[1] Westad, The Global Cold War, 288; Halliday Halliday, Fred. 1990. “The Iranian Revolution and Great Power Politics”. In Neither East nor West: Iran, The Soviet Union, and the United States, Edited by: Keddie, Nikki R. and Gasiorowski, Mark J. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Iranian Revolution and Great Power Politics’, 246; Rubenstein Rubenstein, Alvin. Autumn 1981. The Soviet Union and Iran under Khomeini. International Affairs, : 599–617. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Soviet Union and Iran under Khomeini’, 599.

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 [19] Total exports to Iran by EC member states in the reported period of 1979 were valued at US$ 2.691 billion, in comparison with US$ 4.132 billion during 1980. Official Journal of the European Communities, no C115/ 2021, 18 May 1981.

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 [22] Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, 114.

 [23] For Europe's scepticism of US policy in response to the Afghan crisis see Goldman Goldman, Minton. 1994. “President Carter, Western Europe, and Afghanistan in 1980”. In Jimmy Carter: Foreign Policy and Post-Presidential Years (Contributions in Political Science), Edited by: Rosenbaum, Herbert D. and Ugrinsky, Alexej. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.  [Google Scholar], ‘President Carter’, 19–34.

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 [26] Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 176.

 [27] Jonathan C. Randal ‘U.S., Iran declare halt to oil trade’, Washington Post, 13 November 1979.

 [28] Copulos and Phillips, ‘The Iranian Dilemma’.

 [29] Randal ‘U.S., Iran declare halt to oil trade’; W.A. Bachman, ‘U.S. shaping strategy to offset Iranian crude loss’, Oil & Gas Journal, 3 December 1979.

 [30] Jordan, Crisis, 54; Carter, Keeping Faith, 461; Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 176.

 [31] ‘Iran: The Test of Wills’, Time, 26 November 1979.

 [32] ‘What if Iran ended U.S. Oil Sales?’, U.S. News & World Report, 19 November 1979.

 [33] Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 176; Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, 255.

 [34] ‘Pressure on the Ayatollah’, Washington Post, 13 November 1979; Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 176.

 [35] NSC memo to Phil Wise and Carter, ‘Text of Khomeini Speech’, 20 November 1979. Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta, GA, Box 30, File Iran: 11/21 27/79.

 [36] All figures taken from ‘How to be a good ally without putting oneself out’, The Economist, 19 April 1980, 47.

 [37] Shehadi Shehadi, Philip. July–August 1981. Economic Sanctions and Iranian Trade. MERIP Reports, : 15–6. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘Economic Sanctions and Iranian Trade’, 15–6.

 [38] Carter Press Conference, Washington DC, 12 November 1979 quoted in Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran, 67.

 [39] Jordan, Crisis, 55; Carter, Keeping Faith, 466.

 [40] John M. Goshko and Don Oberdorfer, ‘Iranians reject PLO mediation on hostages’, Washington Post, 9 November, 1979. For an account of America's efforts to enlist the mediation of the PLO see Saunders, ‘Diplomacy and Pressure’, 78–9.

 [41] Edward Cody, ‘PLO pledges “utmost effort” to win release of hostages in U.S. embassy’, The Washington Post, 11 November 1979.

 [42] The threat was made by acting Iranian foreign and finance minister, Abolhassan Bani-Sadr on 13 November. In July 1981, Fernand St Germain, chairman of the House Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, confirmed plans to enact a freeze in the event of a threatened withdrawal of Iranian assets predating the hostage crisis. see ‘Iran, the financial aspects of the Hostage Settlement Agreement’, Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, 97th Congress, 1st Session, July 1981.

 [43] Moses Moses, Russell Leigh. 1996. Freeing the Hostages: Re-examining US-Iranian Negotiations and Soviet Policy, 1979–81, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.  [Google Scholar], Freeing the Hostages, 328.

 [44] Moses Moses, Russell Leigh. 1996. Freeing the Hostages: Re-examining US-Iranian Negotiations and Soviet Policy, 1979–81, Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.  [Google Scholar], Freeing the Hostages, 328 Moses bases this assessment on interviews with senior Treasury officials, Robert Carswell and Richard Davies. For other studies of this motivation see Cohen Cohen, Benjamin J. 1986. In Whose Interest? International Banking and American Foreign Policy, New Haven: Yale University Press.  [Google Scholar], In Whose Interest?; Lissakers Lissakers, Karin. Fall 1981. Money and Manipulation. Foreign Policy, 44: 107–26. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘Money and Manipulation’; Fatemi Fatemi, Khosrow. November 1980. The Iranian Revolution: Its Impact on Economic Relations with the United States. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 12(3): 303–17. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Iranian Revolution’.

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 [46] Carswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 250.

 [47] Editorial, Wall Street Journal, 4 December 1979.

 [48] Hugh Anderson, ‘Carter's monetary moves against Iran have set precedent for U.S. currency’, The Globe and Mail, 17 November 1979.

 [49] ‘U.S. bars purchase of Iranian oil, freezes Iran's assets; Teheran submits new conditions for release of hostages; U.N. role proposed’, Facts on File World News Digest, 16 November 1979, World Affairs, 861.

 [50] Edward Cody, ‘U.S. freeze on Iran's assets is troubling Saudi Arabians’, Washington Post, 24 November 1979.

 [51] Edward Cody, ‘US reassures Saudis on bank assets’, Washington Post, 26 November 1979.

 [52] Cody, ‘U.S. freeze on Iran's assets is troubling Saudi Arabians’.

 [53] Cody, ‘U.S. freeze on Iran's assets is troubling Saudi Arabians’

 [54] Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 180.

 [55] Cody, ‘US reassures Saudis on bank assets’.

 [56] Energy Information Administration: Table 11.5 World Crude Oil Production, 1960–2006.

 [57] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 338.

 [58] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 338

 [59] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 338; Carswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 264; see also see Hoffman, ‘The Bankers Channel’.

 [60] Christopher, American Hostages in Iran, 24–5; Carswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 263; Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 328.

 [61] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 113.

 [62] See Hoffman, ‘The Bankers Channel’.

 [63] Carswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 261.

 [64] Caswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 255.

 [65] Carswell and Davies, ‘The Economic and Financial Pressures’, 177. The extent that the Iranians were fully aware of their complex financial investments and holdings in US holdings is unclear.

 [66] Carter, Keeping Faith, 464–5.

 [67] Quoted in Edward Walsh, ‘Rivals doubt Carter will retain poll gains after Iran crisis’, Washington Post, 17 December 1979.

 [68] United Nations Security Council Resolution 457, S/ INF/ 35, 1979.

 [69] Saunders, ‘Diplomacy and Pressure’, 98.

 [70] Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 167.

 [71] Carter, Keeping Faith, 466.

 [72] Hiro, Iran under the Mullahs, 323.

 [73] ‘How much will sanctions cost us?', The Economist, 26 April 1980, 54.

 [74] Hiro, Iran under the Mullahs, 323.

 [75] Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran, 71.

 [76] ‘Hostage debate delayed; Britain sanctions still allow business’, The Associated Press, 30 May 1980.

 [77] Shehadi, ‘Economic Sanctions and Iranian Trade’.

 [78] Hiro, Iran under the Mullahs, 323; Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran, 71.

 [79] Hiro, Iran under the Mullahs, 323.

 [80] Robert McCartney, ‘Europeans discuss Iran sanctions’, Associated Press, 17 May 1980, 71.

 [81] Robert McCartney, ‘Europeans discuss Iran sanctions’, Associated Press, 17 May 1980, 71

 [82] ‘How much will sanctions cost us?’, The Economist, 26 April 1980, 54.

 [83] Sick, ‘Military Options and Constraints’, 241.

 [84] Carter, Keeping Faith, 466.

 [85] Sick, ‘Military Options and Constraints’, 242.

 [86] With the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Kuwait and Bangladesh abstaining.

 [87] Carter, Keeping Faith, 478.

 [88] It is likely that some had supported the resolution in the knowledge that the Soviets would veto it anyway.

 [89] John M. Goshko, ‘Allies’ laws may limit cooperation on Iran sanctions', Washington Post, 18 January 1980.

 [90] Christopher, American Hostages in Iran, 8; Saunders, ‘Diplomacy and Pressure’, 110; Goshko, ‘Allies’ laws may limit cooperation on Iran sanctions'.

 [91] McCartney, ‘Europeans discuss Iran sanctions’; ‘How to be a good ally without putting oneself out’, The Economist, 19 April 1980.

 [92] Carswell, ‘Economic Sanctions and the Iran Experience’, 253; Sick, ‘Military Options and Constraints’, 248; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 180; Bowie Bowie, Robert. Winter 1981. The Atlantic Alliance. Daedalus, 110(1): 53–69. U.S. Defense Policy in the 1980s[Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Atlantic Alliance’, 62; Leonard Downie Jr, ‘Allies plan limits to their support of U.S. sanctions’, Washington Post, 18 January 1980.

 [93] ‘Mo'infar, Salimi on EEC Decision’, Paris AFP, 23 April 1980, FBIS-SAS-80-080.

 [94] ‘GDR will reportedly provide food supplies if necessary’, Baghdad INA – 21 November 1979, FBIS-MEA-79-226.

 [95] National Intelligence Daily, CIA, Wednesday 30 April 1980, http://www.foia.cia.gov.

 [96] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 84–5.

 [97] Fritz Ermath to Brzezinski, ‘NSC on Afghanistan’, National Security Council, memorandum, NSC026, 2 January 1980. National Security Archives.

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[100] Quoted in Westad, The Global Cold War, 315.

[101] Saivetz Saivetz, Carol. 1997. “Superpower Competition in the Middle East and the Collapse of Detente”. In The Fall of Detente, Edited by: Westad, Odd Arne. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.  [Google Scholar], ‘Superpower Competition’, 90; Westad, The Global Cold War, 315–25; Hiro Hiro, Dilip. 1985. Iran under the Mullahs, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.  [Google Scholar], Iran under the Mullahs, 284.

[102] Saivetz, ‘Superpower Competition’, 90.

[103] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 85; Sick, ‘Military Options and Constraints’, 343.

[104] Brzezinski Brzezinski, Zbigniew. 1983. Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981, New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux.  [Google Scholar], Power and Principle, 480; Jordan, Crisis, 53.

[105] Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 484–5.

[106] Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 484; Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 88; Ganji, Politics of Confrontation, 180.

[107] Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, 260.

[108] Cullen, ‘US, Allies to postpone new sanctions against Iran’.

[109] Richard Lehman, ‘US stake in Iran’, 27 November 1979, Jimmy Carter Library. Brzezinski Country File, 1977–81, Iran: 11/21–27/79, Box 30.

[110] Richard Lehman, ‘US stake in Iran’, 27 November 1979, Jimmy Carter Library. Brzezinski Country File, 1977–81, Iran: 11/21–27/79, Box 30

[111] Paul Henze to Brzezinski, National Security Council memo, 11 April 1980. Declassified Documents Reference System.

[112] Hamilton Jordan Confidential File, Box 34B, 1977–80, Iran: 11/79–03/80. Jimmy Carter Library.

[113] ‘Minutes from National Security Council Meeting’, NSC 026, 2 January 1980. National Security Archives, Washington DC, Carter–Brezhnev Project, Box No.5.

[114] Memo to President Jimmy Carter from Hamilton Jordan, 4 February 1980. Declassified Documents Reference System.

[115] State of the Union Address, 23 January 1980.

[116] Memo from DCI, ‘The Hostage Situation’, 9 January 1980. Jimmy Carter Library, Brzezinski's Country Files, 1977–81. NLC-6-30-6-3-3.

[117] Hamilton Jordan to Jimmy Carter, ‘What can we do about the hostages?’, 22 January 1980. Jimmy Carter Library, Hamilton Jordan's Confidential Files, 1977–80, Box 34B,

[118] Saunders, ‘Diplomacy and Pressure’, 110.

[119] Hamilton Jordan to Jimmy Carter, ‘What can we do about the hostages?’, 22 January 1980.

[120] CIA memorandum, ‘Iran: Bani-Sadr's foreign policy views’, 5 February 1980. DDRS.

[121] For a description of this initiative see Saunders, ‘Diplomacy and Pressure’, 114–25.

[122] For a description of this initiative see Saunders, Diplomacy and Pressure, 120.

[123] For a description of this initiative see Saunders, Diplomacy and Pressure, 132.

[124] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 156.

[125] Bakhash Bakhash, Shaul. 1984. The Reign of the Ayatollahs, New York: Basic Books.  [Google Scholar], The Reign of the Ayatollahs, 67.

[126] Sick, ‘Military Options and Constraints’, 272; Saunders, Diplomacy and Pressure, 134.

[127] Carter, Keeping Faith, 482; Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 108.

[128] Lundestad Lundestad, Geir. 2003. The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 201–2. See also Lundestad Lundestad, Geir. 1998. Empire by Integration: The United States and European Integration, 1945–1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press.  [Google Scholar], Empire by Integration, 108–9; Freedman, ‘The Atlantic Crisis’, 395.

[129] Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 202–8; Dankert Dankert, Pieter. Winter 1983–1984. Europe Together, America Apart. Foreign Policy, : 18–33. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘Europe Together, America Apart’, 20; ‘Europe's ostrich and America's eagle’, The Economist, 8 March 1980.

[130] Leonard Downie Jr, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.; joining sanctions seen as inducement’, Washington Post, 24 April 1980.

[131] Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 19.

[132] Westad Westad, Odd Arne. 1997. “The Fall of Détente and the Turning Tides of History”. In The Fall of Detente: Soviet-American Relations during the Carter Years, Edited by: Westad, Odd Arne. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.  [Google Scholar], ‘The Fall of Détente and the Turning Tides of History’, 22; Leffler Leffler, Melvyn. 2007. For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War, New York: Hill and Wang.  [Google Scholar] , For the Soul of Mankind, 233; see also Zubok Zubok, Vladislav M. 2007. A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev, The University of North Carolina Press.  [Google Scholar], A Failed Empire.

[133] Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 212; Bowie, ‘The Atlantic Alliance’, 60.

[134] Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 20

[135] Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 20

[136] Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 208; Carter, Keeping Faith, 465, 486–7.

[137] Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 23.

[138] Bowie, ‘The Atlantic Alliance’, 60.

[139] Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 209.

[140] Bowie, ‘The Atlantic Alliance’, 60.

[141] Carter, Keeping Faith, 465, 486–7.

[142] Cable from Walter John Stoessel Jr to Vance, ‘FRG will apply sanctions against Iran’, cable no. 01017, 17 January 1980. Declassified Documents Reference System.

[143] ‘Cable from President Carter to German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt regarding Germany's decision to apply sanctions against Iran’, 18 January 1980. DDRS.

[144] Downie, ‘Allies plan limits to their support of U.S. sanctions’.

[145] Letter to President Jimmy Carter from Chancellor Helmut Schmidt regarding West German support of US sanctions against Iran, 18 January 1980.

[146] Bradley Graham, ‘Schmidt says Bonn ready to back U.S. on Afghanistan, Iran’, Washington Post, 18 January 1980.

[147] Maureen Johnson, ‘Eight Common Market countries pledge retroactive sanctions against Iran’, Associated Press, 21 May 1980.

[148] Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 25.

[149] Dankert, ‘Europe Together, America Apart’, 20; Freedman Freedman, Lawrence. Summer 1982. The Atlantic Crisis. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944–), 58(3): 395–412. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] ‘The Atlantic Crisis’, 401.

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[151] Bowie, ‘The Atlantic Alliance’, 58; Ellen Lentz, ‘Conference hears varied views on Europe's role in crisis’, New York Times, 16 June 1980, 14; Dankert, ‘Europe Together, America Apart’, 20.

[152] Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 211; Laird Laird, Robbin. 1991. France, Germany, and the Future of the Atlantic Alliance. Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science, 38(1): 50–9. The New Europe: Revolution in East–West Relations[Crossref] , [Google Scholar], ‘France, Germany, and the Future of the Atlantic Alliance’, 51.

[153] Downie, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.’.

[154] Robert Cullen, ‘Immediate, tangible results from new sanctions aren't likely’, Associated Press, 8 April 1980.

[155] Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran, 79.

[156] William M. Welch, ‘Reagan calls Iran sanctions more of same’, Associated Press, 7 April 1980.

[157] Downie, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.’.

[158] Prime Minister Thatcher's Statement to the Commons, 13 April 1979.

[159] Quoted in Ronzitti Ronzitti, Natalino. 1985. Rescuing Nationals Abroad through Military Coercion and Intervention on Grounds of Humanity, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.  [Google Scholar], Rescuing Nationals Abroad, 43.

[160] Despite planning and training for Operation Eagle Claw having started almost immediately after the crisis began, the first realistic capability for a rescue mission was not reached until the end of March.

[161] Holloway Report, 17. http://www.gwu.edu/∼ nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB63/doc8.pdf.

[162] Reisman Reisman, Michael. October 1980. The Legal Effect of Vetoed Resolutions. The American Journal of International Law, 74(4): 905[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], ‘The Legal Effect of Vetoed Resolutions’, 905.

[163] Downie, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.’.

[164] John M. Goshko and Don Oberdorfer, ‘The options now; future course of the confrontation is more complicated and dangerous’, The Washington Post, 26 April 1980.

[165] John M. Goshko and Don Oberdorfer, ‘The options now; future course of the confrontation is more complicated and dangerous’, The Washington Post, 26 April 1980

[166] John M. Goshko and Don Oberdorfer, ‘The options now; future course of the confrontation is more complicated and dangerous’, The Washington Post, 26 April 1980

[167] ‘Stunned allies react to aborted hostage rescue effort’, Associated Press, 25 April 1980.

[168] This was already being undermined by different opinions on how best to deal with rising oil prices and the lingering question of the British rebate.

[169] Downie, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.’.

[170] ‘Carrington's first stumble’, The Economist, 24 May 1980, 74.

[171] Johnson, ‘Eight Common Market countries pledge retroactive sanctions against Iran’.

[172] John M. Goshko, ‘U.S. criticizes British shift on Iran sanctions’, Washington Post, 22 May 1980.

[173] John M. Goshko, ‘U.S. criticizes British shift on Iran sanctions’, Washington Post, 22 May 1980

[174] Johnson, ‘Eight Common Market countries pledge retroactive sanctions against Iran’.

[175] ‘Europe goes its own way’, Newsweek, 2 June 1980, United States edition, 44.

[176] ‘Hostage debate delayed; Britain sanctions still allow business’, The Associated Press, 30 May 1980.

[177] ‘Hostage debate delayed; Britain sanctions still allow business’, The Associated Press, 30 May 1980

[178] Carter, Keeping Faith, 465, 486–7.

[179] Carter, Keeping Faith, 465, 486–7

[180] For Germany's role in the crisis see Hoffman Hoffman, John E. 1985. “The Bankers Channel”. In American Hostages in Iran: Conduct of a Crisis, Edited by: Christopher, Warren. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.  [Google Scholar], ‘The Bankers Channel’, 246. For the relationship between Carter and Schmidt see Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945, 204, 200. For American support for US policy see Goldman, ‘President Carter’, 21–3.

[181] ‘European Community nations impose sanctions on Iran; Britain modifies stand’, Facts on File World News Digest, 23 May 1980, 378.

[182] Christopher, American Hostages in Iran, 8.

[183] Downie, ‘Allies had hoped to prevent use of force by U.S.’; Baldwin, Economic Statecraft, 261; Vance, Hard Choice, 381; Carter, Keeping Faith, 466.

[184] Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 487.

[185] Hiro, Iran under the Mullahs, 323.

[186] Moses, Freeing the Hostages, 337; Farber Farber, David. 2005. Taken Hostage: The Iran Hostage Crisis and America's First Encounter with Radical Islam, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.  [Google Scholar], Taken Hostage, 4–5; Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, 296; Sadjadpour Sadjadpour, Karim. 2008. Reading Khamenei: The World View of Iran's Most Powerful Leader, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.  [Google Scholar], Reading Khamenei, 11.

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[188] Christopher, American Hostages in Iran, 8.

[189] Quoted in ABC News Transcripts: ‘World News Tonight’, 11 May 1980.

[190] State Department: Iran Transitional Paper: #1, 4 December 1980, National Security Archives.

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