Nepal". Ethnologue. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
  13. ^ Sah, K. K. (2013). "Some perspectives on Maithili". Nepalese Linguistics (28): 179–188.
  14. ^ Brass, P. R. (2005). Language, Religion and Politics in North India. Lincoln: iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-34394-5. Archived from the original on 11 May 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
  15. ^ Yadava, Y. P. (2013). Linguistic context and language endangerment in Nepal. Nepalese Linguistics 28 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine: 262–274.
  16. ^ "झारखंड : रघुवर कैबिनेट से मगही, भोजपुरी, मैथिली व अंगिका को द्वितीय भाषा का दर्जा". Retrieved 3 January 2020.
  17. ^ a b c Lewis, M. P., ed. (2009). "Maithili". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Sixteenth ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Archived from the original on 22 September 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
  18. ^ a b Yadav, R. (1979). "Maithili language and Linguistics: Some Background Notes" (PDF). Maithili Phonetics and Phonology. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 May 2017.
  19. ^ Yadav, R. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, New York.
  20. ^ Chatterji, S. K. (1926). The origin and development of the Bengali language. University Press, Calcutta.
  21. ^ Brass, P. R. (2005). Language, Religion, and Politics in North India. iUniverse, Lincoln, NE.
  22. ^ Yadav, R. (1992). "The Use of the Mother Tongue in Primary Education: The Nepalese Context" (PDF). Contributions to Nepalese Studies. 19 (2): 178–190. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2016.
  23. ^ Choudhary, P.K. 2013. Causes and Effects of Super-stratum Language Influence, with Reference to Maithili. Journal of Indo-European Studies 41(3/4): 378–391.
  24. ^ Simons, G. F. and Fennig, C. D., eds. (2018). "Maithili. Ethnologue: Languages of the World". Dallas: SIL International. Retrieved 7 December 2018.CS1 maint: uses editors parameter (link)
  25. ^ Ray, K. K. (2009). Reduplication in Thenthi Dialect of Maithili Language. Nepalese Linguistics 24: 285–290.
  26. ^ Mishra, J. (1949). A History Of Maithili Literature. 1.
  27. ^ Chatterji, S. K. (1940). Varna Ratnakara Of Jyotirisvara Kavisekharacarya.
  28. ^ Reading Asia : new research in Asian studies. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. 2001. ISBN 0700713719. OCLC 48560711.
  29. ^ Ded. St. Borgiae Clementi, XIV. Praef. J. Chr. Amadutii (1771). Alphabetum Brammhanicum Seu Indostanum Universitatis Kasi (in Latin). Palala Press. pp. viii. ISBN 9781173019655.
  30. ^ Thomas Colebrooke, H. (1873). Miscellaneous essays. With life of the author by his son Sir T.E. Colebrooke, Volume 3. p. 26. ISBN 9781145371071.
  31. ^ Ayyappappanikkar; Akademi, Sahitya (January 1999). Medieval Indian literature: an anthology, Volume 3. p. 69. ISBN 9788126007882. Archived from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
  32. ^ Gellner, D.; Pfaff-Czarnecka, J.; Whelpton, J. (6 December 2012). Nationalism and Ethnicity in a Hindu Kingdom: The Politics and Culture of ... p. 243. ISBN 9781136649561. Archived from the original on 19 February 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
  33. ^ Singh, P. & Singh, A. N. (2011). Finding Mithila between India's Centre and Periphery. Journal of Indian Law & Society 2: 147–181.
  34. ^ Yadav, Ramawatar (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Trends in Linguistics: Documentation, 11.: Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 15–27.CS1 maint: location (link)
  35. ^ Pandey, A. (2009). Towards an Encoding for the Maithili Script in ISO/IEC 10646. Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine The University of Michigan, Michigan.
  36. ^ Maithili Calendar, published from Darbhanga

External links[edit]

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