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JEPHTAH'S
DAUGHTER |
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Bible
Study Resource: Women of the Old Testament |
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The
young woman in the story is nameless. People without a name seem less
real, so leaving the girl without a name minimized the horror of Jephthah's act, and made him more
acceptable as a hero of Israel. Jephthah
means ‘he opens’; the name may refer to Jephthah’s fatal habit of
speaking without thinking -
he opened his mouth to make the vow when it would have been better
if he had remained silent.
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The story of Jephtah’s daughter is an epic tragedy about the flaw in an otherwise outstanding man, a flaw that leads inexorably to loss of the thing he most values. It has many points in common with Shakespearean tragedy: the hero dragged down by his fatal flaw; the hapless victims ; the relentless unfolding of events. In the hands of a master story-teller, and there were plenty of these in ancient Israel, it must have been an unforgettable drama. The
story had two purposes:
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The
story of Jephtah’s daughter contains two different episodes: 1
The vow of Jephtah,
Judges 11:1-11, 29-33.
2
The consequences of the vow,
Judges 11:34-40. When she was told about the promise, she courageously accepted the fact that she must die. For two months before her death she went up into the mountains with her companions, where she lamented that she would never know married love, and never hold her children in her arms. She returned, and the vow was carried
out.
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THE VOW OF JEPHTAH
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Jephtah
started behind the eight-ball. He was born to a prostitute, and
when his father died and the inheritance was to be divided,
Jephtah's legitimate half-brothers drove him off. He was forced to
live the life of a bandit, gathering a motley group of thugs
and thieves as his henchmen. |
On two counts, therefore,
Jephtah was a
social outcast. The problem was made worse by his half-brothers, who ejected
him from the family home. This meant he did not even have membership
of the clan of his father.
Read
Judges 1:1-11
In
ancient Israel, belonging to a family clan was essential, since it was a
person's main protection from danger. In times of trouble, the members of a clan
could usually be depended on to stand by each
other. The clan also acted as an economic unit, providing the food,
clothing and shelter a person needed to survive. When Jephtah's brothers
ejected him from their clan, they were effectively giving him something
close to a death sentence.
Jephtah,
however, was not beaten. He may have been an outcast, but he had exceptional talents as a leader and a
fighter. Other outcasts gathered round him, so that in time he became the
leader of a sizable group of men who were also without a clan. They lived
outside the law, robbing trade caravans and raiding the herds of more
law-abiding people.
Reconstruction of an Altar for Burnt Offerings
When
war broke out with the Ammonites, the leaders of Gilead went to Jephtah
and his men and asked for help. They believed Jephtah had the skills to
lead their army successfully against the Ammonites.
Jephtah agreed to fight, because winning would make him a hero. It would wipe out the stain of his illegitimacy and give him full acceptance among the Israelites.
It
was this desire for acceptance that fueled his ambition, and under its
influence he made a stupid and cruel vow.
‘And Jephtah made a vow to the Lord, and said “If you will give the Ammonites into my hand, then whoever comes out of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the Ammonites, shall be the Lord’s, to be offered up by me as a burnt offering”.’
Read
Judges 11:29-33
In
later times, the Israelites were horrified by the idea of human sacrifice
and had strict teachings against it. However, it may have existed in the
early period of Jewish history. Examples include the stories of Abraham
and Isaac, Jephtah’s daughter, and the king of Moab’s son in 2 Kings
3:27. Leviticus 20:2-5 has a stern injunction against child sacrifice.
For Bible teaching on child sacrifice, see BIBLE
TOP TEN: PERVERSIONS.
It
may be that the death of Jephtah’s daughter resulted in the banning of
this practice.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE VOW
Judges
11:34-36
When
Jephtah returned victorious from the battle, he was greeted by women
singers who went out to welcome him. They were led by his daughter.
‘Then Jephtah came to his
home at Mizpah; and there was his daughter coming out to meet him with
timbrels and with dancing.’
This
was a normal custom of the time, and Jephtah should have foreseen it.
Women normally went out to greet returning military heroes with songs and
poems. We know of this from other examples, including Miriam (Exodus
15:20) and the women who praised King David (1 Samuel 18:6). Deborah’s
epic poem is an example of the type of song they sang.
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'......tragedy
was about to strike. As he approached his house, his beloved
daughter ran out to meet him, leading
the women singers who greeted returning warriors. A horrified
Jephtah knew he must sacrifice her to fulfill his
promise. |
When
Jephtah saw his daughter and realized what he had done, he was distraught
with grief, but immediately ‘blamed the
victim’, reproaching his daughter for being the one whom he saw first, rather than blaming himself
f
‘She was his only child; he had no son or daughter except her. When he saw her, he tore his clothes and said “Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low; you have become the cause of great trouble to me. For I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow”.
Blaming the victim is a common phenomenon in cases of domestic violence. Often too a woman who has been raped is blamed for 'bringing it on herself' or 'asking for it’.
When
Jephtah’s daughter heard of her father’s vow, she responded with
dignity and restrained anger. She accepted her fate, but on her own terms.
'She said to him “My father, if
you have opened your mouth to the Lord, do to me according to what has
gone out of your mouth, now that the Lord has given you vengeance against
your enemies, the Ammonites”.’
Modern writers object to the daughter’s passive acceptance of her death, wishing she had objected to her father’s vow.
But in the context of the times Jephtah had to sacrifice her, and she had to accept her fate. Her father made a promise on behalf of his people and he believed that God had accepted the promise, giving him victory in return.
Now the promise had to be honored despite the terrible cost, and
the daughter knew this too and accepted it.
But here's a thought: is it possible she knew in advance about her father's vow, and deliberately come out of the house first, thus bringing the vow onto herself rather than on someone whom her father considered expendable, for example a servant? Could the girl have taken the place intended for someone else in order to show her father the terrible injustice of his action?
The
daughter’s real reaction to her fate is shown by what she did, not what
she said. ‘And she said to her father
“Let this thing be done for me: grant me two months, so that I may go
and wander on the mountains, and bewail my virginity, my companions and
I”.’
She preferred to spend the last days of her life with her
friends, not with the father whose ambition and foolish vow would cause
her death. In these last days of her life, she wanted the company of those she could trust. With them,
she mourned the fact that she would never achieve the goal of all Jewish
women: to hold her own child in her arms.
Read
Judges 11:37-40.
The
exact method of her death is not known. If she was a burnt offering,
she would have been first killed with a knife, and then her body burnt.
Ishtar, 'Mother of the Fruitful Breast',
goddess of nourishment and fertility
An
annual festival for young women commemorated the death of Jephtah’s
daughter – ‘for four days every year the daughters of Israel would go
out to lament the daughter of Jephtah the Gileadite’.
This annual
festival may in fact have been an ancient Canaanite festival which
became incorporated into early Judaism. It may have been a rite of passage
for young girls as they entered adult life. Possibly it was related to the
Canaanite god Tammuz, mentioned in Ezekial 8:14. Tammuz controlled the cycle of human life.
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The
gods of fertility were all around, a daily experience. They were
not remote or invisible, but here, now, part of normal life, in
the earth and the air around you. |
The story of Jephtah and his daughter is a tragedy of Shakespearean proportions. It tells of a man of outstanding military ability and personal initiative, a man who rose from despised beginnings to become a leader of Israel.
He had an only daughter - the text emphasizes that she was his only child, and that he loved her deeply. But through his own folly, Jephtah lost her.
She accepted her death with
courage and dignity. But in the end she allied herself with the friends
she trusted, rather than the father who was responsible for her death.
The story is about people who blindly submit to their human perception of religious obligation, without using their intellect and wisdom.
Read about other fascinating women in the Old and New Testaments
THE SETTLEMENT OF CANAAN
Until the period of settlement in Canaan, the people of the Bible were called ‘Hebrews’. After settlement
they were called ‘Israelites’.
The story of Jephtah's daughter is described in the Book of Judges. This Book covers the years between the death of Joshua who succeeded Moses as leader of the Israelites, and the beginning of the kingships of Saul, David and Solomon.
It was a time of social turmoil. All over the Mediterranean and the Middle East, people and nations were on the move and the Hebrew tribes, coming up from Egypt, were among these migratory groups.
The land they entered was already occupied by Canaanites, who held the area now covered by Israel and Lebanon. The Canaanites governed the land, particularly the fertile plains, through a sophisticated system of city-states. The Israelite tribes attempted to gain a foothold in the sparsely populated, less fertile hill territories of Canaan.
Archaeological research shows that
their occupation of Canaan happened not by sudden conquest, as the Bible describes, but by gradual infiltration.
The Canaanites naturally resisted this intrusion, as the stories of
Jephtah and his unnamed daughter show only too well. They were more technologically advanced than the Israelites,
who for a long time had only a precarious hold on the territory.
But over a period of time the Israelites gained control of the extreme north and south of the
country. Jerusalem and the fertile plain of Esdraelon still remained under the control of the
Canaanites, and the Philistines controlled the coastal area.
A wooden plough, and an iron one: the iron
plough was easier to use
and more efficient
As they put down roots, the Israelites gave up their nomadic life. Instead of being
wanderers, they became farmers and herders of animals.
To see how this altered their living condition, go to
BIBLE ARCHITECTURE: HOUSING
At this time (the beginning of the Early Iron Age), the following advances in technology were made:
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iron was introduced for household and farm tools, which was a major technological breakthrough; iron was harder, less likely to break than bronze, and blades would keep sharp for a longer time
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stone-lined tanks or cisterns were built to conserve water during dry periods; this made agriculture and life in general more predictable
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terracing made it possible to farm hillsides that had previously been unsuitable for farming; it also solved problems of land erosion and soil loss.
Canaanite bronze weapons like these
were being superceded by iron weapons
All of this meant that
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land previously used for grazing of flocks became available for farming
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with improved farming techniques more food could be produced
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with more food, a larger population could be supported
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forests and scrub had to be cut down
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houses, barns and villages had to be built.
WOMEN’S LIVES IN THIS ERA
Developments in technology and the demand for labor meant that
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more people were needed; land could not be held if it was not populated
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so women had to channel their energies into producing and looking after children.
As well as having large families, Israelite women made a substantial contribution to the economy. They planted, weeded and harvested crops. They processed grain, olives and fruit for storage - archaeological evidence (ancient jars, vats and silos) tells us that large quantities of food were stored each year. This storage was largely the responsibility of women. For the type of work that women did, see BIBLE ARCHAEOLOGY: WORK
The religious beliefs of the Israelite women reflected, in part, their growing reliance on agriculture as a way of life. They were attracted to the beliefs and practices of the Canaanites, which centered on the power of Nature and the fertility of all living things. Canaanite myths explained the cycle of annual seasons and the vagaries of water, sun, rain and wind.
It was natural that the forces of Nature should figure in their worship. Matters relating to fertility in Nature and in people were of major importance to the women, engrossed as they were with feeding and keeping their families safe. At this stage, the worship of Yahweh and of the Nature gods seems to have co-existed fairly peacefully. Only later would the prophets, proponents of the worship of a single god, speak angrily against veneration of any other deities.
For additional information on the lives of women in the Bible, see the links to
FAMILY, WORK AND RELIGION: the tribe, the family, slaves, women's tasks, beliefs
MILESTONES FOR A WOMAN: Puberty, menstruation, marriage, childbirth, death, burials
CLOTHING AND HOUSING : ancient fabric, weaving, different styles for rich and poor
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Extract from 'Jephtah and His Vow', David Marcus, 1986, pages 44-53
'In every period of Israel's history, marriage, not
celibacy,
is considered the desirable state for women. The blessings of the married
state are extolled, and it was held axiomatic that a woman achieved fulfillment
only with husband and children. Indeed, it was considered a tragedy
for a woman not to be married, and a terrible misfortune, even a punishment,
if she did not have children. The institution of the levirate marriage
is clear evidence of the importance for a wife to bear sons for her husband
and was what Israelite society considered the norm: that a man's house
and name should be continued in his children. In such a society, it is
thought that it would be highly unlikely for a woman to take a vow to voluntarily
refrain from marriage and from having children.
The non-sacrificialists do not disagree with this view of the primacy of marriage in Israelite society, but a few believe that it is possible to assume that some voluntary celibacy may have existed. This assumption is based on the fact that, according to Numbers 6:2, women as well as men could vow themselves to God as Nazarites. Although the rules of the Nazarites, which specifically included abstinence from alcohol, not cutting the hair, and avoidance of corpses, did not include celibacy (the two most well-known Nazarites, Samuel and Samson, were both married), it is held most likely that this applied only to male Nazarites: they were permitted to marry, but a female one was not. This is deduced from the fact that in ancient Israel a wife was considered the property of her husband. A woman consecrated to God would, therefore, regard God as her spiritual husband, and would become, so to speak, His property. Hence, it would not be considered proper for such a woman to be married. She would remain in lifelong chastity or, in the case of a widow, in lifelong widowhood.
Summary: There is no real evidence in the Hebrew Bible of women's electing to remain celibate, and the likelihood of this as a regular feature in society is remote. Likewise, there is little evidence in ancient Israel of an institution of celibate women being attached to a sanctuary akin to the chaste priestess in Mesopotamia, or to the vestals in ancient Greece and Rome in the cults of Athene, Artemis and Vesta.
A
RARE EXAMPLE OF HUMAN SACRIFICE IN ISRAEL
Most
Bible scholars today believe that the story of Jephthah and his daughter
represents an example of a human sacrifice offered up in emergency conditions
to obtain the active cooperation of the deity. Another example
of this type is the sacrifice by Mesha, king of Moab, of his first-born son. Mesha, being invaded by the combined armies of Israel,
Judah, and Edom, and seeing that
the tide of battle was going against him, took his first-born son,
and offered him up on the city wall as a burnt offering.
So he took his first-born son who was to succeed him as king, and offered him up on the wall as a burnt offering. A great wrath came upon Israel, so they withdrew from him and went back to [their own] land.
The efficacy of the offering was immediate. The deed caused tremendous consternation upon the allies, and especially upon the Israelites. Thus, as with Mesha, it is believed that Jephthah was responding to an extraordinary situation, a desperate war with the Ammonites. Even if one grants that the war with the Ammonites be considered "emergency conditions" or a "specially dangerous situation," this view has, of course, to contend with an obvious and well-known problem. Given that human sacrifice was abhorrent to Israel, a vow to make a human sacrifice would surely have been against the law. This being so, one would expect some condemnation of Jephthah in the text after he put his daughter to death.
Attempted solutions to this problem by sacrificialists have generally followed two lines:
(1) it is held that a vow to offer human sacrifice was not in fact against the law in Jephthah's time, or
(2)
it is possible that Jephthah was unaware of the law.
HUMAN
SACRIFICE NOT AGAINST THE LAW IN JEPHTAH'S TIME
In
advocating that a vow to offer human sacrifice was not against the law in
Jephthah's time, a number of scholars point to the fact that the narrative
does not seem to hold that such
a vow is contrary to the spirit of Israelite religion
Thus it is believed likely that in Jephthah's time human sacrifice could
have taken place. Religious beliefs of this age must not be judged, say the
sacrificialists, according to later laws or ideas; even the later prophets
were forced to wage war against
child sacrifice. Soggin has recently pointed to the value
of the Jephthah episode in enabling us to get a glimpse of early Israelite
religion, telling us that it
"had much more in common with that of Canaan and
the other religions of the Ancient Near East than Israelites were able to record
at a later stage or than the revisions of the text were disposed to
admit".
But there is an element here of petitio principii. It has first to be established that human sacrifice existed in ancient Israel before one can assume that the Jephthah episode is an example of it, and hence that it represents an earlier stage of Israelite religion. The fact is that it has never been satisfactorily established whether or not human sacrifice existed in Israel. The most recent studies on this old and difficult problem are those of Moshe Weinfeld and Morton Smith, who have debated the traditional view whether the reference to the passing of a child through fire or to Moloch indicates not child sacrifice but religious initiation to a foreign cult. The present state of inquiry seems to be that the evidence is such that one cannot say for certain one way or another whether human sacrifice existed in ancient Israel.
JEPHTAH
UNAWARE OF THE LAW
The
second attempted solution to explain Jephthah's action is that although a
vow to offer human
sacrifice was against the law, Jephthah was unaware of the
law.
A
reason often given, particularly by modern scholars, for Jephthah's ignorance
of the law is the fact that he lived outside of Israel for some time. Jephthah
may have been, just as we know Israel was, influenced by the religion
of the neighboring people. The Book of Judges testifies to the fact that the
Israelites worshipped the Ammonite god Milkom prior to their liberation by
Jephthah; so it could well be that during Jephthah's stay in the land of
Tob as a freebooter or mercenary chief, he too came under the influence of
foreign religion. A basic element
in this argument is the belief that the Ammonites,
like others of Israel's neighbors, regularly practiced human sacrifice
in their cult. Thus, it is thought, Jephthah believed that just as other gods
required human sacrifice, so did Yahweh.
The non-sacrificialists are able to refute this point of view in two ways. First, as the parallel case of David shows, the fact that one lives the life of a freebooter or mercenary outside of Israel does not necessarily mean that, upon one's return, one cannot still live in accordance with the law of Israel. Having lived outside of Israel does not by itself point to ignorance of Israel's law. Second, as with the case of Israel itself, there is no convincing evidence that human sacrifice was practiced as a regular part of the cult of any of Israel's neighbors so that any alleged influence of this practice on Jephthah is most speculative.
NO
CONDEMNATION OF JEPHTAH IN THE TEXT
The
final question to be considered here, if in fact there is a case of human sacrifice,
is why there is no word of disapproval or any moral evaluation in the
text of Jephthah's act. Jephthah is depicted in the entire chapter as a
true follower
of Yahweh (verse 9); he wages war on behalf of Yahweh, and calls upon
Yahweh to judge between Israel and Ammon (verse 27); the spirit of Yahweh
'comes upon him (verse 29), and he makes his vow to Yahweh (verse 30).
He is extolled as one of Yahweh's saviors in the Book of Samuel (1 Samuel
12:11), alongside Gideon, Bedan (possibly Barak or Samson), and Samuel
himself.
Is
it likely, then, say the non-sacrificialists, that Jephthah, a true
Yahwist, would have presented an
offering which was anathema to Yahweh, and that this fact would not
be commented on by the narrator?
The usual answer to this question is that absence of condemnation has little significance. Firstly, it may point to the fact that human sacrifice was in fact current in Jephthah's day. Secondly, even if this is not the case, there are other heroes in the Bible whose errant behavior is not condemned. But if, as is generally agreed, the stories of Jephthah fit into the redactional framework of the Deuteronomist, then one would expect unlawful acts to be somehow condemned, either overtly or obliquely, in accord with the didactic outlook of the Deuteronomistic school. It will be recalled that the narrator castigated Gideon for a much lesser crime with the Ephod (Judges 8:27). Absence of condemnation is therefore significant in judging a character's action. Jephthah is not only not condemned but referred to by the same Deuteronomist as a "savior of Israel," which is hardly an appellation to be applied to one guilty of such a crime.
SUMMARY
The proponents of the sacrificial point of view believe that Jephthah's act is to be considered an example, like that of Mesha and his son, of human sacrifice offered up in an emergency. To offset the objection that such a vow and execution would have been against the law, some proponents maintain that a vow to offer human sacrifice was not against the law, and if it was, Jephthah was unaware of it. A possible reason offered for Jephthah's ignorance of the law is that he had lived outside Israel and was subject to foreign influences. The absence of condemnation of Jephthah by the narrator is pointed to by non-sacrificialists as proof that the vow and its fulfillment were not contrary to the laws of Yahweh in Jephthah's time. The sacrificialists, on the other hand, point to the absence of condemnation as proof that human sacrifice was acceptable in Jephthah's time.
CONCLUSIONS
My conclusion is that while I personally favor a non-sacrificial fate for Jephthah's daughter, the evidence is so ambiguous that it must be admitted that both conclusions are possible. In positing that this situation was not accidental, it will be pointed out that the narrator is a brilliant stylist and craftsman who is most familiar with Hebrew rhetorical devices. Such a craftsman could be quite capable of devising a deliberately ambiguous ending. Perhaps the fate of Jephthah's daughter is not the chief element of the story at all, rather Jephthah's rash vow is. The story in effect is one which illustrates the consequences of a hasty vow; a fine irony for a man whose forte is seen to be eloquence of speech and mastery of words.
SUMMARY
OF ARGUMENTS FOR A SACRIFICIAL CONCLUSION
(1)
The text of the vow clearly states: "I will offer him up for an
ôlãh, 'burnt
offering", and this was put into effect in the fulfillment.
(2)
The
despair of the father, and the lamentation of the daughter, are inexplicable
unless the daughter is going to die.
(3)
The fulfillment states:
"he did unto her as he vowed" which was to offer her up as a
burnt offering.
(4)
The
annual commemoration of mourning the daughter would make little sense
unless the daughter is actually put to death.
(5)
There
are parallels in classical mythology to the various motifs in the Jephthah
story which result in actual sacrifice of people.
(6)
Structural
parallels with the Isaac story indicate a sacrificial conclusion for
the Jephthah story.
(7)
There
is no evidence in the Hebrew Bible that women could be vowed to
celibacy, a concept alien in Israel.
(8)
A conclusion of celibacy
cannot explain Jephthah's daughter's lamenting her
virginity for two months. If she were indeed to remain celibate, she would
have the rest of her life for such lamentation.
SUMMARY OF ARGUMENTS FOR CELIBACY AND CONSECRATION
(1)
The
phrase in the vow wehãyãh
laYHWH can only mean consecration, not offering of a sacrifice.
(2)
The emphasis in the text is on the daughter's virginity.
(3)
The text states that the
fulfillment of the vow was that "she did not know a man.
"
(4)
It is the conclusion of
voluntary celibacy, which was unique in Israel, that forms the
basis for the annual celebration of the unmarried maidens.
(5)
There is some evidence in
the Hebrew Bible, and parallels in other ancient cultures, of women consecrating themselves or being consecrated to sanctuary service, and having to live a life of chastity in
this service.
(6)
It is not stated in the text that Jephthah
put his daughter to death.
(7)
If
the daughter were going to die, she would lament not only her virginity but also her life, and would want to spend her last days with
her father, not away from him.
(8)
There
is no condemnation of Jephthah anywhere in the Hebrew Bible which
implies that his vow and subsequent fulfillment must have been consistent
with the laws of Israel; hence, it was not human sacrifice.
(9)
Structural
parallels with the Isaac story indicate a non-sacrificial conclusion.
(10) Parallels
with the Mesha story and classical mythology lead one to expect
that had Jephthah put his daughter to death something untoward would
have subsequently happened to him.
DELIBERATE
AMBIGUITIES
These problems may not have been entirely accidental, but could possibly represent ambiguities consciously devised by the narrator. He chose his words so that they would be open to a number of interpretations. As far as the fate of Jephthah's daughter is concerned, the fact remains that the text, as it stands now, admits the possibility of either conclusion. Was this deliberate? With the conclusion left up in the air, the suspense of the entire story is heightened. In many respects this is akin to classical folklore, inasmuch as there language is often intentionally ambiguous, and it has been observed above that some classical legends have different endings corresponding to different traditions. It remains to be demonstrated that our narrator was capable of such deliberate writing, and that such ambiguities are to be found elsewhere in the Bible.'
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ACTIVITIES
Empathic
reconstruction
‘Be’
a person in the story of Jephtah’s daughter, perhaps the girl herself,
or one of her friends, her father, her mother who is never mentioned in
the story, or a servant in the household of Jephtah.
Explain
what has happened, as you saw it. Empathize with the motives and emotions
of the person you wish to project.
You
should
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make a thorough reading of the story
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choose the character you would like to be
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mark the sections of the story which relate to your character
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make a list of those things you know for certain about them
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make a list of the things you would like to know about the character
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research background details
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record your finding, either in written or spoken form.
Media file: d evelop
a print media file on a theme related to the story of Jephtah’s daughter,
for example
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People who mourn a loss
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Children who suffer abuse, and those who help them
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People who show courage and dignity in difficult situations
In
the presentation of your file, you should
-
decide on a topic
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collect different types of material from magazines, advertisements, articles, cartoons, etc
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sort through the collected material and make choices
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decide on your presentation mode
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make rough copies of comments to accompany the material you have gathered
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organize materials for presentation, and arrange your lay-out
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show the file as it stands to a study partner, asking for helpful comments and suggestions
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produce the final layout of the file.
Focus Questions
1. What are the most interesting moments in the story? Why do these
particular moments appeal to me?
2. In the story, who speaks and who listens? Who acts? Who gets what they
want? If you were in the story, which person would you want to be friends
with? Which person would you want to avoid?
3. What is God's interaction with the main characters? What does this tell
you about the narrator's image of God? Do you agree with this image?
4. What is happening on either side of the story, in the chapters before
and after it? Does this help you understand what is happening?
5. The narrator/editor has chosen to tell some things and leave other
things out. What has been left out of the story that you would like to
know?
6. Are the characteristics and actions of the people in the story still
present in the world? How is the story relevant to modern life, especially
your own?
Dozens of extra
ideas at Activities
for Bible Study Groups and Schools
_______________________________________________
RELATED SITES - stories, pictures, reconstructions
THE
STORY OF JEPHTAH
BIBLE
PEOPLE: JEPHTAH
A
TRAGIC WARRIOR, ONE OF THE TOP TEN SOLDIERS OF THE BIBLE
BIBLE TOP TEN
WARRIORS: JEPHTAH
CHILD
SACRIFICE - ONE OF THE WORST PERVERSIONS IN THE BIBLE
BIBLE TOP TEN
PERVERSIONS: CHILD SACRIFICE
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Jephtah's Daughter - Bible Woman - Women
of the Old Testament
Jephtah Sacrifices his Daughter; Bible Study Resource
